Cell Division

Cell division is the process by which a

cell passes on its genetic material (DNA) to
daughter cells. There are two main types:
somatic cell division and reproductive cell
division. Somatic cell division, which occurs in
body cells, involves mitosis and produces
genetically identical cells, supporting growth,
repair, and development. Reproductive cell
division occurs in gametes (egg and sperm)
through meiosis, resulting in genetically diverse
cells with half the chromosome number, crucial
for sexual reproduction.
In prokaryotes, which lack a nucleus,
cell division occurs through binary fission, a
simpler process. Eukaryotic cells, which have a
nucleus, require more complex processes like
mitosis or meiosis for division.

The cell cycle is the series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide. During
the cell cycle, a cell grows, prepares for division and divides to form two daughter cells, each of
which begins the cycle again.

Events in the cell cycle:

A. Interphase
The cell spends most of its time in a growth phase between divisions.
• G1 Phase: During this phase, the cell is active and grows in size, creating proteins, cytosolic
components, and most organelles (but not DNA). This longest phase of the cell cycle starts after
cytokinesis and ends before the S phase.
• Checkpoints: These are key control points in the cell cycle where "stop" and "go" signals regulate
progress. Animal cells have internal "stop" signals at checkpoints that can be overridden by "go"
signals. There are three main checkpoints: G1, G2, and M.
• G1 Checkpoint (Restriction Point): This checkpoint ensures the cell is large enough and has
enough nutrients to support division. If it passes the G1 checkpoint, the cell will continue through the
cycle. If it doesn’t, the cell exits the cycle into a resting state called G0, where it may never divide
again. Nerve cells often remain in G0.
• S Phase: In this phase, DNA replication occurs, ensuring that each daughter cell will have identical
genetic material. Once in S phase, the cell typically completes the cycle.
• G2 Phase: This phase is shorter than G1. The cell continues to grow and prepares for division by
producing necessary components like organelles, enzymes, and proteins. DNA replication is
complete, so G2 is also called the post-synthetic phase, after which the cell is ready for mitosis.
• G2 Checkpoint: This checkpoint ensures that DNA has been replicated without damage. If
significant DNA damage is detected, the cell triggers apoptosis, or programmed cell death.
 B. M Phase – Mitosis
Mitosis or nuclear division occurs in body cells
or somatic cells. It forms two identical
daughter cells exactly like the parent cell.

Mitosis has four phases:

➢ Prophase
➢ Metaphase
➢ Anaphase
➢ Telophase

Definition of terms:
Chiasmata – point of crossing over
Chromatin – nucleic acids and associated proteins in
the nucleus
Chromosome – a discrete, continuous molecule of
DNA wrapped around protein. Eukaryotic cells
contain multiple linear chromosomes, whereas prokaryotic cells each contain one circular chromosome.
Chromatid – one of two identical attached copies of a replicated chromosome
Centromere – a small part of a chromosome that attaches sister chromatids to each other.
Kinetochore - a complex of proteins associated with the centromere of a chromosome during cell division, to
which the microtubules of the spindle attach
Nucleosome - a structural unit of a eukaryotic chromosome, consisting of a length of DNA coiled around a core
of histones

Prophase
➢ first and longest phase of mitosis
➢ the centrioles separate and take up positions on opposite sides (centrosome)
of the nucleus.
➢ chromosomes become visible
➢ spindle fibers appear
➢ nucleolus and nuclear membrane (envelope) disintegrate and disappear

Metaphase
➢ second and shortest phase of mitosis
➢ the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell called the metaphase plate
➢ microtubules connect the centromere of each chromosome to the poles of the spindle.

The Metaphase Checkpoint ensures that all of the chromosomes are attached to the mitotic spindle by a
kinetochore.
Anaphase
➢ third phase of mitosis
➢ centromeres split apart and chromatids separate from one another
➢ each chromatid moves to opposite poles until they have separated into two
groups

Telophase
➢ fourth and final phase of mitosis
➢ chromosomes gather at opposite ends of the cell and lose their distinct shape
➢ chromatids unwind back into chromatin
➢ nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear reforming the nucleus
➢ spindle fibers disappear
➢ new double membrane (cell membrane) form between 2 nuclei (cell pinches)
animal cell – cleavage furrow
plant cell – cell plate

Cytokinesis - Cytoplasmic division

➢ During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm pinches in half.
➢ Each daughter cell has an identical set of chromosomes.

Summary of Mitosis
Mitosis is the process by which a single cell divides to produce two genetically identical daughter cells,
essential for growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction. It consists of four main phases:
 Phase Description

Chromosomes condense and become visible.

Prophase The nuclear membrane breaks down, and
spindle fibers begin to form.

Chromosomes align at the cell’s equator

Metaphase (metaphase plate), attached to spindle fibers
from opposite poles of the cell.

Sister chromatids separate and are pulled to

opposite poles by the spindle fibers, ensuring
Anaphase
each daughter cell will get an identical set of
chromosomes.

Chromatids reach opposite poles, and nuclear

Telophase membranes reform around each set of
chromosomes, which begin to decondense.

***After these phases, cytokinesis occurs, dividing the cell’s cytoplasm and completing the formation of two
identical daughter cells.

C. Meiosis
A form of cell division that leads to the production of gametes (egg cell and sperm cell). Gametes are
haploid (n), containing only 1 set of chromosomes. Sexual reproduction includes the fusion of gametes
(fertilization) to produce a diploid (2n) zygote.

Meiosis involves two successive cell divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II) with no replication of genetic
material between them. This results in a reduction of the chromosome number from diploid to haploid.

From Gametes to zygote

*Gametes- mature, haploid reproductive cell
*Zygote- diploid cell that forms when two gametes fuse; the firs cell of a new individual
*Fertilization-is the fusion of haploid gametes, egg and sperm, to form the diploid zygote.
Note though there can be subtle differences in the fertilization process which occurs naturally within the
body or through reproductive technologies outside the body, the overall product in both cases is a diploid zygote.
First Meiotic Division
The first meiotic division results in reducing the
number of chromosomes (reduction division). In
most cases, the division is accompanied by
cytokinesis.

Prophase I:
➢ has been subdivided into five substages:
leptonema, zygonema, pachynema,
diplonema, and diakinesis.
Phase Description
Replicated chromosomes become coiled and visible. The chromosome count remains the
Leptonema
same as in the diploid cell.
Homologous chromosomes begin pairing and twisting in a process called synapsis,
Zygonema
forming structures known as bivalent tetrads (each with four chromatids).
Chromosomes become shorter and thicker. Crossing-over, or physical exchange of
Pachynema
chromosome segments between homologues, occurs, leading to genetic recombination.
Sister chromatid pairs start to separate slightly, revealing the chiasma (points of crossover
Diplonema
between non-sister chromatids), which shows where crossing-over occurred.
Chromatids in each tetrad become more condensed, with the chiasma moving toward
Diakinesis chromosome ends (terminalization), which temporarily delays the separation of
homologous chromosomes.

Crossing over
exchange of segments between non-sister
chromatids of a tetrad during meiosis

Synapsis
pairing of homologous chromosomes
Metaphase I:
➢ terminal chiasmata hold
homologues together
following crossing over
➢ microtubules from
opposite poles attach to
each homologue, not each
sister chromatid
➢ homologues are aligned at
the metaphase plate side-
by-side
➢ the orientation of each pair
of homologues on the
spindle is random

Anaphase I:
➢ microtubules of the spindle
shorten
➢ homologues are
separated from each other
➢ sister chromatids (dyads)
remain attached to each
other at their centromeres

Telophase I:
➢ The dyads complete their migration to the poles.
➢ New nuclear membranes may form.
➢ Each has a nucleus containing only one set of chromosomes (haploid level) in
a replicated form.
➢ Sister chromatids are no longer identical because of crossing over
➢ In most species, cytokinesis follows, producing two daughter cells.

Second Meiotic Division

The events in the second meiotic division are quite similar to mitotic division. The difference lies, however,
in the number of chromosomes
that each daughter cell
receives. While the original
chromosome number is
maintained in mitosis, the
number is reduced to half in
meiosis.
Prophase II— The dyads
contract.
Metaphase II— The
centromeres are directed to the
equatorial plate and then divide.
Anaphase II—The sister chromatids (monads) move away from each other and migrate to the opposite poles of
the spindle fiber.
Telophase II—The monads are at the poles, forming two groups of chromosomes. A nuclear membrane forms
around each set of chromosomes and cytokinesis follows. The chromosomes uncoil and extend.

Meiosis is characterized by 4 features:

1. Synapsis and crossing over
2. Sister chromatids remain joined at their centromeres throughout meiosis I
3. Kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to the same pole in meiosis I
4. DNA replication is suppressed between meiosis I and meiosis II.

Meiosis consists of two rounds of division, Meiosis I and Meiosis II, each with distinct phases. Here’s a
comparison of the main differences across the stages of these two divisions:
Phase Meiosis I Meiosis II
Chromosomes condense, and homologous Chromosomes condense again (if they
chromosomes pair up in a process called uncoiled after Meiosis I). There is no pairing
Prophase
synapsis, forming tetrads. Crossing-over occurs at of homologous chromosomes since they
chiasmata, enabling genetic recombination. have already separated.
Individual chromosomes (each with two
Paired homologous chromosomes (tetrads) align at
Metaphase sister chromatids) align at the metaphase
the metaphase plate in pairs.
plate, similar to mitosis.
Homologous chromosomes separate and are
Sister chromatids separate and are pulled to
Anaphase pulled to opposite poles, but sister chromatids
opposite poles, similar to mitosis.
remain joined.
Chromosomes arrive at the poles, and two new Chromosomes reach the poles, and nuclei
Telophase nuclei may briefly form. Cells divide to form two re-form, resulting in four haploid daughter
haploid cells with duplicated chromosomes. cells with single chromosomes.

Key Differences:
1. Purpose: Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, reducing the chromosome number by half
(from diploid to haploid), while Meiosis II separates sister chromatids, similar to mitosis.
2. Crossing-Over: Occurs only during Prophase I of Meiosis I, creating genetic variation.
3. Result: Meiosis I produces two haploid cells, each with duplicated chromosomes; Meiosis II produces
four haploid cells, each with single (unduplicated) chromosomes, ready for fertilization.
Here’s a summary of the key differences between mitosis and meiosis:
Feature Mitosis Meiosis
Growth, tissue repair, and asexual Formation of gametes (sperm and egg cells) for
Purpose
reproduction. sexual reproduction.
Number of One division, resulting in two
Two divisions, resulting in four daughter cells.
Divisions daughter cells.
Number of Two genetically identical daughter
Four genetically diverse daughter cells.
Daughter Cells cells.
Maintains the same chromosome
Chromosome Reduces the chromosome number by half
number as the parent cell (diploid to
Number (diploid to haploid).
diploid).
Genetic variation occurs due to crossing-over (in
No genetic variation; daughter cells
Genetic Variation Prophase I) and independent assortment of
are clones of the parent cell.
chromosomes (in Metaphase I).
Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,
Phases I, followed by Prophase II, Metaphase II,
and Telophase.
Anaphase II, and Telophase II.
Homologous No pairing of homologous Homologous chromosomes pair up and form
Chromosome chromosomes; each chromosome tetrads during Prophase I, allowing crossing-
Pairing behaves independently. over.
Two diploid, genetically identical Four haploid, genetically diverse gametes
Resulting Cells
somatic (body) cells. (sperm or eggs).
In germ cells within reproductive organs (ovaries
Occurrence In somatic (body) cells.
and testes).
In summary, mitosis creates identical cells for growth and repair, while meiosis generates genetically diverse
gametes for sexual reproduction.

The purpose of cell division is essential to various biological functions:

1. Growth: Cell division allows organisms to grow by increasing the number of cells, turning a single
fertilized egg into a multicellular organism.
2. Repair and Regeneration: Damaged tissues are repaired by replacing old, dead, or damaged cells with
new cells created through cell division.
3. Reproduction:
o Asexual Reproduction: In single-celled organisms and some multicellular organisms, cell
division (mitosis) creates genetically identical offspring.
o Sexual Reproduction: In sexually reproducing organisms, meiosis produces gametes (sperm
and egg cells) with half the chromosome number, allowing genetic diversity when combined
during fertilization.
4. Genetic Continuity and Variation:
o Genetic Continuity: In mitosis, the genetic material is duplicated and equally distributed,
ensuring that each daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent cell.
o Genetic Variation: In meiosis, crossing-over and independent assortment generate genetic
diversity, which is important for evolution and adaptation.
In summary, cell division enables organisms to grow, maintain and repair tissues, reproduce, and ensure genetic
continuity or diversity as needed.