Basic Introduction of Oracle and SQL - PLSQL
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Basic Introduction of Oracle
1. Types of DataBases :
1. FDBMS
2. NDBMS
3. RDBMS
2. Data Types
3. Types of SQL Statements :
1. DDL(Data Definition Language) :
1. create
2. alter
3. drop
2. DML(Data Manipulation Language) :
1. insert
2. delete
3. update
4. select
5. desc
3. DCL(Data Control Language) :
1. grant
4. Operators :
1. Arithmetic
2. Relational
3. Logical
4. Like
5. In
6. Between
5. Functions :
1. Grouping Functions :
1. min
2. max
3. avg
4. Standard deviation
5. variance
6. stddev
2. Character Functions :
1. ascii()
2. chr()
3. lower()
4. upper()
5. concat()
6. substr()
7. initcap()
8. length()
3. Member Functions :
1. abs( )
2. power( )
3. mod( )
4. sqrt( )
4. Mathematical Functions :
1. log( )
2. sin( )
3. cos( )
4. tan( )
5. Date Functions :
1. add_months( )
2. last_day( )
3. next_day( )
4. months_between( )
6. Set Commands
7. Show Commands
8. Constraints in Oracle :
1. unique
2. not null
3. primary key
4. null
9. Constants in Oracle :
1. sysdate
2. user
3. uid
4. rowid
5. distinct
10. Clauses in sql :
1. where
2. order by
3. group by
4. having
5. starting with
11. Table Set Commands :
1. union
2. union all
3. intersect
4. minus
12. VIEWS :
13. Joins :
1. self join
2. equi join
3. non-equi join
14. Executing Multiple Queries from a file to sql
* plus editor
15. Bind Variables
PL/SQL
1. Conditional Statements :
1. if
2. if-else
2. Control Statements :
1. while
2. do-while
3. for loop
3. Data Types in pl/sql :
1. number
2. varchar
3. varchar2
4. date
4. Structure of the pl/sql Program
5. Procedures & Functions
6. Triggers
ORACLE
DataBase:
1.Storing in the information about particular thing Using
this database we can create the database
and we can store th information and we can access the
information and we can modify the database
2.Using this database we can create any type of data &
we can store the data in the form of information we have
different types databases , we can create.
Ex: If we want to create database regarding employee , we
can create the emp database.
emp database describes complete details of emp using
that information, we can complete our tasks in time Using
this database , we can modified the data & we can add
&delete the data.
We can perform when we want to the modification
before that we must contain details of existing database
information
Data : Data is nothing but Collection of raw facts , using
this data we can't get complete structure of the data.
Ex: Ramu , Ashok , 70 and etc.,
Information :
Information is nothing but giving the meaning full data
about particular thing . Using this information we can
decide whether this information set to our database or not .
Types of DataBases :
1. FDBMS
2. NDBMS
3. RDBMS
File Management DBMS :
1. In earlier days we have no systems at this time we did
use File Management System.
2. Using this File Management System entire data
managed by file.
3. Files contains Collection of Pages with database
details using this File database, we can get entire
information through Files.
4. Come to the modifications very difficulty.
5. For accessing the old record is difficulty.
6. For deleting the old record is difficulty.
7. Using this File Management System , Files will be
waste for store in a data.
8. If we get the small modification we have to re-enter
the data again.
9. For clear this drawbacks we design a database through
Computer.
10. Using with computer database entire data storing
in Hard-disk instead of files.
11. For storing the database we need a tool, that tool
is Oracle.
12. Oracle is one type of database Using this Oracle
we can create our own database.
13. What we created the database , we can perform
all operations on this data base.
14. Using this database we can clear all the problems
in File Management System.
15. Using this Oracle database we can store data
permanently and modifications easily and we can
access the data any time, any place.
NetWork DBMS :
1. Using this network DBMS we can connect with the
database through NetWork.
2. In network we have no. of systems , every system
connect with the main server
3. Main server contains the database , rest of the systems
does not contain database , It can access when ever it
needs the main database data keep in server database.
4. Server may be connect with only one system or
thousands of systems.
5. Our system requests to the server , server will
response and send back results to the system, system
will display that output.
6. The entire data processing server only.
Relational DataBase Management System :
1. Relational DataBase Management System
representation of tables only.
2. In RDBMS we can store the data in the form of tables.
3. Ising this RDBMS we can create database easily.
4. We can insert the data easily.
5. We can modify the data easily.
6. Using the RDBMS we can perform all operations on
the table .
7. One table contains columns.
8. One table may contains 1 column or no. of columns .
9. One table must contain 1 column , without column we
cann't create table .
10. Which database we are going to be create
regarding that we can create the table .
11. The table name must matched to our database
name.
12. The database may be emp, student .Cell shop
etc.,
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13. In columns we will write the attributes of the
databases.
• Table definition : Collection of records, record is
nothing but collection of columns of attributes.
• Using this RDBMS entire data we keep it in the form
of tables.
• Table contains the no. of records , every record
displays particular database details. One row means
one record.
• RDBMS performing one language that is called SQL.
SQL ( Structured Query Language ) :
1. Using this sql, we can create the tables , we can
modify the tables, we can drop the tables.
2. In sql we have no. of queries for access the database
we can apply the queries on the tables & we get the
results.
3. E.F.CODD -------sql founder
Query :
• Query is nothing but condition or question to the
database.
• This Query required by the database & execute the
query in database. After executing the query send
result back to the client.
• Ex: select empno from emp;
• Using this sql we can apply no. of queries on the
table.
SQL * PLUS :
• sql*plus is a editor using this editor we can perform
the all operations on table.
• This editor helps for doing the operations are entire
RDBMS. In entire RDBMS entire data should be in
the form of tables
• Using this editor we can write the sql queries &
execute the queries , this editor displays the result of
the query.
• Using this sql * plus editor not only for SQL ,It can
also used for writing the PL/SQL programs.
PL/SQL :
1. PL/SQL is nothing but Procedure Language
Structured Query Language , Using this pl/sql
language we can write the programs.
2. Using this programs we can create the database &
perform the database actions .
3. In pl/sql programs executes with in the help of sql *
plus editor.
4. Using the pl/sql we can write programs and this
programs results storing in table.
5. PL/SQL is a programming language, it contains
data types
1. number
2. varchar
3. varchar2
4. date
• In sql also contains data types , using the data types
we can create the tables .
• After giving the data types , to the columns.
• After giving the data types , to the particular column
then onwards that column doesn't accept another type
of data.
• If we want to store another type of data it shows that
error.
Ex:
•
empno number //declare
empno='Ashok'; //wrong
• data types only applicable for column names
• Table name never contains the data type.
Data Types :
1. number
2. varchar
3. varchar2
4. date
1. number :
1. Using this number data type , we can store
numbers in a particular column in table.
2. If we create one column of number data type,then
that column allows only numbers, In that column
it doesn't allows characters or any decimal points.
3. Ex: empno number ;
We can giving number data type we want to store
decimal values then we can use this number data
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type , when we want to store decimal points then
we have to give the range.In that range we gives
the decimal values.
4. Ex: empno number(5, 2) ;
2. varchar :
1. Using this data type we can store characters and
strings in a particular column
2. If we want to store string values then go for this
data types.
3. Ex: ename varchar ;
4. In varchar data type one more facility is we can
declare the number of characters we want to store
, we can give the size of the characters in braces.
Ex: ename varchar(20);
3. varchar2
1. Using this data type also we can store characters
and strings.
2. Using this data type it will save the memory.
3. Ex: ename varchar2(20) ;
ename varchar2 ;
Difference between varchar & varchar2 :
1. varchar: Using this varchar data type when we give
the size of the column value that number of bytes
occupied by the for that column.
If we declare size is 20 , but if we use only 10
characters then rest of the 10 characters memory will
be waste.
This memory not useful for another variable in
memory.
2. varchar2 :In this varchar2 datatype when we declare
one variable with the size of a particular column then
if we use that size completely then no problem.
If we don't use the complete size of the declare
time.Then rest of the memory useful to another
variable or another program.
Date :
1. Using this date data type we can give the dates do a
particular columns.
2. We can store the dates in columns as a value dates we
can declare in the format of dd-mm-yy. Ex:
joindate date ;
joindate '10-Aug-95' ;
3. Always we have to declare characters & dates in the
form of single quote.
Clob data type (Character Large Object data) :
• Using this data type we can store characters in the
form of bytes , we can store group of characters ,
range is 2 GB.
Blob data type(Binary Large Object data ) :
• When we want to store perticular images and files in
the form of bytes, range is 4 GB .
• We can store files and images in a table columns in
the form of bytes .
• Actually we don't store the files and imges into a
perticular column.
• We store files and images in a perticular place in a
memory from that place we can create one pointer
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using this pointer we can store in a column values that
pointeris called "Locator".
For Clob & Blob data types we can find the data with the
help of locators.
Ex:
image blob ; //4GB
file clob ; //2GB
TYPES OF SQL STATEMENTS :
1. Data Definition Language---------------------------->
create,alter,drop
2. Data Monipulation Languation-----------------------
>insert,delete,update,select,desc
3. Data Control Language-------------------------------->
grant,revoke
DDL commands:
1. Create :
syn: create table tablename(column datatype);
Ex:create table student(sno number,sname
varchar2(20),dob date );
2. Alter: ------------add,modify,rename,drop
Syn:- alter table tablename add columnname
datatype;
Ex:- alter table emp add phno number;
Syn:- alter table tablename modify columnname
datatype;
Ex:- alter table emp modify sname varchar2(30);
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Syn:- alter table tablename rename column ocn to
ncn ;
Ex:- alter table emp rename column sno to studno;
Syn:-alter table tablename drop column
columnname;
Ex:- alter table student drop column sno;
3. Drop:
Syn: drop table tablename;
Ex: drop table emp;
DML commands:
1. Insert : Syn:-insert into tablename
values(columnvalue);
Ex:-insert into student values(1,'apec');
Syn2:- insert into student values(&no,'&sname');
2. Delete :
Syn: delete tablename where column=value;
Ex:- delete emp where empno=10;
3. Update:
Syn:-update tablename set columnname=value
where condition;
Ex:-update student set sname='apec' where sno=1;
4. Select:
Syn:- select columnname from tablename;
Ex:- select * from student;
5. Desc:
Syn:-desc tablename;
Ex:- desc student;
DCL commands:
1. Grant:
Syn:-grant permissions on tablename to username;
Ex:- grant alter on student to scott;
Ex:- grant update on emp to bank;
Ex:- grant alter,update on student to dsnr;
Ex:- grant any commands on student to scott;
DDL COMMANDS :
create :
1. create is a keyword.
2. It is using for creating one table in a database, after
executing create command table will be created.The
table contains zero records and structure with zero
values.
3. Table contains number of columns , in create query
we can give complete details of table.
4. In create command we give the column names with
data types.
5. Syntax : create table tablename(columnname
datatype);
Ex1: create table employee(empno number , dob date,
sal number );
Ex2: create table bank(bname varchar2(30) , bal
number );
Ex3: create table cell(cname varchar2(30) , cost
number(9,2) );
Ex4: create table school(sname varchar2(20) , splace
varchar2(30) );
Ex5: create table college(cid number , cname
varchar2(30) );
Ex5: create table course(cid number , cname
varchar2(30) );
delete :
1. deiete is a key word , using this keyword we can
delete perticular row in a database table .
2. Delete command using for delete rows only , but not
table.
3. Before executing the delete command that table name
must be exist.If we give the unknown table name we
willget an error
4. syntax : delete tablename where columnname=value;
Ex : delete employee where empno=10 ;
empno empname sal commission
10 a 1000 10
20 b 2000 20
30 c 3000 30
40 d 4000 50
5. After executing the above delete command empno=10
that record will be deleted, rest of the rows are still
executing in the table.
empno empname sal commission
20 b 2000 20
30 c 3000 30
40 d 4000 50
6.
Ex 2 : delete employee where empno=20 ;
empno empname sal commission
10 a 1000 10
20 b 2000 20
20 b 2000 40
30 c 3000 30
40 d 4000 50
7. After executing the above delete command empno=20
, this condition is satisfied 2 records , so oracle will
delete 2 records from the emp table.
empno empname sal commission
10 a 1000 10
30 c 3000 30
40 d 4000 50
8. After executing delete query one message will be
display , the message is " 2 rows deleted".
Ex: delete employee where empno=50 ;
empno empname sal commission
10 a 1000 10
20 b 2000 20
30 c 3000 30
40 d 4000 50
9. sql>no rows deleted
Ex: delete employee22 where empno=10 ;
sql> table or view doesn't exist.
Note : employee22 table not exists in database.
drop :
1. Using this dropcommand we can drop the table from
database. If we can delete entire table from the
database then we should go for drop command.
2. After executing the drop command , then table is
permanently deleted from database entire table is
deleted at a time.
3. syntax : drop table tablename ;
Ex1 : drop table employee ;
Ex2 : drop table student ;
Ex3 : drop table school ;
Ex4 : drop table bank ;
Ex:
empno empname sal commission
10 a 1000 10
20 b 2000 20
20 b 2000 40
30 c 3000 30
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40 d 4000 50
4. sql > drop table employee ;
sql > table is droped ;
DML commands :
insert :
1. Insert is a keyword , this command is using for
inserting values in a table
2. After creating the table we insert the values record by
record .and using this command we insert any number
of rows in a table.
3. Once we execute insert command one row is created.
4. Insert command must be use after table is created,
otherwise it will show error on the sql prompt.
5. syntax : insert into tablename values(column1value,
column2value , .................. , columnNvalue);
Ex1: insert into employee
values(10,'ashok',1000,10) ;
sql > select * from employee ;
empno empname salary commission
10 ashok 1000 10
6. sql > one row is created ;
7. Ex2: insert into employee values(&empno,
&empname, &salary, &commission ) ;
For insert multiple records at a time we no need to
write this query every time.
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empno empname salary commission
10 a 1000 10
20 b 2000 20
20 b 2000 40
30 c 3000 30
40 d 4000 50
alter :
• Using this alter command we can modified the table
and we can perform number of operations on the
table.
1. Add the new columns to the table
2. Modify the existing data types
3. Rename the existing column name
4. Drop the column in a table
Add new columns to the table :
1. Using this alter command we can modify the table ,
First we create the table with 3 columns then if we
want to add one more column into our table then
using this alter command. then our table contains 4
columns
2. syntax : alter table tablename add columnname
datatype ;
Ex1 : alter table student add saddress varchar2(20) ;
Ex2 : alter table employee add empjob varchar2(20) ;
Ex3 : alter table bank add bname varchar2(20) ;
Ex4 : alter table cell add cno number ;
Ex5 : alter table college add ejoin date ;
Example :
empno empname salary
10 a 1000
20 b 2000
20 b 2000
30 c 3000
40 d 4000
3. Ex2 : alter table employee add empjob
varchar2(20) ;
empno empname salary empjob
10 a 1000 Security guard
20 b 2000 service man
20 b 2000 employ
30 c 3000 Team Leader
40 d 4000 HR
Modify the existing data types :
1. The 2nd function of alter command is modify , it is
used for change the datatypes of the columns.
2. if we create one table with 3 columns with 3 datatypes
of some pecified sizes
3. After createing the table if we want to increase or
decrease of the column value size , After executing
this query will changed the columns of the size .
4. syntax : alter table tablename modify columnname
datatype;
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Ex:create table student(sno number,sname
varchar2(20),dob date );
Ex : alter table student modify sname varchar2(40);
sql > table altered
Using this modify can changed datatype size is 20 to
40 size of sname in student table.
Rename the existing column name :
1. The one more function of alter is rename , rename is a
keyword.Using this keyword we can rename the
column names.
2. If we create one table with 3 columns with values ,
After existing the table if we don't satisfy with the
existing column names then we can rename the
column names .
3. Rename is nothing but deleting the old name and
giving the new name, after existing the rename
command new column name appear instead of old
column name .
4. syntax : alter table tablename rename column
oldcolumnname to newcolumnname ;
Ex : alter table student rename column empno to
employeeno ;
sql > select * from employee ;
employeeno empname salary empjob
10 a 1000 Security guard
20 b 2000 service man
20 b 2000 employ
30 c 3000 Team Leader
40 d 4000 HR
Drop the column in a table :
1. The drop command is using for deleting a particular
column in a table . If we create a one table with 3
columns in that if we want to delete any column then
go for this command
2. After executing the drop command the column will be
permanently deleted from the table .
3. After dropping the column corresponding values in
that column will be deleted.
4. syntax : alter table tablename drop column
columnname ;
Ex : alter table student drop column sno ;
'sno' column will be deleting from student table with
values.
Update :
1. This command is using for doing the modifications on
the column values.
2. If we create one table with 4 columns then we can
insert the values., after inserting the values if we want
to do any modifications in the column values then go
for this command.
3. Using this command perform 2 operations.
1. Replacing the new value with old value.
2. Giving the values to the new columns .
4. When we add the new columns to the table when that
new columns does not contains values.
5. If we want to send the values for the new column then
go for update.
6. Syntax : update tablename set columnname=value
where condition ;
Ex1 : update employee set empname='ashok' where
empno=1 ;
Ex2 : update student set sname='jobs' where sno=2;
Select :
1. This command is using for display the table with
values., this command is using for seeing the
informatiom of table.
2. This command is uesd for display the no. of records
reliable in a table.
3. First we create the table then we insert the values.
4. After inserting the values we get the message like one
row is inserted.
5. If we want to check that row and we want see that
values then go for select command
6. This is non-action statement.
7. After executing the select query it doesn't effect on
database.
8. After executing this query no modifications in the
table .
9. Using this select command we can see entire table at
once.
10. Using this select command we can select not
entire table , we can select particular no. of columns
also.
11. When we use the select command we can access
one column or more column or entire table we can
access.
12. syntax : select * from tablename ;
* means displaying the all column names with values
in a table.
Ex: select sno, sname from student ;
Desc :
1. Using this command we can see the structure of the
table , Structure is nothing but how many columns
available in table and it display the data types also
2. desc will display the result in the form of table. tha
table contains number of columns with data types.
3. syntax : desc tablename ;
Ex : desc employee ;
Ex : desc student ;
DCL( Data Control Language ):
• Using with DCL we can perform to operations those
are grant and revoke.
Grant :
1. It is uesd for giving the permissions to the users in
Oracle , we have different types users.
2. Every user has create table their own databases .
3. Every user can give the permissions on their created
table .
4. We can give the permissions through access one user
to another user .
5. Without permissions another user doesn't access the
table.
6. This command is used only giving the permission to
the tables or users .
7. syntax : grant permissions on tablename to
username ;
Ex : grant alter on student to scott ;
Ex : grant update on emp to apec ;
Ex : grant alter, update on bank to dsnr ;
Operators :
1. Arithmetic Operators : (+, _ , * , / , %)
Using this operators we can performs on the tables .
1. Ex : select esal from emp where sal=sal+1 ;
2. Relational Operators :( < , > , >= ,<= , = , != )
Using this operators we can perform operations on the
table.
1. Ex : select esal from emp where sal=100 and
eno=1 ;
Ex1 : select esal from emp where eno=2 or
eno=1 ;
Ex2 : select esal from emp where ename='ashok'
or eno=1 ;
Ex3 : select esal from emp where sal <=100 ;
Ex4 : select esal from emp where sal =100 ;
Ex5 : select esal from emp where eno!=10 ;
Ex6 : select esal from emp where sal <> 100 ; //
not equals to
Ex7 : select esal from emp where sal ~=100 ;
//tild symbol
3. Logical Operators : (and , or )
Using this log operators we can perform the
Operations on the table .
Ex1 : select esal from emp where eno=10 and
sal=1000 ;
Ex2 : select esal from emp where eno=10 or sal=1000
;
4. Like Operator :
1. Like is a operator , this operator is used for
finding the string into the table.
2. If we want find the name in Oracle table we can
use this operator.
3. Like operators contain using with to operation we
can perform search the strings.
4. Those operators are % , _
5. % :
▪ This operator is used for when we don't
know about the complete name when use
this operator.
▪ % --- indicates number of characters after
writing the characters
▪ We can given one or more characters also
▪ syntax : select * from emp where ename like
a% ;
empno ename salary empjob
10 amp 1000 Security guard
20 ashok 2000 service man
6. _ :
▪ underscore( _ ) search for single characters ,
when we give the underscore when we find
only one character
▪ We our name contains 5 characters then we
have give the 5 underscores.
▪ Which string we want to search that
searching letter write first beside with
underscores.
▪ syntax : select * from emp where ename like a---- ;
empno ename salary empjob
10 aksha 1000 Security guard
20 ashok 2000 service man
5. In Operator :
o Using with in operator we can find the records in
the given range of values .
o What ever we given the range in the range values
written as output.
empno empname salary empjob
10 a 1000 Security guard
20 b 2000 employ
30 c 3000 Team Leader
40 d 4000 HR
o Ex: select * from employee where salary
in(2000, 4000) ;
empno empname salary empjob
20 b 2000 employ
30 c 3000 Team Leader
40 d 4000 HR
6. Between Operator :
o Using with between operator we can find the
column values of the given ramge , if we want to
find out the salaries between one range to another
range then go for this operator.
empno empname salary empjob
10 a 1000 Security guard
20 b 2000 employ
30 c 3000 Team Leader
40 d 4000 HR
o Ex: select * from employee where salary
between 2000 and 5000 ;
empno empname salary empjob
30 c 3000 Team Leader
40 d 4000 HR
Order by Cluse :
1. Using with order by class we can perform operations
on the table.
2. Using with command we can access the rows with 2
times
1. ascending order
2. descending order
3. When we print the ascending order it will print the
rows in that format, values can be display ascending
order.
4. We can perform ascending order operations with the
help of one column.
5. What ever giving the column name regarding that
column name it will display the values with ascending
order.
6. Ex : select * from emp where empno orderby asc ;
empno empname salary empjob
10 a 1000 Security guard
20 b 2000 service man
20 b 2000 employ
30 c 3000 Team Leader
40 d 4000 HR
7. Ex : select * from emp where empno orderby desc ;
empno empname salary empjob
40 d 4000 HR
30 c 3000 Team Leader
20 b 2000 employ
10 a 1000 Security guard
FUNCTIONS
:
Grouping Functions :
Grouping Functions are
1. min( )
2. max( )
3. avg( )
empno empname salary empjob
10 a 1000 Security guard
20 b 2000 employ
30 c 3000 Team Leader
40 d 4000 HR
1. min() :
min() function is used for finding the minimum value
in the given table, this min( ) function will return
which is the lowest value in the table on the given
conditions.
syntax : select min(salary) from employee ;
empno empname salary empjob
10 a 1000 Security guard
2. max() :
max() function is using for bring the highest salary in
the given condition or column name.
syntax : select max(salary) from employee ;
empno empname salary empjob
40 d 4000 HR
3. avg( ) :
avg( ) function returns the average of the given values
of the specified column name.
syntax : select avg(salary) from employee ;
4. stddev( ) :
standard deviation function is used for finding the
standard deviation of the given column.
This function is applied for number column names ,
not for character column names.
Syntax : select stddev(sal) from employee ;
5. variance( ) :
This function is using finding the variance of the
column name.
This function is applied for number column names ,
not for character column names.
syntax : select varience(salary) from employee ;
CHARACTER FUNCTIONS :
1. Ascii() :
This is one of the character function , using this
function we can give the character it will return the
ascii value .
Syn:- select ascii(character) from anytable;
Ex1:- select ascii('a') from emp;
Ex2:- select distinct ascii('a') from student; // it is
using stoping the repeated values from the result.
2. Chr() :
This function is using for return the character of the
given value
This function will take the argument is number , that
number match to which character , that character
should be return.
Syn :- select chr(number) from table;
Ex :- select chr(67) from emp;
3. Lower() :
This function is using for converting given string from
upper case letter to small case letter.
Syn :- select lower(character) from table;
Ex:- select lower('APEC') from emp ;
4. Upper() :
This is using for converting the given string from
lower case letters to upper case letters .
Syn:- select upper(character) from table;
Ex:- select upper('apec') from emp;
5. Concat() :
This function is using for combining the 2 strings .
Using this function we give the two arguments first
string each concatnate with 2nd string , the output is
combination of that string.
Syn :- select concat(str1,str2) from table ;
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select concat(name, surname) from table ;
Ex :- select concat('apec','DSNR') from emp;
6. SubStr() :
Using this function we can find out the part of the
string from the entire string .
We give the index value regarding the index value we
can access the part of the string.
Syn :-select substr(string or columnname ,
position) from tablename ;
Ex :- select substr('apec', 2) from emp ; //indexes
starts from 1,2,3.........onwards
empno empname salary empjob
10 ashok 1000 Security guard
20 arunkumar 2000 employ
30 akshay 3000 Team Leader
40 saicharan 4000 HR
Ex :- select substr(empname, 2) from emp ;
empno empname salary empjob
10 ashok 1000 Security guard
20 arunkumar 2000 employ
30 akshay 3000 Team Leader
40 saicharan 4000 HR
7. InitCap() :
This function is using for displaying the given string
first character is capital , rest of the characters in
lower case .
Syn :- select initcap(string) from tablename;
Ex :- select initcap('avanthi') from student ;
8. Length() :
This funtion is using for finding the length of the
given string , We return the length of the string in the
form of the number.
Syn :- select length(string) from tablename ;
Ex :- select length('dilsuknagar') from student ;
SHOW COMMANDS :
1. show ti ;
2. show heading ;
3. show feedback ;
4. show pagesize ;
5. show linesize ;
6. show serveroutput ;
7. show sqlprompt ;
8. show und ;
SET Commands :
1. set ti on/off ;
1. This command is using for displaying the time all
the sql promt.
2. ti is nothing but Time.
3. When we want to display time on the console
then go for set " ti " all.
4. When we all mode it will display the time on the
sql prompt.
5. The time is display on the current system time .
6. When we mode of set ti off at that time , time
does not appear on the sql prompt.
7. syntax : set ti on ; //for set the time
syntax : set ti off ; //for stop the time.
syntax : show ti ;
2. set heading on/off ;
1. Using thiscommand if we want to display the
column names or if we want to not display the
column names then go for heading command .
2. Heading is nothing but display the column name
or not .
3. When we set heading on it will display the
column names , When we set the heading off it
will not display the column names , It will not
display the column names but it will display only
records with values.
4. When we see the values at the time we don't
know the column names.
5. In a editor for all tables heading command is
defaultly on .
6. syntax : set heading on ;
select * from employee ;
empno empname salary empjob
10 ashok 1000 Security guard
20 arunkumar 2000 employ
30 akshay 3000 Team Leader
40 saicharan 4000 HR
7.
set heading off ;
10 ashok 1000 Security guard
20 arunkumar 2000 employ
30 akshay 3000 Team Leader
40 saicharan 4000 HR
8. syntax : show heading ;
3. set feedback on/off :
1. This command is using for display the
information about output.
2. In general after executing the command , the
output will be display like 4 rows selected, 1 row
updated like this messages will be displayed.
3. If we want to access this information like 4 rows
selected then go for set feedback on ;
4. So when we set feed back on , it will display the
information about selected rows.
5. When we set the feed back off , then it will not
display the information like 3 rows selected , 5
rows updated like that does not appear.
6. show feedback ; //it is show the status of the
feedback command .
4. set pagesize n :
1. This command is using for setting the pagesize in
the oracle .
2. Oracle editor contains no. of pages , it will
display the information with the help of pages.
3. Pages are using for display the result of the table.
4. syntax : set pagesize n ;
Ex : set pagesize 40;
syntax : show pagesize ;
5. set linesize n :
1. This command is using for set the linesize in the
oracle editor , defaultly the linesize is 80 .
2. If we want to increase the linesize , we have to
set the command like set linesize n .
3. n is nothing but no. of linesize .
4. How many characters we want to display in a
single line that no. we have to give .
5. syntax : set linesize n ;
Ex : set linesize 100 ;
6. set serveroutput on/off :
1. This command is using for display the output of
perticular programs .
2. In pl/sql we write the programs , after writing the
program we will execute it .
3. After execution we need to see the output , but
before see the output we need to set the
command is set server output on .
4. When we are in on mode it will display the
output after executing the program .
5. When we are in off mode it will not display the
output after executing the program.
6. In editor defaultly set server output is always off
mode only .
7. syntax : set serveroutput on ;
syntax : set serveroutput off ; //default
8. on : we can get the result of pl/sql programs.
off : we can't get the result of pl/sql programs.
7. set sqlprompt name :
1. This command is using for set the prompt in the
sql editor .
2. What ever give the message or string that
message will display the sql prompt , after giving
the name sql prompt display the given name
instead of sql prompt .
3. It will replace the sql prompt displays the our
name.
4. After set onwards our name work as like sql
prompt , we can give the name with operators
also .
5. syntax : set sqlprompt 'apec>' ;
syntax : set sqlprompt 'ashok$' ;
ashok$ select * from tablename ;
8. set und char :
1. This command is using for set the underline of
the column names.
2. When we display the table data it will display the
column names with the help of underscore
character.
3. If we don't satisfy with that character , we can
change the characters , we can give our own
character.
4. In this command we give only one character, that
character should be writing single code.
5. syntax : set und char ;
Ex : set und '$' ;
9. set ttitle msg :
1. This command is used for set the heading to the
our table.
2. What ever we give the message , that message
will be appear as ttittle .
3. ttittle is nothing but top tittle and setting the
header to the table.
4. ttittle information always display above the table
, after executing the query ttittle will display with
the result.
5. syntax : set ttittle ashoksoft ;
Ex : select * from employee ;
empno empname salary empjob
10 ashok 1000 Security guard
20 arunkumar 2000 employ
30 akshay 3000 Team Leader
40 saicharan 4000 HR
6. When we print the date and name of the week it
will display .
10. set btitle msg :
1. this command is using for display the
information as a footer.
2. btittle is nothing but bottom tittle , what ever we
set the btittle msg , the msg will be display as a
footer after executing the command.
3. syntax : btittle msg ;
Ex : btittle ashok123;
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Member Functions :
1. abs( ) : This function is using for finding the absolute
value of the given number.
Ex : select abs(-10) from dual ;
output : 10
2. power( ) : This function is using for finding the power
of the given number.
Ex : select power(2,3) from dual ;
3. mod( ) : This function is using for finding the
remember of the given value.
Ex : select mod(5,2) from dual ;
4. sqrt( ) : This function is using for finding the sqrt of
the given number.
Ex : select sqrt(4) from dual ;
Mathematical Functions :
1. log( ) : log function is using for finding the log value
of the given numbers.
Ex : select log(2,1) from dual ;
2. sin( ) : sin function is using for finding the sin value
of the given radians.
Ex : select sin(90) from dual ;
3. tan( ) : tan is using for finding the tan values of the
given number.
Ex : select tan(0) from dual ;
Date Functions :
1. add_months( ) :
o This functions using for displaying the details
using the function. If we want to add_months to
the existing date , then go for this functions.
o In this finction it has 2 arguments .
1. First argument is 'date'
2. Second argument is 'number'
that number is how many months we want to add.
o syntax : select add_months(date , number)
from student ;
Ex : select add_months('1-jan-14',4) from student
;
output : 1-may-14
2. last_day( ) :
o This function is using for finding the last day of
the current month.
o If months ends with the 30 , it will return 30 .
o syntax : select last_day('1-jan-14') from
student ;
output : 31-jan-14
3. next_day( ) :
1. This function is using for finding the day of
given date.
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2. In this function we give the arguments are first
argument is date , then 2nd argument is name of
the day .
3. Using with 2 arguments it will return next day
after the given dates.
4. syntax : select next_day(date , day ) from
student ;
Ex : select next_day( '2-may-2013' , 'thursday' )
from student
output : 9-may-13
4. months_between( ) :
0. This function is used for finding the different of
two months.
1. In this function we give the two arguments first
argument is 'date' , second argument is 'date' .
2. This function finds the difference of the given 2
months.
3. syntax : select months_between(date1 , date2 )
from student .
Ex : select months_between('1-jan-14','1-mar-
14') from student .
output : 2
Truncate :
1. This command is using for deleting the all rows in a
table.
2. Truncate is nothing but clearing the table with out
rows.
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3. delete command is using for deleting a single row.
4. truncate command is using for deleting all rows in a
given table name.
5. When we execute the truncate then we give the table
name.
6. What ever we give the table name , in the table all
rows are deleted.
7. After executing the truncate command table contains
'zero' rows or no rows
8. Truncate command doesn't delete the table but it will
clear the table with zero rows.
// delete=1 row delete
// truncate = all rows deleted in a table
9. syntax : truncate table tablename ;
truncate table student ;
output : all records or rows deleted
10. After executing this command table contains zero
rows.
Constants in Oracle :
1. sysdate :
1. This command is used for display the current
date in the Oracle.
2. After executing this command it will display the
current day in date format.
3. syntax : select sysdate from anytable;
Ex : select sysdate from student ;
2. user :
1. This command is used for display the username
which are operating the oracle .
2. When we enter the oracle editor , we give the
username , password values .
3. When we ask the user it will return the username
of the current editor.
4. The output is display in the user name .
5. syntax : select user from anytable ;
6. Ex : select user from emp ; //output : scott
3. uid :
1. uid is nothing but userid , after executing the uid
command it will return the id number.
2. When we enter into the editor every user has one
id number , when we ask the id number , it will
return that number.
3. syntax : select uid from anytable ;
Ex : select uid from emp ;
4. rowid :
1. This is using for display in the rowid for every
row , in oracle if we create one table oracle will
give defaultly rowid.
2. rowid is using for representing the row.
3. rowid is using for identify in the row uniquely.
4. every row contains one unique number.
5. Using this unique number we can represents the
row.
6. syntax : select rowid from anytable;
Ex : select rowid from emp ;
5. distinct :
1. distinct is a keyword using this keyboard , we can
represent single values from the result .
2. When we display the table if table contains
repeated values it will display defaultly.
3. If we want to control repeated values and if we
want to display repeated values only one time
then go for this command.
4. distinct keyword is using for stopping the
repeated values and display the repeated values
only one time , not more than one time.
5. syntax : select distinct salary from employee ;
empno empname salary empjob
10 ashok 1000 Security guard
20 arunkumar 2000 employ
30 akshay 3000 Team Leader
40 saicharan 3000 HR
6. // 3000 doesn't display 2nd time why because
distinct keyword controlled by second 3000
value.
CONSTRAINTS IN ORACLE :
1. Unique
2. Not Null
3. Primary Key
4. Null
• constraints are using for giving the conditions on the
column names in generally , if we create the table we
don't give any instructions.
• If we want to give any conditions while creating the
table then go for this constructions.
1. Unique :
1. unique constraint is using for declaring the
column .
2. unique does not apply to the table names , only
for columns.
3. Which column contains the unique constraint that
column value should be unique.
4. column doesn't contains repetative values or
redundency values.
5. syntax : create table employee(eno number ,
ename varchar2(20) unique );
Syn :- create table tablename (columnname
datatype constraint) ;
Ex :- create table emp2(eno number unique , ename
varchar2(20)) ;
2. Not Null :
1. This constraint is using for giving the column
names , it doesn't apply to table names.
2. When we create the table , if we contain
character datatypes instead of value , we can give
the null .
3. When we want to doesn't accept the null then go
for this constraint.
4. While creating the table to give the column
names with the not null constraint.
5. After giving this constraint it doesn't accept the
null value , null value is nothing but empty value.
Syn :- create table tablename (columnname datatype
not null) ; Ex :-create table bank(bno number ,bname
varchar2(20) not null ); Ex :- insert into bank
values(1,'apec'); Ex :- insert into bank values(1, null);
//wrong
3. Primary Key :
1. primary key is using for giving the conditions on
the columns , when we declare one column with
primary key it doesn't accept null values &
repetative value.
2. Primary key is using for making the relations to
the table , we can connection with the one table
to another table for access the information.
3. primary key is very important role while making
the relationships to the table.
4. primary key is appling only column names .
5. primary key does not apply to tables.
6. Using with primary key if we want to make the
relationship with the another table using with
another key.
7. For every table only one primary key column.
Syn :- create table tablename (columnname datatype
primarykey) ; Ex :- create table student (eno number
primary key) ;
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4. NULL :
1. null is a keyword in a Oracle.
2. null is not a value , it indicates this column
contains no value.
3. When we insert in the values if we doesn't find
any value to the given column then go for null.
4. When we declare one column with not null
constraint at the time we don't use the null key
word.
5. If we try to use the null keyword it will show
error, and that row doesn't insert.
Syn :- create table emp3(eno number , ename
varchar2(20)) ; Ex :- insert into emp3 values(1,'apec')
; Ex :- insert into emp3 values(1, null) ; Ex :- insert
into emp3 values(2, null) ;
Clauses in SQL :
clauses are using for accessing the records on the given
certain conditions , give any condition regarding the
condition is working.
empno empname salary empjob
10 ashok 1000 Security guard
20 arunkumar 2000 employ
30 akshay 3000 Team Leader
40 saicharan 4000 HR
1. where :
1. syntax : select * from tablename where condition
;
2. Ex : select * from employee where empno=10 ;
empno empname salary empjob
10 ashok 1000 Security guard
3. Ex : select * from emloyee where empno>=20 ;
empno empname salary empjob
20 arunkumar 2000 employ
30 akshay 3000 Team Leader
40 saicharan 4000 HR
2. order by :
1. This clause is using for displaying the data in the
form of orders.
2. The orders are ascending order or descending
order .
3. Ascending order is nothing but small to big ,
descending order is nothing but big value to
small.
4. syntax : select * from employee order by salary
asc ;
empno empname salary empjob
10 ashok 1000 Security guard
20 arunkumar 2000 employ
30 akshay 3000 Team Leader
40 saicharan 4000 HR
5. syntax : select * from employee order by salary
desc ;
empno empname salary empjob
40 saicharan 4000 HR
30 akshay 3000 Team Leader
20 arunkumar 2000 employ
10 ashok 1000 Security guard
3. group by :
1. This function is using for displaying the data in
the form of selecting multiple columns depending
on one column.
2. syntax : select * from employee group by salary ;
Ex : select sum(salary) , count(salary ) from
employee group by salary ;
4. Having :
1. This clause is using for finding the result of the
given having condition.
2. This will display the result of who are satisfy the
condition.
3. select * from employee having sno=10 ;
5. starting with :
1. Using with clause we can find out whether the
given string is starting with the given character or
not .
2. We give the character as a argument in a single
code.
3. syntax : select * from employee where empname
starting with('a');
empno empname salary empjob
10 ashok 1000 Security guard
20 arunkumar 2000 employ
30 akshay 3000 Team Leader
Table set commands :
1. union :
1. This command is using for when we want to
combining the two tables union can display ,
display the data of same in two tables.
2. syntax : select * from student union select * from
student1 ;
2. union all :
1. Union all is nothing but combining the two tables
given matched values or non-matched values.
2. syntax : select * from student union all select *
from student1 ;
//combining the 2 tables with no conditions .
3. intersect :
1. intersect is using for combining the two tables as
well as what are the same values contained in 2
tables.
2. intersect will display the data should containing
two tables.
3. syntax : select * from table1 intersect select *
from table2 ;
4. minus :
1. Minus is using for display in the 2 tables data
which values does not match with the two tables
that will display .
2. syntax : select * from student minus select * from
student1 ;
• copying the data from one table to another table .
• This is using for when we want create 2nd table with
the first table structure .
• In general if we want to create with same values
means we have to create another table .
• Oracle provides one feature copying the table entire
table and structure with values.
• No need to create the tables and inserting the values
for the 2nd table.
• In the second table contains all the rows and values
should be same with the first table name.
• When we copy the table & the structure also copied.
• When we execute the desc command both structure
are same.
• syntax : create table tablename as select * from
tablename ;
Ex : create table student1 as select * from student ;
Tab :
• This command is using for displaying the all tables
information available in the oracle server.
• It will display the all tablenames
• syntax : select * from tab ;
User_Objects :
• This command is using for displaying the all tables
and views , which are available in the oracle server.
• It is not only display the tablenames and also all those
details it will give.
• syntax : select * from user_objects ;
Opening the applications from the oracle editor :
1. sql plus ------ console editor
2. sql plusw ----- GUI editor
3. select sql+plus
Views :
1. view is nothing but table .
2. When we want to create one table with same values
then go for views.
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3. View accupies less memory then compare to table
memory.
4. We can perform all operations on views also.
5. syntax : create view viewname as select * from
tablename ;
Ex : create view student 1 as select * from student ;
6. syntax : insert into viewname values(c1value ,
c2value);
7. syntax : delete viewname where condition ;
8. syntax : drop view viewname ;
9. syntax : update viewname set columnname=value
where condition ;
Joins :
1. Joins are using for combining the two tables
information.
2. When we want to see the 2 tables information at a
time then go for joins.
3. After joining the tables it will display the 2nd table
information at a time in a single table .
4. After joining the tables entire information in one
table.
5. Joins are 3 types :
1. self join
2. equi join
3. non-equi join
4. self join :
1. self join is nothing but combining the same
table with the 2 same names.
2. syntax : select * from emp , emp ;
5. equi join :
1. Using this joins , we can combine the two
tables with the equal condition.
2. When we join this 2 tables before we will
give the condition.
3. After satisfy the condition only it will show
the records.
4. syntax : select e.empno , e.name , e.job ,
k.empno , k.ename , k.job from emp e , emp
k where k.empno=e.empno ; // e & k are
alias names
6. non-equi join :
syntax : select e.empno , e.ename , e.job ,
k.empno , k.ename , k.job from emp e , emp k
where k.empno< > e.empno ;
Rename the Table :
1. If we want to change the table name from one into
another name then go for this cmd .
2. After rename in the table old name is does not appear.
3. The new name will be apply to table.
4. syntax : rename oldtablename to newtablename ;
Ex : rename emp to emp1 ;
Opening application from sql * plus :
1. syntax : $ applicationname
2. Ex1 : $ notepad
3. Ex2 : $ calc
4. Ex3 : $ cmd //console or dos prompt opened
Executing multiple queries from a file to sql * plus
editor :
1. Using this procedure we can execute group of queries
in a single statement.
2. In generally editor we can execute only one query at a
time.
3. Using with sql editor , we can't execute group of
queries at a time .
4. If we want to execute group of queries in the form of
file is possible .
5. We write the all no. of queries as a file , we save that
file as filename.sql
6. sql is the execution of oracle programs
7. Steps for executing the file :
1. open the notepad
2. write the first query
3. after complete the query put the(/) instead of ( ; )
4. after put the slash , write the 2nd query , later
2nd query put the slash.
5. like this procedure how many queries we have
6. After completing the queries , close the file ,
before closing the file save the file name as
filename.sql
7. Then we open the sql * plus editor.
8. we give the path of the file.
9. we execute the file in the editor.
@filepath
@c://commands.sql
Bind Variables :
1. This variables are using for giving the values to the
where conditions.
2. At runtime to allocate the values to the variables.
3. If we directly assign the values it will execute only
one time.
4. If we want to execute 2nd time , then we have to write
the entire condition.
5. general : select * from emp where sal=100 ;
Use bind variable : select * from emp where
sal='&sal' ;
6. Characters (use bind variable) : select * from emp
where ename='&name' ;
vsize( ) function :
1. This function is using for displaying the size of the
perticular variable .
2. It will display the output of how many bytes accupied
by the variable.
3. syntax : select vsize(value) from dual ; //value=100
User environment : userenv( ) function :
1. This function is using for describing the details of the
user.
2. This function as 2 arguments for every argument , it
will display 1 output
3. The arguments are terminal & language
4. syntax : select userenv('terminal') ,
userenv('language') from dual ;
Set Command :
1. set space n : This cmd is using for giving the spaces
to the columns
2. If we want to give space between the column names
then go for space cmd. This default column space is
"Zero"
3. The highest column space is 10
4. set the n value is 0 to 10
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5. set space n ;
Ex : set space 5 ;
• giving column names to the functions after executing .
• In general when we execute function it will display
the column name like function name only.
• If we want to give the column name to the function
then you can give.
• syntax : select function-name variable-name from
anytable ;
Ex : select max(sal) highest from dual ;
PL/SQL :
1. pl/sql is nothing but procedural language/sql , This
language is using for writing the programs in the sql
editor.
2. We can write the all programs like C , C++ .... this
language also provides variables data types , program
is nothing but executing set of instructions , statement
is nothing but group of words .
3. We write pl/sql programs in sql * plus editor , sql *
plus editor is using for writing pl/sql programs.
4. In generally once we write the program can be
compile & run the programs.
5. In pl/sql programs after writing the program we save
the file name as filename.sql
add.sql OR sub.sql
6. We can write the pl/sql programs in notepad also ,
after writing into the notepad , we save the filename
as filename.sql
7. We can save the file in oracle server Or we can save
the file into our own given path like c,d,e drives.
8. After saving the file we will execute the programs ,
After executing the program we can see tha output,
But in pl/sql after executing the program we can't see
the output.But program is executed
9. Why because we want to see the output , we have to
set the command is like "set serveroutput on" ;
When serveroutput cmd is on it will display the output
.
10. When serveroutput is off , at the time output is
not displayed.
11. We have to said these settings before executing
the pl/sql program .
12. If we said after executing the program there is no
use , before executing if we have errors in the file , it
will show those are called compiletime errors .
13. After clearing the errors we can executing the
program.
14. Using with the pl/sql we can do with the
conditional statements.
1. if
2. if else
15. control statements
1. while
2. do while
3. for loop
Data Types in pl/sql :
1. number
2. varchar
3. varchar2
4. date
Structure of the pl/sql program : ......................
In the above structure describes how to write the pl/sql
programs
1. declare block :
1. In this block we can declare the variables , we
can declare the variables with the help of some
specified data type.
2. Every variable should have a one data type ,
every variable declaration ends with the
semicolon.
3. semicolon indicates end of the statement.
2. begin block :
1. This block is using writing the real code of the
program.
2. In begin part , we write the program & task of the
program.
3. For completion of this task it will use the declare
part .
4. Using the declare part is nothing but using the
variables .
3. end block : end is nothing but indicating the our
pl/sql program is over .
4. ' / ' is nothing but start the execution of the pl/sql
program.It is for oracle server , not for pl/sql program.
How to declare the variable in pl/sql :
variablename datatype ;
x number ;
name varchar(20) ;
jdate date ;
Installing the variable in pl/sql :
variablename datatype :=value ;
x number:=30 ;
y varchar(20) :='hai' ;
d date:='10-may-13' ;
Output function in pl/sql : dbms_output.put_line( ) ;
1. This is output procedure in pl/sql , it is using for
displaying the out to the user.
2. When we print the values Or when we want to display
some information to the user using this procedure
only.
3. dbms_output is a package name , put_line is a
function name
Write a one pl/sql program for display the welcome
message :
1. open the notepad
2. declare begin dbms_output.put_line("welcome"); end;
/
3. save filename as "file.sql"
4. close the file
5.
sql< @filepath c:\file.sql
set serveroutput on
6. output :welcome
If statement :
1. It is one type of conditional statement , it is using for
comparing the 2 values Or comparing the 2 variables.
2. if condition is satisfied Or condition is true then if
block will be executed.
3. if condition is false then does not execute any code.
4. if condition is true we get the output .
5. if condition is false we have no output.
INTRODUCTION
SQL is divided into the following
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
• Data Retrieval Language (DRL)
• Transaction Control Language (TCL)
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• Data Control Language (DCL)
DDL -- create, alter, drop, truncate, rename
DML -- insert, update, delete
DRL -- select
TCL -- commit, rollback, savepoint
DCL -- grant, revoke
CREATE TABLE
SYNTAX :
Create table <table_name> (col1 datatype1, col2
datatype2 ...coln datatypen);
Ex:
SQL> create table student (no number (2), name
varchar (10), marks number (3));
INSERT
This will be used to insert the records into table.
We have two methods to insert.
• By value method
• By address method
a. USING VALUE METHOD
Syntax:
insert into <table_name> values (value1, value2,
value3 .... Valuen);
Ex:
SQL> insert into student values (1, 'sudha', 100);
SQL> insert into student values (2, 'saketh', 200);
To insert a new record again you have to type entire
insert command, if there are lot of records this will be
difficult.
This will be avoided by using address method.
b. USING ADDRESS METHOD
Syntax:
insert into <table_name> values (&col1, &col2,
&col3 .... &coln);
This will prompt you for the values but for every
insert you have to use forward slash.
Ex:
SQL> insert into student values (&no, '&name',
&marks);
Enter value for no: 1
Enter value for name: Jagan
Enter value for marks: 300
old 1: insert into student values(&no,
'&name', &marks)
new 1: insert into student values(1,
'Jagan', 300)
SQL> /
Enter value for no: 2
Enter value for name: Naren
Enter value for marks: 400
old 1: insert into student values(&no,
'&name', &marks)
new 1: insert into student values(2,
'Naren', 400)
c. INSERTING DATA INTO SPECIFIED
COLUMNS USING VALUE METHOD
Syntax:
insert into <table_name>(col1, col2, col3 ... Coln)
values (value1, value2, value3 ....Valuen);
Ex:
SQL> insert into student (no, name) values (3,
'Ramesh');
SQL> insert into student (no, name) values (4,
'Madhu');
d. INSERTING DATA INTO SPECIFIED
COLUMNS USING ADDRESS METHOD
Syntax:
insert into <table_name>(col1, col2, col3 ... coln)
values (&col1, &col2, &col3 .... &coln);
This will prompt you for the values but for every
insert you have to use forward slash.
Ex:
SQL> insert into student (no, name) values (&no,
'&name');
Enter value for no: 5
Enter value for name: Visu
old 1: insert into student (no, name)
values(&no, '&name')
new 1: insert into student (no, name)
values(5, 'Visu')
SQL> /
Enter value for no: 6
Enter value for name: Rattu
old 1: insert into student (no, name)
values(&no, '&name')
new 1: insert into student (no, name)
values(6, 'Rattu')
SELECTING DATA
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name>; -- here * indicates all
columns
or
Select col1, col2, ... coln from <table_name>;
Ex:
SQL> select * from student;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------ --------
1 Sudha 100
2 Saketh 200
1 Jagan 300
2 Naren 400
3 Ramesh
4 Madhu
5 Visu
6 Rattu
SQL> select no, name, marks from student;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------ --------
1 Sudha 100
2 Saketh 200
1 Jagan 300
2 Naren 400
3 Ramesh
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4 Madhu
5 Visu
6 Rattu
SQL> select no, name from student;
NO NAME
--- -------
1 Sudha
2 Saketh
1 Jagan
2 Naren
3 Ramesh
4 Madhu
5 Visu
6 Rattu
CONDITIONAL SELECTIONS AND OPERATORS
We have two clauses used in this
• Where
• Order by
USING WHERE
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <condition>;
the following are the different types of operators used in
where clause.
• Arithmetic operators
• Comparison operators
• Logical operators
▪ Arithmetic operators -- highest precedence +,
-, *, /
▪ Comparison operators =, !=, >, <, >=, <=, <>
▪ between, not between
▪ in, not in
▪ null, not null
▪ like
▪ Logical operators
▪ And
▪ Or -- lowest precedence
▪ not
a. USING =, >, <, >=, <=, !=, <>
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where no = 2;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ---------
2 Saketh 200
2 Naren 400
SQL> select * from student where no < 2;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ----------
1 Sudha 100
1 Jagan 300
SQL> select * from student where no > 2;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ----------
3 Ramesh
4 Madhu
5 Visu
6 Rattu
SQL> select * from student where no <= 2;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ----------
1 Sudha 100
2 Saketh 200
1 Jagan 300
2 Naren 400
SQL> select * from student where no >= 2;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ---------
2 Saketh 200
2 Naren 400
3 Ramesh
4 Madhu
5 Visu
6 Rattu
SQL> select * from student where no != 2;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ----------
1 Sudha 100
1 Jagan 300
3 Ramesh
4 Madhu
5 Visu
6 Rattu
SQL> select * from student where no <> 2;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ----------
1 Sudha 100
1 Jagan 300
3 Ramesh
4 Madhu
5 Visu
6 Rattu
b. USING AND
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This will gives the output when all the conditions
become true.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <condition1>
and <condition2> and .. <conditionn>;
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where no = 2 and
marks >= 200;
NO NAME
MARKS
--- ------- --------
2 Saketh 200
2 Naren 400
c. USING OR
This will gives the output when either of the
conditions become true.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <condition1>
and <condition2> or .. <conditionn>;
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where no = 2 or marks
>= 200;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ---------
2 Saketh 200
1 Jagan 300
2 Naren 400
d. USING BETWEEN
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This will gives the output based on the column and its
lower bound, upperbound.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> between
<lower bound> and <upper bound>;
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where marks between
200 and 400;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ---------
2 Saketh 200
1 Jagan 300
2 Naren 400
e. USING NOT BETWEEN
This will gives the output based on the column which
values are not in its lower bound, upperbound.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> not
between <lower bound> and <upper bound>;
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where marks not
between 200 and 400;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ---------
1 Sudha 100
f. USING IN
This will gives the output based on the column and its
list of values specified.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> in (
value1, value2, value3 ... valuen);
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where no in (1, 2, 3);
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ---------
1 Sudha 100
2 Saketh 200
1 Jagan 300
2 Naren 400
3 Ramesh
g. USING NOT IN
This will gives the output based on the column which
values are not in the list of values specified.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> not in (
value1, value2, value3 ... valuen);
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where no not in (1, 2,
3);
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ---------
4 Madhu
5 Visu
6 Rattu
h. USING NULL
This will gives the output based on the null values in
the specified column.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> is null;
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where marks is null;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ---------
3 Ramesh
4 Madhu
5 Visu
6 Rattu
i. USING NOT NULL
This will gives the output based on the not null values
in the specified column.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> is not
null;
Ex:
SQL> select * from student where marks is not
null;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ---------
1 Sudha 100
2 Saketh 200
1 Jagan 300
2 Naren 400
j. USING LIKE
This will be used to search through the rows of
database column based on the pattern you specify.
Syntax:
select * from <table_name> where <col> like
<pattern>;
Ex:
i. This will give the rows whose marks are 100.
SQL> select * from student where marks like
100;
ii. NO NAME MARKS
iii. --- ------- ---------
iv. 1 Sudha 100
v. This will give the rows whose name start with
'S'.
SQL> select * from student where name like
'S%';
vi. NO NAME MARKS
vii. --- ------- ---------
viii. 1 Sudha 100
ix. 2 Saketh 200
x. This will give the rows whose name ends with
'h'.
SQL> select * from student where name like
'%h';
xi.
xii. NO NAME MARKS
xiii. --- ------- ---------
xiv. 2 Saketh 200
xv. 3 Ramesh
xvi. This will give the rows whose name's second
letter start with 'a'.
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SQL> select * from student where name like
'_a%';
xvii. NO NAME MARKS
xviii. --- ------- --------
xix. 2 Saketh 200
xx. 1 Jagan 300
xxi. 2 Naren 400
xxii. 3 Ramesh
xxiii. 4 Madhu
xxiv. 6 Rattu
xxv. This will give the rows whose name's third
letter start with 'd'.
SQL> select * from student where name like
'__d%';
xxvi. NO NAME MARKS
xxvii. --- ------- ---------
xxviii. 1 Sudha 100
xxix. 4 Madhu
xxx. This will give the rows whose name's second
letter start with 't' from ending.
SQL> select * from student where name like
'%_t%';
xxxi. NO NAME MARKS
xxxii. --- ------- ---------
xxxiii. 2 Saketh 200
xxxiv. 6 Rattu
xxxv. This will give the rows whose name's third
letter start with 'e' from ending.
SQL> select * from student where name like
'%e__%';
xxxvi. NO NAME MARKS
xxxvii. --- ----- ---------
xxxviii. 2 Saketh 200
xxxix. 3 Ramesh
xl. This will give the rows whose name cotains 2
a's.
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SQL> select * from student where name like
'%a% a %';
xli. NO NAME MARKS
xlii. --- ------- ----------
xliii. 1 Jagan 300
* You have to specify the patterns in like using
underscore ( _ ).
USING ORDER BY
This will be used to ordering the columns data (ascending
or descending).
Syntax:
Select * from <table_name> order by <col> desc;
By default oracle will use ascending order. If you want
output in descending order you have to use desc keyword
after the column.
Ex:
SQL> select * from student order by no;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ---------
1 Sudha 100
1 Jagan 300
2 Saketh 200
2 Naren 400
3 Ramesh
4 Madhu
5 Visu
6 Rattu
SQL> select * from student order by no desc;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ---------
6 Rattu
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5 Visu
4 Madhu
3 Ramesh
2 Saketh 200
2 Naren 400
1 Sudha 100
1 Jagan 300
USING DML
USING UPDATE
This can be used to modify the table data.
Syntax:
Update <table_name> set <col1> = value1, <col2> =
value2 where <condition>;
Ex:
SQL> update student set marks = 500;
If you are not specifying any condition this will update
entire table.
SQL> update student set marks = 500 where no = 2;
SQL> update student set marks = 500, name = 'Venu'
where no = 1;
USING DELETE
This can be used to delete the table data temporarily.
Syntax:
Delete <table_name> where <condition>;
Ex:
SQL> delete student;
If you are not specifying any condition this will delete
entire table.
SQL> delete student where no = 2;
USING DDL
USING ALTER
This can be used to add or remove columns and to modify
the precision of the datatype.
a. ADDING COLUMN
Syntax:
alter table <table_name> add <col datatype>;
Ex:
SQL> alter table student add sdob date;
b. REMOVING COLUMN
Syntax:
alter table <table_name> drop <col datatype>;
Ex:
SQL> alter table student drop column sdob;
c. INCREASING OR DECREASING PRECISION
OF A COLUMN
Syntax:
alter table <table_name> modify <col datatype>;
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Ex:
SQL> alter table student modify marks number(5);
* To decrease precision the column should be empty.
d. MAKING COLUMN UNUSED
Syntax:
alter table <table_name> set unused column <col>;
Ex:
SQL> alter table student set unused column
marks;
Even though the column is unused still it will occupy
memory.
e. DROPPING UNUSED COLUMNS
Syntax:
alter table <table_name> drop unused columns;
Ex:
SQL> alter table student drop unused columns;
* You can not drop individual unused columns of a
table.
f. RENAMING COLUMN
Syntax:
alter table <table_name> rename column
<old_col_name> to <new_col_name>;
Ex:
SQL> alter table student rename column marks to
smarks;
USING TRUNCATE
This can be used to delete the entire table data
permanently.
Syntax:
truncate table <table_name>;
Ex:
SQL> truncate table student;
USING DROP
This will be used to drop the database object;
Syntax:
Drop table <table_name>;
Ex:
SQL> drop table student;
USING RENAME
This will be used to rename the database object;
Syntax:
rename <old_table_name> to <new_table_name>;
Ex:
SQL> rename student to stud;
USING TCL
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USING COMMIT
This will be used to save the work.
Commit is of two types.
• Implicit
• Explicit
a. IMPLICIT
This will be issued by oracle internally in two
situations.
When any DDL operation is performed.
o
o When you are exiting from SQL * PLUS.
b. EXPLICIT
This will be issued by the user.
Syntax:
Commit or commit work;
* When ever you committed then the transaction was
completed.
USING ROLLBACK
This will undo the operation.
This will be applied in two methods.
• Upto previous commit
• Upto previous rollback
Syntax:
Roll or roll work;
Or
Rollback or rollback work;
* While process is going on, if suddenly power goes then
oracle will rollback the transaction.
USING SAVEPOINT
You can use savepoints to rollback portions of your current
set of transactions.
Syntax:
Savepoint <savepoint_name>;
Ex:
SQL> savepoint s1;
SQL> insert into student values(1, 'a', 100);
SQL> savepoint s2;
SQL> insert into student values(2, 'b', 200);
SQL> savepoint s3;
SQL> insert into student values(3, 'c',
300);
SQL> savepoint s4;
SQL> insert into student values(4, 'd',
400);
Before rollback
SQL> select * from student;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ----------
1 a 100
2 b 200
3 c 300
4 d 400
SQL> rollback to savepoint s3;
Or
SQL> rollback to s3;
This will rollback last two records.
SQL> select * from student;
NO NAME MARKS
--- ------- ----------
1 a 100
2 b 200
USING DCL
DCL commands are used to granting and revoking the
permissions.
USING GRANT
This is used to grant the privileges to other users.
Syntax:
Grant <privileges> on <object_name> to <user_name>
[with grant option];
Ex:
SQL> grant select on student to sudha; -- you can give
individual privilege
SQL> grant select, insert on student to sudha; -- you
can give set of privileges
SQL> grant all on student to sudha; -- you can give all
privileges
The sudha user has to use dot method to access the object.
SQL> select * from saketh.student;
The sudha user can not grant permission on student table
to other users. To get this type of option use the following.
SQL> grant all on student to sudha with grant option;
Now sudha user also grant permissions on student table.
USING REVOKE
This is used to revoke the privileges from the users to
which you granted the privileges.
Syntax:
Revoke <privileges> on <object_name> from
<user_name>;
Ex:
SQL> revoke select on student form sudha; -- you can
revoke individual privilege
SQL> revoke select, insert on student from sudha; --
you can revoke set of privileges
SQL> revoke all on student from sudha; -- you can
revoke all privileges
USING ALIASES
CREATE WITH SELECT
We can create a table using existing table [along with
data].
Syntax:
Create table <new_table_name> [col1, col2, col3 ...
coln] as select * from <old_table_name>;
Ex:
SQL> create table student1 as select * from student;
Creating table with your own column names.
SQL> create table student2(sno, sname, smarks) as
select * from student;
Creating table with specified columns.
SQL> create table student3 as select no,name from
student;
Creating table with out table data.
SQL> create table student2(sno, sname, smarks) as
select * from student where 1 = 2;
In the above where clause give any condition which does
not satisfy.
INSERT WITH SELECT
Using this we can insert existing table data to a another
table in a single trip. But the table structure should be
same.
Syntax:
Insert into <table1> select * from <table2>;
Ex:
SQL> insert into student1 select * from student;
Inserting data into specified columns
SQL> insert into student1(no, name) select no, name
from student;
COLUMN ALIASES
Syntax:
Select <orginal_col> <alias_name> from
<table_name>;
Ex:
SQL> select no sno from student; or
SQL> select no "sno" from student;
TABLE ALIASES
If you are using table aliases you can use dot method to the
columns.
Syntax:
Select <alias_name>.<col1>, <alias_name>.<col2> ...
<alias_name>.<coln> from <table_name>
<alias_name>;
Ex:
SQL> select s.no, s.name from student s;
USING MERGE
MERGE
You can use merge command to perform insert and update
in a single command.
Ex:
SQL> Merge into student1 s1
Using (select *From student2) s2
On(s1.no=s2.no)
When matched then
Update set marks = s2.marks
When not matched then
Insert (s1.no,s1.name,s1.marks)
Values(s2.no,s2.name,s2.marks);
In the above the two tables are with the same structure but
we can merge different structured tables also but the
datatype of the columns should match.
Assume that student1 has columns like no,name,marks and
student2 has columns like no, name, hno, city.
SQL> Merge into student1 s1
Using (select *From student2) s2
On(s1.no=s2.no)
When matched then
Update set marks = s2.hno
When not matched then
Insert (s1.no,s1.name,s1.marks)
Values(s2.no,s2.name,s2.hno);
MULTIBLE INSERTS
We have table called DEPT with the following columns
and data
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
-------- -------- ----
10 accounting new york
20 research dallas
30 sales Chicago
40 operations boston
A. CREATE STUDENT TABLE
SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name
varchar(2),marks number(3));
B. MULTI INSERT WITH ALL FIELDS
C. SQL> Insert all
D. Into student values(1,'a',100)
E. Into student values(2,'b',200)
F. Into student values(3,'c',300)
G. Select *from dept where
deptno=10;
-- This inserts 3 rows
H. MULTI INSERT WITH SPECIFIED FIELDS
I. SQL> insert all
J. Into student (no,name)
values(4,'d')
K. Into student(name,marks)
values('e',400)
L. Into student values(3,'c',300)
M. Select *from dept where
deptno=10;
-- This inserts 3 rows
N. MULTI INSERT WITH DUPLICATE ROWS
O. SQL> insert all
P. Into student values(1,'a',100)
Q. Into student values(2,'b',200)
R. Into student values(3,'c',300)
S. Select *from dept where deptno >
10;
-- This inserts 9 rows because in the select statement
retrieves 3 records (3 inserts for each row retrieved)
T. MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS BASED
U. SQL> Insert all
V. When deptno > 10 then
W. Into student1 values(1,'a',100)
X. When dname = 'SALES' then
Y. Into student2 values(2,'b',200)
Z. When loc = 'NEW YORK' then
AA. Into student3 values(3,'c',300)
BB. Select *from dept where
deptno>10;
-- This inserts 4 rows because the first condition
satisfied 3 times, second condition satisfied once and
the last none.
CC. MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS
BASED AND ELSE
DD. SQL> Insert all
EE. When deptno > 100 then
FF. Into student1 values(1,'a',100)
GG. When dname = 'S' then
HH. Into student2 values(2,'b',200)
II. When loc = 'NEW YORK' then
JJ. Into student3 values(3,'c',300)
KK. Else
LL. Into student values(4,'d',400)
MM. Select *from dept where
deptno>10;
-- This inserts 3 records because the else satisfied 3
times
NN. MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS
BASED AND FIRST
OO. SQL> Insert first
PP. When deptno = 20 then
QQ. Into student1 values(1,'a',100)
RR. When dname = 'RESEARCH' then
SS. Into student2 values(2,'b',200)
TT. When loc = 'NEW YORK' then
UU. Into student3 values(3,'c',300)
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VV. Select *from dept where
deptno=20;
-- This inserts 1 record because the first clause avoid
to check the remaining conditions once the condition
is satisfied.
WW. MULTI INSERT WITH CONDITIONS
BASED, FIRST AND ELSE
XX. SQL> Insert first
YY. When deptno = 30 then
ZZ. Into student1 values(1,'a',100)
AAA. When dname = 'R' then
BBB. Into student2
values(2,'b',200)
CCC. When loc = 'NEW YORK'
then
DDD. Into student3
values(3,'c',300)
EEE. Else
FFF. Into student
values(4,'d',400)
GGG. Select *from dept where
deptno=20;
-- This inserts 1 record because the else clause
satisfied once
HHH. MULTI INSERT WITH MULTIBLE
TABLES
III. SQL> Insert all
JJJ. Into student1
values(1,'a',100)
KKK. Into student2
values(2,'b',200)
LLL. Into student3
values(3,'c',300)
MMM. Select *from dept where
deptno=10;
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-- This inserts 3 rows
** You can use multi tables with specified fields, with
duplicate rows, with conditions, with first and else clauses.
FUNCTIONS
Functions can be categorized as follows.
• Single row functions
• Group functions
SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS
Single row functions can be categorized into five.
These will be applied for each row and produces individual
output for each row.
• Numeric functions
• String functions
• Date functions
• Miscellaneous functions
• Conversion functions
NUMERIC FUNCTIONS
• Abs
• Sign
• Sqrt
• Mod
• Nvl
• Power
• Exp
• Ln
• Log
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• Ceil
• Floor
• Round
• Trunk
• Bitand
• Greatest
• Least
• Coalesce
A. ABS
Absolute value is the measure of the magnitude of
value. Absolute value is always a positive number.
Syntax:
abs (value)
Ex:
SQL> select abs(5), abs(-5), abs(0), abs(null) from
dual;
ABS(5) ABS(-5) ABS(0) ABS(NULL)
------ ------- ------ ---------
5 -5 0
B. SIGN
Sign gives the sign of a value.
Syntax:
sign (value)
Ex:
SQL> select sign(5), sign(-5), sign(0), sign(null)
from dual;
SIGN(5) SIGN(-5) SIGN(0) SIGN(NULL)
------- -------- ------- ----------
1 -1 0
C. SQRT
This will give the square root of the given value.
Syntax:
sqrt (value) -- here value must be positive.
Ex:
SQL> select sqrt(4), sqrt(0), sqrt(null), sqrt(1)
from dual;
SQRT(4) SQRT(0) SQRT(NULL) SQRT(1)
------- ------- ---------- ----------
2 0 1
D. MOD
This will give the remainder.
Syntax:
mod (value, divisor)
Ex:
SQL> select mod(7,4), mod(1,5), mod(null,null),
mod(0,0), mod(-7,4) from dual;
MOD(7,4) MOD(1,5) MOD(NULL,NULL) MOD(0,0)
MOD(-7,4)
-------- -------- -------------- --------
---------
3 1 0
-3
E. NVL
This will substitutes the specified value in the place of
null values.
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Syntax:
nvl (null_col, replacement_value)
Ex:
SQL> select * from student; -- here for 3rd row
marks value is null
NO NAME MARKS
-- ---- ---------
1 a 100
2 b 200
3 c
SQL> select no, name, nvl(marks,300) from
student;
NO NAME NVL(MARKS,300)
-- ---- --------------
1 a 100
2 b 200
3 c 300
SQL> select nvl(1,2), nvl(2,3), nvl(4,3), nvl(5,4)
from dual;
NVL(1,2) NVL(2,3) NVL(4,3) NVL(5,4)
-------- -------- -------- --------
1 2 4 5
SQL> select nvl(0,0), nvl(1,1), nvl(null,null),
nvl(4,4) from dual;
NVL(0,0) NVL(1,1) NVL(null,null) NVL(4,4)
-------- -------- -------------- --------
--
0 1 4
F. POWER
Power is the ability to raise a value to a given
exponent.
Syntax:
power (value, exponent)
Ex:
SQL> select power(2,5), power(0,0), power(1,1),
power(null,null), power(2,-5) from dual;
POWER(2,5) POWER(0,0) POWER(1,1)
POWER(NULL,NULL) POWER(2,-5)
---------- ---------- --------- --------------
--- ---------------
32 1 1
.03125
G. EXP
This will raise e value to the give power.
Syntax:
exp (value)
Ex:
SQL> select exp(1), exp(2), exp(0), exp(null), exp(-
2) from dual;
EXP(1) EXP(2) EXP(0) EXP(NULL)
EXP(-2)
-------- --------- ------ ---------
----------
2.71828183 7.3890561 1
.135335283
H. LN
This is based on natural or base e logarithm.
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Syntax:
ln (value) -- here value must be greater than zero
which is positive only.
Ex:
SQL> select ln(1), ln(2), ln(null) from dual;
LN(1) LN(2) LN(NULL)
------ ------- ------------
0 .693147181
Ln and Exp are reciprocal to each other.
EXP (3) = 20.0855369
LN (20.0855369) = 3
I. LOG
This is based on 10 based logarithm.
Syntax:
log (10, value) -- here value must be greater than zero
which is positive only.
Ex:
SQL> select log(10,100), log(10,2), log(10,1),
log(10,null) from dual;
LOG(10,100) LOG(10,2) LOG(10,1)
LOG(10,NULL)
----------- ----------- --------- -----------
------
2 .301029996 0
LN (value) = LOG (EXP(1), value)
SQL> select ln(3), log(exp(1),3) from dual;
LN(3) LOG(EXP(1),3)
------- -----------------
1.09861229 1.09861229
J. CEIL
This will produce a whole number that is greater than
or equal to the specified value.
Syntax:
ceil (value)
Ex:
SQL> select ceil(5), ceil(5.1), ceil(-5), ceil( -5.1),
ceil(0), ceil(null) from dual;
CEIL(5) CEIL(5.1) CEIL(-5) CEIL(-5.1)
CEIL(0) CEIL(NULL)
------- --------- -------- ---------- -----
-- ----------
5 6 -5 -5 0
K. FLOOR
This will produce a whole number that is less than or
equal to the specified value.
Syntax:
floor (value)
Ex:
SQL> select floor(5), floor(5.1), floor(-5), floor( -
5.1), floor(0), floor(null) from dual;
FLOOR(5) FLOOR(5.1) FLOOR(-5) FLOOR(-5.1)
FLOOR(0) FLOOR(NULL)
-------- ---------- -------- ----------- --
------- -----------
5 5 -5 -6
0
L. ROUND
This will rounds numbers to a given number of digits
of precision.
Syntax:
round (value, precision)
Ex:
SQL> select round(123.2345), round(123.2345,2),
round(123.2354,2) from dual;
ROUND(123.2345) ROUND(123.2345,0)
ROUND(123.2345,2) ROUND(123.2354,2)
--------------- ----------------- -----------
------ -----------------
123 123 123.23
123.24
SQL> select round(123.2345,-1), round(123.2345,-
2), round(123.2345,-3), round(123.2345,-4) from
dual;
ROUND(123.2345,-1) ROUND(123.2345,-2)
ROUND(123.2345,-3) ROUND(123.2345,-4)
------------------ ------------------ --------
---------- ------------------
120 100 0
0
SQL> select round(123,0), round(123,1),
round(123,2) from dual;
ROUND(123,0) ROUND(123,1) ROUND(123,2)
----------- ------------ ------------
123 123 123
SQL> select round(-123,0), round(-123,1), round(-
123,2) from dual;
ROUND(-123,0) ROUND(-123,1) ROUND(-123,2)
------------ ------------- -------------
-123 -123 -123
SQL> select round(123,-1), round(123,-2),
round(123,-3), round(-123,-1), round(-123,- 2),
round(-123,-3) from dual;
ROUND(123,-1) ROUND(123,-2) ROUND(123,-3)
ROUND(-123,-1) ROUND(-123,-2) ROUND(-123,-3)
------------- ------------- ------------- ----
---------- -------------- --------------
120 100 0 -
120 -100 0
SQL> select round(null,null), round(0,0),
round(1,1), round(-1,-1), round(-2,-2) from dual;
ROUND(NULL,NULL) ROUND(0,0) ROUND(1,1) ROUND(-
1,-1) ROUND(-2,-2)
---------------- ---------- ---------- -------
----- ------------
0 1 0
0
M. TRUNC
This will truncates or chops off digits of precision
from a number.
Syntax:
trunc (value, precision)
Ex:
SQL> select trunc(123.2345), trunc(123.2345,2),
trunc(123.2354,2) from dual;
TRUNC(123.2345) TRUNC(123.2345,2)
TRUNC(123.2354,2)
--------------- ----------------- ------------
-----
123 123.23 123.23
SQL> select trunc(123.2345,-1), trunc(123.2345,-2),
trunc(123.2345,-3), trunc(123.2345,-4) from dual;
TRUNC(123.2345,-1) TRUNC(123.2345,-2)
TRUNC(123.2345,-3) TRUNC(123.2345,-4)
------------------ ------------------ --------
---------- ------------------
120 100 0
0
SQL> select trunc(123,0), trunc(123,1),
trunc(123,2) from dual;
TRUNC(123,0) TRUNC(123,1) TRUNC(123,2)
------------ ------------ -----------
123 123 123
SQL> select trunc(-123,0), trunc(-123,1), trunc(-
123,2) from dual;
TRUNC(-123,0) TRUNC(-123,1) TRUNC(-123,2)
------------- ------------- -------------
-123 -123 -123
SQL> select trunc(123,-1), trunc(123,-2),
trunc(123,-3), trunc(-123,-1), trunc(-123,2), trunc(-
123,-3) from dual;
TRUNC(123,-1) TRUNC(123,-2) TRUNC(123,-3)
TRUNC(-123,-1) TRUNC(-123,2) TRUNC(-123,-3)
------------- ------------- ------------- ----
---------- ------------- --------------
120 100 0
-120 -123 0
SQL> select trunc(null,null), trunc(0,0), trunc(1,1),
trunc(-1,-1), trunc(-2,-2) from dual;
TRUNC(NULL,NULL) TRUNC(0,0) TRUNC(1,1) TRUNC(-
1,-1) TRUNC(-2,-2)
---------------- ---------- ---------- -------
----- ----------------
0 1 0
0
N. BITAND
This will perform bitwise and operation.
Syntax:
bitand (value1, value2)
Ex:
SQL> select bitand(2,3), bitand(0,0), bitand(1,1),
bitand(null,null), bitand(-2,-3) from dual;
BITAND(2,3) BITAND(0,0) BITAND(1,1)
BITAND(NULL,NULL) BITAND(-2,-3)
----------- ---------- ----------- --------
-------- -------------
2 0 1
-4
O. GREATEST
This will give the greatest number.
Syntax:
greatest (value1, value2, value3 ... valuen)
Ex:
SQL> select greatest(1, 2, 3), greatest(-1, -2, -3)
from dual;
GREATEST(1,2,3) GREATEST(-1,-2,-3)
--------------- ------------------
3 -1
o If all the values are zeros then it will display
zero.
o If all the parameters are nulls then it will display
nothing.
o If any of the parameters is null it will display
nothing.
P. LEAST
This will give the least number.
Syntax:
least (value1, value2, value3 ... valuen)
Ex:
SQL> select least(1, 2, 3), least(-1, -2, -3) from
dual;
LEAST(1,2,3) LEAST(-1,-2,-3)
------------ ---------------
1 -3
o If all the values are zeros then it will display
zero.
o If all the parameters are nulls then it will display
nothing.
If any of the parameters is null it will display
o
nothing.
Q. COALESCE
This will return first non-null value.
Syntax:
coalesce (value1, value2, value3 ... valuen)
Ex:
SQL> select coalesce(1,2,3), coalesce(null,2,null,5)
from dual;
COALESCE(1,2,3) COALESCE(NULL,2,NULL,5)
--------------- -----------------------
1 2
STRING FUNCTIONS
• Initcap
• Upper
• Lower
• Length
• Rpad
• Lpad
• Ltrim
• Rtrim
• Trim
• Translate
• Replace
• Soundex
• Concat ( ' || ' Concatenation operator)
• Ascii
• Chr
• Substr
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• Instr
• Decode
• Greatest
• Least
• Coalesce
A. INITCAP
This will capitalize the initial letter of the string.
Syntax:
initcap (string)
Ex:
SQL> select initcap('computer') from dual;
INITCAP
--------
Computer
B. UPPER
This will convert the string into uppercase.
Syntax:
upper (string)
Ex:
SQL> select upper('computer') from dual;
UPPER
---------
COMPUTER
C. LOWER
This will convert the string into lowercase.
Syntax:
lower (string)
Ex:
SQL> select lower('COMPUTER') from dual;
LOWER
---------
computer
D. LENGTH
This will give length of the string.
Syntax:
length (string)
Ex:
SQL> select length('computer') from dual;
LENGTH
-------
8
E. RPAD
This will allows you to pad the right side of a column
with any set of characters.
Syntax:
rpad (string, length [, padding_char])
Ex:
SQL> select rpad('computer',15,'*'),
rpad('computer',15,'*#') from dual;
RPAD('COMPUTER' RPAD('COMPUTER'
--------------- ----------------
computer******* computer*#*#*#*
-- Default padding character was blank space.
F. LPAD
This will allows you to pad the left side of a column
with any set of characters.
Syntax:
lpad (string, length [, padding_char])
Ex:
SQL> select lpad('computer',15,'*'),
lpad('computer',15,'*#') from dual;
LPAD('COMPUTER' LPAD('COMPUTER'
--------------- ------------------
*******computer *#*#*#*computer
-- Default padding character was blank space.
G. LTRIM
This will trim off unwanted characters from the left
end of string.
Syntax:
ltrim (string [,unwanted_chars])
Ex:
SQL> select ltrim('computer','co'),
ltrim('computer','com') from dual;
LTRIM( LTRIM
-------- ---------
mputer puter
SQL> select ltrim('computer','puter'),
ltrim('computer','omputer') from dual;
LTRIM('C LTRIM('C
---------- ----------
computer computer
-- If you haven't specify any unwanted characters it
will display entire string.
H. RTRIM
This will trim off unwanted characters from the right
end of string.
Syntax:
rtrim (string [, unwanted_chars])
Ex:
SQL> select rtrim('computer','er'),
rtrim('computer','ter') from dual;
RTRIM( RTRIM
-------- ---------
comput compu
SQL> select rtrim('computer','comput'),
rtrim('computer','compute') from dual;
RTRIM('C RTRIM('C
---------- ----------
computer computer
-- If you haven't specify any unwanted characters it
will display entire string.
I. TRIM
This will trim off unwanted characters from the both
sides of string.
Syntax:
trim (unwanted_chars from string)
Ex:
SQL> select trim( 'i' from 'indiani') from dual;
TRIM(
-----
ndian
SQL> select trim( leading'i' from 'indiani') from
dual; -- this will work as LTRIM
TRIM(L
------
ndiani
SQL> select trim( trailing'i' from 'indiani') from
dual; -- this will work as RTRIM
TRIM(T
------
Indian
J. TRANSLATE
This will replace the set of characters, character by
character.
Syntax:
translate (string, old_chars, new_chars)
Ex:
SQL> select translate('india','in','xy') from dual;
TRANS
--------
xydxa
K. REPLACE
This will replace the set of characters, string by string.
Syntax:
replace (string, old_chars [, new_chars])
Ex:
SQL> select replace('india','in','xy'),
replace('india','in') from dual;
REPLACE REPLACE
----------- -----------
Xydia dia
L. SOUNDEX
This will be used to find words that sound like other
words, exclusively used in where clause.
Syntax:
soundex (string)
Ex:
SQL> select * from emp where soundex(ename) =
soundex('SMIT');
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE
SAL DEPTNO
----- ------ ----- ---- ------------
----- --------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80
500 20
M. CONCAT
This will be used to combine two strings only.
Syntax:
concat (string1, string2)
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Ex:
SQL> select concat('computer',' operator') from
dual;
CONCAT('COMPUTER'
------------------
computer operator
If you want to combine more than two strings you
have to use concatenation operator (||).
SQL> select 'how' || ' are' || ' you' from dual;
'HOW'||'ARE
------------
how are you
N. ASCII
This will return the decimal representation in the
database character set of the first character of the
string.
Syntax:
ascii (string)
Ex:
SQL> select ascii('a'), ascii('apple') from dual;
ASCII('A') ASCII('APPLE')
------------ ------------
97 97
O. CHR
This will return the character having the binary
equivalent to the string in either the database character
set or the national character set.
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Syntax:
chr (number)
Ex:
SQL> select chr(97) from dual;
CHR
-----
a
P. SUBSTR
This will be used to extract substrings.
Syntax:
substr (string, start_chr_count [, no_of_chars])
Ex:
SQL> select substr('computer',2),
substr('computer',2,5), substr('computer',3,7)
from dual;
SUBSTR( SUBST SUBSTR
-------- ------- --------
omputer omput mputer
o If no_of_chars parameter is negative then it will
display nothing.
o If both parameters except string are null or zeros
then it will display nothing.
o If no_of_chars parameter is greater than the
length of the string then it ignores and calculates
based on the orginal string length.
o If start_chr_count is negative then it will extract
the substring from right end.
12 3 4 5 6 7 8
CO M P U T E R
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
Q. INSTR
This will allows you for searching through a string for
set of characters.
Syntax:
instr (string, search_str [, start_chr_count [,
occurrence] ])
Ex:
SQL> select instr('information','o',4,1),
instr('information','o',4,2) from dual;
INSTR('INFORMATION','O',4,1)
INSTR('INFORMATION','O',4,2)
--------------------------- --------
--------------------
4
10
o If you are not specifying start_chr_count and
occurrence then it will start search from the
beginning and finds first occurrence only.
o If both parameters start_chr_count and
occurrence are null, it will display nothing.
R. DECODE
Decode will act as value by value substitution. For
every value of field, it will checks for a match in a
series of if/then tests.
Syntax:
decode (value, if1, then1, if2, then2, ....... else);
Ex:
SQL> select sal,
decode(sal,500,'Low',5000,'High','Medium') from
emp;
SAL DECODE
----- ---------
500 Low
2500 Medium
2000 Medium
3500 Medium
3000 Medium
5000 High
4000 Medium
5000 High
1800 Medium
1200 Medium
2000 Medium
2700 Medium
2200 Medium
3200 Medium
SQL> select decode(1,1,3), decode(1,2,3,4,4,6) from
dual;
DECODE(1,1,3) DECODE(1,2,3,4,4,6)
----------------- ------------------------
3 6
o If the number of parameters are odd and different
then decode will display nothing.
o If the number of parameters are even and
different then decode will display last value.
o If all the parameters are null then decode will
display nothing.
o If all the parameters are zeros then decode will
display zero.
S. GREATEST
This will give the greatest string.
Syntax:
greatest (strng1, string2, string3 ... stringn)
Ex:
SQL> select greatest('a', 'b', 'c'),
greatest('satish','srinu','saketh') from dual;
GREAT GREAT
------- -------
c srinu
o If all the parameters are nulls then it will display
nothing.
o If any of the parameters is null it will display
nothing.
T. LEAST
This will give the least string.
Syntax:
greatest (strng1, string2, string3 ... stringn)
Ex:
SQL> select least('a', 'b', 'c'),
least('satish','srinu','saketh') from dual;
LEAST LEAST
------- -------
a saketh
If all the parameters are nulls then it will display
o
nothing.
o If any of the parameters is null it will display
nothing.
U. COALESCE
This will gives the first non-null string.
Syntax:
coalesce (strng1, string2, string3 ... stringn)
Ex:
SQL> select coalesce('a','b','c'),
coalesce(null,'a',null,'b') from dual;
COALESCE COALESCE
----------- -----------
a a
DATE FUNCTIONS
• Sysdate
• Current_date
• Current_timestamp
• Systimestamp
• Localtimestamp
• Dbtimezone
• Sessiontimezone
• To_char
• To_date
• Add_months
• Months_between
• Next_day
• Last_day
• Extract
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• Greatest
• Least
• Round
• Trunc
• New_time
• Coalesce
Oracle default date format is DD-MON-YY.
We can change the default format to our desired format by
using the following command.
SQL> alter session set nls_date_format = 'DD-
MONTH-YYYY';
But this will expire once the session was closed.
A. SYSDATE
This will give the current date and time.
Ex:
SQL> select sysdate from dual;
SYSDATE
-----------
24-DEC-06
B. CURRENT_DATE
This will returns the current date in the session's
timezone.
Ex:
SQL> select current_date from dual;
CURRENT_DATE
------------------
24-DEC-06
C. CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
This will returns the current timestamp with the active
time zone information.
Ex:
SQL> select current_timestamp from dual;
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
-----------------------------------------
24-DEC-06 03.42.41.383369 AM +05:30
D. SYSTIMESTAMP
This will returns the system date, including fractional
seconds and time zone of the database.
Ex:
SQL> select systimestamp from dual;
SYSTIMESTAMP
------------------------------------
24-DEC-06 03.49.31.830099 AM +05:30
E. LOCALTIMESTAMP
This will returns local timestamp in the active time
zone information, with no time zone information
shown.
Ex:
SQL> select localtimestamp from dual;
LOCALTIMESTAMP
-----------------------------
24-DEC-06 03.44.18.502874 AM
F. DBTIMEZONE
This will returns the current database time zone in
UTC format. (Coordinated Universal Time)
Ex:
SQL> select dbtimezone from dual;
DBTIMEZONE
---------------
-07:00
G. SESSIONTIMEZONE
This will returns the value of the current session's
time zone.
Ex:
SQL> select sessiontimezone from dual;
SESSIONTIMEZONE
----------------
+05:30
H. TO_CHAR
This will be used to extract various date formats. The
available date formats as follows.
Syntax:
to_char (date, format)
DATE FORMATS
D -- No of days in week
DD -- No of days in month
DDD -- No of days in year
MM -- No of month
MON -- Three letter abbreviation of
month
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MONTH -- Fully spelled out month
RM -- Roman numeral month
DY -- Three letter abbreviated day
DAY -- Fully spelled out day
Y -- Last one digit of the year
YY -- Last two digits of the year
YYY -- Last three digits of the year
YYYY -- Full four digit year
SYYYY -- Signed year
I -- One digit year from ISO
standard
IY -- Two digit year from ISO
standard
IYY -- Three digit year from ISO
standard
IYYY -- Four digit year from ISO
standard
Y, YYY -- Year with comma
YEAR -- Fully spelled out year
CC -- Century
Q -- No of quarters
W -- No of weeks in month
WW -- No of weeks in year
IW -- No of weeks in year from ISO
standard
HH -- Hours
MI -- Minutes
SS -- Seconds
FF -- Fractional seconds
AM or PM -- Displays AM or PM depending
upon time of day
A.M or P.M -- Displays A.M or P.M depending
upon time of day
AD or BC -- Displays AD or BC depending
upon the date
A.D or B.C -- Displays AD or BC depending
upon the date
FM -- Prefix to month or day,
suppresses padding of month or day
TH -- Suffix to a number
SP -- suffix to a number to be
spelled out
SPTH -- Suffix combination of TH and
SP to be both spelled out
THSP -- same as SPTH
Ex:
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'dd month yyyy
hh:mi:ss am dy') from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD MONTH YYYYHH:MI
------------------------------------
24 december 2006 02:03:23 pm sun
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'dd month year')
from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDMONTHYEAR')
-------------------------------
24 december two thousand six
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'dd fmmonth year')
from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD FMMONTH YEAR')
----------------------------------
24 december two thousand six
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'ddth DDTH') from
dual;
TO_CHAR(S
------------
24th 24TH
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'ddspth DDSPTH')
from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDSPTHDDSPTH
-----------------------------
twenty-fourth TWENTY-FOURTH
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'ddsp Ddsp DDSP ')
from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDSPDDSPDDSP')
------------------------------------
twenty-four Twenty-Four TWENTY-FOUR
I. TO_DATE
This will be used to convert the string into data
format.
Syntax:
to_date (date)
Ex:
SQL> select
to_char(to_date('24/dec/2006','dd/mon/yyyy'), 'dd
* month * day') from dual;
TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('24/DEC/20
--------------------------
24 * december * Sunday
-- If you are not using to_char oracle will display
output in default date format.
J. ADD_MONTHS
This will add the specified months to the given date.
Syntax:
add_months (date, no_of_months)
Ex:
SQL> select add_months(to_date('11-jan-
1990','dd-mon-yyyy'), 5) from dual;
ADD_MONTHS
-----------
11-JUN-90
SQL> select add_months(to_date('11-jan-
1990','dd-mon-yyyy'), -5) from dual;
ADD_MONTH
----------
11-AUG-89
o If no_of_months is zero then it will display the
same date.
o If no_of_months is null then it will display
nothing.
K. MONTHS_BETWEEN
This will give difference of months between two
dates.
Syntax:
months_between (date1, date2)
Ex:
SQL> select months_between(to_date('11-aug-
1990','dd-mon-yyyy'), to_date('11-jan- 1990','dd-
mon-yyyy')) from dual;
MONTHS_BETWEEN(TO_DATE('11-AUG-1990','DD-MON-
YYYY'),TO_DATE('11-JAN-1990','DD-MON-YYYY'))
----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
7
SQL> select months_between(to_date('11-jan-
1990','dd-mon-yyyy'), to_date('11-aug- 1990','dd-
mon-yyyy')) from dual;
MONTHS_BETWEEN(TO_DATE('11-JAN-1990','DD-MON-
YYYY'),TO_DATE('11-AUG-1990','DD-MON-YYYY'))
----------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------
-7
L. NEXT_DAY
This will produce next day of the given day from the
specified date.
Syntax:
next_day (date, day)
Ex:
SQL> select next_day(to_date('24-dec-2006','dd-
mon-yyyy'),'sun') from dual;
NEXT_DAY(
----------
31-DEC-06
-- If the day parameter is null then it will display
nothing.
M. LAST_DAY
This will produce last day of the given date.
Syntax:
last_day (date)
Ex:
SQL> select last_day(to_date('24-dec-2006','dd-
mon-yyyy'),'sun') from dual;
LAST_DAY(
----------
31-DEC-06
N. EXTRACT
This is used to extract a portion of the date value.
Syntax:
extract ((year | month | day | hour | minute |
second), date)
Ex:
SQL> select extract(year from sysdate) from dual;
EXTRACT(YEARFROMSYSDATE)
------------------------
2006
-- You can extract only one value at a time.
O. GREATEST
This will give the greatest date.
Syntax:
greatest (date1, date2, date3 ... daten)
Ex:
SQL> select greatest(to_date('11-jan-90','dd-mon-
yy'),to_date('11-mar-90','dd-mon- yy'),to_date('11-
apr-90','dd-mon-yy')) from dual;
GREATEST(
-----------
11-APR-90
P. LEAST
This will give the least date.
Syntax:
least (date1, date2, date3 ... daten)
Ex:
SQL> select least(to_date('11-jan-90','dd-mon-
yy'),to_date('11-mar-90','dd-mon- yy'),to_date('11-
apr-90','dd-mon-yy')) from dual;
LEAST(
-----------
11-JAN-90
Q. ROUND
Round will rounds the date to which it was equal to or
greater than the given date.
Syntax:
round (date, (day | month | year))
If the second parameter was year then round will
checks the month of the given date in the following
ranges.
JAN -- JUN
JUL -- DEC
If the month falls between JAN and JUN then it
returns the first day of the current year. If the month
falls between JUL and DEC then it returns the first
day of the next year.
If the second parameter was month then round will
checks the day of the given date in the following
ranges.
1 -- 15
16 -- 31
If the day falls between 1 and 15 then it returns the
first day of the current month. If the day falls between
16 and 31 then it returns the first day of the next
month.
If the second parameter was day then round will
checks the week day of the given date in the following
ranges.
SUN -- WED
THU -- SUN
If the week day falls between SUN and WED then it
returns the previous sunday.
If the weekday falls between THU and SUN then it
returns the next sunday.
o If the second parameter was null then it returns
nothing.
o If the you are not specifying the second
parameter then round will resets the time to the
begining of the current day in case of user
specified date.
o If the you are not specifying the second
parameter then round will resets the time to the
begining of the next day in case of sysdate.
Ex:
SQL> select round(to_date('24-dec-04','dd-mon-
yy'),'year'), round(to_date('11-mar- 06','dd-mon-
yy'),'year') from dual;
ROUND(TO_ ROUND(TO_
------------ ---------------
01-JAN-05 01-JAN-06
SQL> select round(to_date('11-jan-04','dd-mon-
yy'),'month'), round(to_date('18-jan- 04','dd-mon-
yy'),'month') from dual;
ROUND(TO_ ROUND(TO_
------------- ---------------
01-JAN-04 01-FEB-04
SQL> select round(to_date('26-dec-06','dd-mon-
yy'),'day'), round(to_date('29-dec- 06','dd-mon-
yy'),'day') from dual;
ROUND(TO_ ROUND(TO_
-------------- --------------
24-DEC-06 31-DEC-06
SQL> select to_char(round(to_date('24-dec-
06','dd-mon-yy')), 'dd mon yyyy hh:mi:ss am')
from dual;
TO_CHAR(ROUND(TO_DATE('
------------------------
24 dec 2006 12:00:00 am
R. TRUNC
Trunc will chops off the date to which it was equal to
or less than the given date.
Syntax:
trunc (date, (day | month | year))
o If the second parameter was year then it always
returns the first day of the current year.
o If the second parameter was month then it always
returns the first day of the current month.
o If the second parameter was day then it always
returns the previous sunday.
o If the second parameter was null then it returns
nothing.
o If the you are not specifying the second
parameter then trunk will resets the time to the
begining of the current day.
Ex:
SQL> select trunc(to_date('24-dec-04','dd-mon-
yy'),'year'), trunc(to_date('11-mar- 06','dd-mon-
yy'),'year') from dual;
TRUNC(TO_ TRUNC(TO_
------------- ------------
01-JAN-04 01-JAN-06
SQL> select trunc(to_date('11-jan-04','dd-mon-
yy'),'month'), trunc(to_date('18-jan- 04','dd-mon-
yy'),'month') from dual;
TRUNC(TO_ TRUNC(TO_
------------- ------------
01-JAN-04 01-JAN-04
SQL> select trunc(to_date('26-dec-06','dd-mon-
yy'),'day'), trunc(to_date('29-dec-06','dd- mon-
yy'),'day') from dual;
TRUNC(TO_ TRUNC(TO_
------------- --------
24-DEC-06 24-DEC-06
SQL> select to_char(trunc(to_date('24-dec-06','dd-
mon-yy')), 'dd mon yyyy hh:mi:ss am') from dual;
TO_CHAR(TRUNC(TO_DATE('
------------------------
24 dec 2006 12:00:00 am
S. NEW_TIME
This will give the desired timezone's date and time.
Syntax:
new_time (date, current_timezone,
desired_timezone)
Available timezones are as
follows. TIMEZONES
AST/ADT -- Atlantic standard/day
light time
BST/BDT -- Bering standard/day
light time
CST/CDT -- Central standard/day
light time
EST/EDT -- Eastern standard/day
light time
GMT -- Greenwich mean time
HST/HDT -- Alaska-Hawaii
standard/day light time
MST/MDT -- Mountain standard/day
light time
NST -- Newfoundland standard time
PST/PDT -- Pacific standard/day
light time
YST/YDT -- Yukon standard/day light
time
Ex:
SQL> select
to_char(new_time(sysdate,'gmt','yst'),'dd mon
yyyy hh:mi:ss am') from dual;
TO_CHAR(NEW_TIME(SYSDAT
------------------------
24 dec 2006 02:51:20 pm
SQL> select
to_char(new_time(sysdate,'gmt','est'),'dd mon
yyyy hh:mi:ss am') from dual;
TO_CHAR(NEW_TIME(SYSDAT
-----------------------
24 dec 2006 06:51:26 pm
T. COALESCE
This will give the first non-null date.
Syntax:
coalesce (date1, date2, date3 ... daten)
Ex:
SQL> select coalesce('12-jan-90','13-jan-99'),
coalesce(null,'12-jan-90','23-mar-98',null) from
dual;
COALESCE( COALESCE(
---------- ------------
12-jan-90 12-jan-90
MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS
• Uid
• User
• Vsize
• Rank
• Dense_rank
A. UID
This will returns the integer value corresponding to
the user currently logged in.
Ex:
SQL> select uid from dual;
UID
-----
319
B. USER
This will returns the login's user name.
Ex:
SQL> select user from dual;
USER
------
SAKETH
C. VSIZE
This will returns the number of bytes in the
expression.
Ex:
SQL> select vsize(123), vsize('computer'),
vsize('12-jan-90') from dual;
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VSIZE(123) VSIZE('COMPUTER') VSIZE('12-
JAN-90')
---------- ----------------- --------------
----
3 8 9
D. RANK
This will give the non-sequential ranking.
Ex:
SQL> select rownum,sal from (select sal from emp
order by sal desc);
ROWNUM SAL
---------- ----------
1 5000
2 3000
3 3000
4 2975
5 2850
6 2450
7 1600
8 1500
9 1300
10 1250
11 1250
12 1100
13 1000
14 950
15 800
SQL> select rank(2975) within group(order by sal
desc) from emp;
RANK(2975)WITHINGROUP(ORDERBYSALDESC)
------------------------------------
4
E. DENSE_RANK
This will give the sequential ranking.
Ex:
SQL> select dense_rank(2975) within group(order
by sal desc) from emp;
DENSE_RANK(2975)WITHINGROUP(ORDERBYSALDESC)
------------------------------------------
3
CONVERSION FUNCTIONS
• Bin_to_num
• Chartorowid
• Rowidtochar
• To_number
• To_char
• To_date
A. BIN_TO_NUM
This will convert the binary value to its numerical
equivalent.
Syntax:
bin_to_num( binary_bits)
Ex:
SQL> select bin_to_num(1,1,0) from dual;
BIN_TO_NUM(1,1,0)
-----------------
6
o If all the bits are zero then it produces zero.
o If all the bits are null then it produces an error.
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B. CHARTOROWID
This will convert a character string to act like an
internal oracle row identifier or rowid.
C. ROWIDTOCHAR
This will convert an internal oracle row identifier or
rowid to character string.
D. TO_NUMBER
This will convert a char or varchar to number.
E. TO_CHAR
This will convert a number or date to character string.
F. TO_DATE
This will convert a number, char or varchar to a date.
GROUP FUNCTIONS
• Sum
• Avg
• Max
• Min
• Count
Group functions will be applied on all the rows but
produces single output.
A. SUM
This will give the sum of the values of the specified
column.
Syntax:
sum (column)
Ex:
SQL> select sum(sal) from emp;
B. SUM(SAL)
C. ----------
D. 38600
E. AVG
This will give the average of the values of the
specified column.
Syntax:
avg (column)
Ex:
SQL> select avg(sal) from emp;
F. AVG(SAL)
G. ---------------
H. 2757.14286
I. MAX
This will give the maximum of the values of the
specified column.
Syntax:
max (column)
Ex:
SQL> select max(sal) from emp;
J. MAX(SAL)
K. ----------
L. 5000
M. MIN
This will give the minimum of the values of the
specified column.
Syntax:
min (column)
Ex:
SQL> select min(sal) from emp;
N. MIN(SAL)
O. ----------
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P. 500
Q. COUNT
This will give the count of the values of the specified
column.
Syntax:
count (column)
Ex:
SQL> select count(sal),count(*) from emp;
R. COUNT(SAL) COUNT(*)
S. -------------- ------------
T. 14 14
CONSTRAINTS
Constraints are categorized as follows.
• Domain integrity constraints
o Not null
o Check
• Entity integrity constraints
o Unique
o Primary key
• Referential integrity constraints
o Foreign key
Constraints are always attached to a column not a table.
We can add constraints in three ways.
• Column level -- along with the column definition
• Table level -- after the table definition
• Alter level -- using alter command
While adding constraints you need not specify the name
but the type only, oracle will internally name the
constraint.
If you want to give a name to the constraint, you have to
use the constraint clause.
NOT NULL
This is used to avoid null values.
We can add this constraint in column level only.
Ex:
SQL> create table student(no number(2) not null,
name varchar(10), marks number(3));
SQL> create table student(no number(2) constraint nn
not null, name varchar(10), marks number(3));
CHECK
This is used to insert the values based on specified
condition.
We can add this constraint in all three levels.
Ex:
COLUMN LEVEL
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name
varchar(10), marks number(3) check (marks > 300));
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name
varchar(10), marks number(3) constraint ch
check(marks > 300));
TABLE LEVEL
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name
varchar(10), marks number(3), check (marks > 300));
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name
varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint ch
check(marks > 300));
ALTER LEVEL
SQL> alter table student add check(marks>300);
SQL> alter table student add constraint ch
check(marks>300);
UNIQUE
This is used to avoid duplicates but it allow nulls.
We can add this constraint in all three levels.
Ex:
COLUMN LEVEL
SQL> create table student(no number(2) unique, name
varchar(10), marks number(3));
SQL> create table student(no number(2) constraint un
unique, name varchar(10), marks number(3));
TABLE LEVEL
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name
varchar(10), marks number(3), unique(no));
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name
varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint un
unique(no));
ALTER LEVEL
SQL> alter table student add unique(no);
SQL> alter table student add constraint un unique(no);
PRIMARY KEY
This is used to avoid duplicates and nulls. This will work
as combination of unique and not null. Primary key always
attached to the parent table. We can add this constraint in
all three levels.
Ex:
COLUMN LEVEL
SQL> create table student(no number(2) primary key,
name varchar(10), marks number(3));
SQL> create table student(no number(2) constraint pk
primary key, name varchar(10), marks number(3));
TABLE LEVEL
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name
varchar(10), marks number(3), primary key(no));
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name
varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint pk primary
key(no));
ALTER LEVEL
SQL> alter table student add primary key(no);
SQL> alter table student add constraint pk primary
key(no);
FOREIGN KEY
This is used to reference the parent table primary key
column which allows duplicates. Foreign key always
attached to the child table. We can add this constraint in
table and alter levels only.
Ex:
TABLE LEVEL
SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename
varchar(10), deptno number(2), primary key(empno),
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foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno));
SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename
varchar(10), deptno number(2), constraint pk primary
key(empno), constraint fk foreign key(deptno) references
dept(deptno));
ALTER LEVEL
SQL> alter table emp add foreign key(deptno) references
dept(deptno);
SQL> alter table emp add constraint fk foreign
key(deptno) references dept(deptno);
Once the primary key and foreign key relationship has
been created then you can not remove any parent record if
the dependent childs exists.
USING ON DELTE CASCADE
By using this clause you can remove the parent record
even it childs exists. Because when ever you remove
parent record oracle automatically removes all its
dependent records from child table, if this clause is present
while creating foreign key constraint.
Ex:
TABLE LEVEL
SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename
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varchar(10), deptno number(2), primary key(empno),
foreign key(deptno) references dept(deptno) on delete
cascade);
SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename
varchar(10), deptno number(2), constraint pk primary
key(empno), constraint fk foreign key(deptno)
references dept(deptno) on delete cascade);
ALTER LEVEL
SQL> alter table emp add foreign key(deptno)
references dept(deptno) on delete cascade;
SQL> alter table emp add constraint fk foreign
key(deptno) references dept(deptno) on delete cascade;
COMPOSITE KEYS
A composite key can be defined on a combination of
columns. We can define composite keys on entity integrity
and referential integrity constraints. Composite key can be
defined in table and alter levels only.
Ex:
UNIQUE (TABLE LEVEL)
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name
varchar(10), marks number(3), unique(no,name));
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name
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varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint un
unique(no,name));
UNIQUE (ALTER LEVEL)
SQL> alter table student add unique(no,name);
SQL> alter table student add constraint un
unique(no,name);
PRIMARY KEY (TABLE LEVEL)
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name
varchar(10), marks number(3), primary
key(no,name));
SQL> create table student(no number(2) , name
varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint pk primary
key(no,name));
PRIMARY KEY (ALTER LEVEL)
SQL> alter table student add primary key(no,anme);
SQL> alter table student add constraint pk primary
key(no,name);
FOREIGN KEY (TABLE LEVEL)
SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename
varchar(10), deptno number(2), dname varchar(10),
primary key(empno), foreign key(deptno,dname)
references dept(deptno,dname));
SQL> create table emp(empno number(2), ename
varchar(10), deptno number(2), dname varchar(10),
constraint pk primary key(empno), constraint fk
foreign key(deptno,dname) references
dept(deptno,dname));
FOREIGN KEY (ALTER LEVEL)
SQL> alter table emp add foreign key(deptno,dname)
references dept(deptno,dname);
SQL> alter table emp add constraint fk foreign
key(deptno,dname) references dept(deptno,dname);
DEFERRABLE CONSTRAINTS
Each constraint has two additional attributes to support
deferred checking of constraints.
• Deferred initially immediate
• Deferred initially deferred
Deferred initially immediate checks for constraint
violation at the time of insert.
Deferred initially deferred checks for constraint violation
at the time of commit.
Ex:
SQL> create table student(no number(2), name
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varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint un
unique(no) deferred initially immediate);
SQL> create table student(no number(2), name
varchar(10), marks number(3), constraint un
unique(no) deferred initially deferred);
SQL> alter table student add constraint un unique(no)
deferrable initially deferred;
SQL> set constraints all immediate;
This will enable all the constraints violations at the time of
inserting.
SQL> set constraints all deferred;
This will enable all the constraints violations at the time of
commit.
OPERATIONS WITH CONSTRAINTS
Possible operations with constraints as follows.
• Enable
• Disable
• Enforce
• Drop
ENABLE
This will enable the constraint. Before enable, the
constraint will check the existing data.
Ex:
SQL> alter table student enable constraint un;
DISABLE
This will disable the constraint.
Ex:
SQL> alter table student enable constraint un;
ENFORCE
This will enforce the constraint rather than enable for
future inserts or updates.
This will not check for existing data while enforcing data.
Ex:
SQL> alter table student enforce constraint un;
DROP
This will remove the constraint.
Ex:
SQL> alter table student drop constraint un;
Once the table is dropped, constraints automatically will
drop.
CASE AND DEFAULT
CASE
Case is similar to decode but easier to understand while
going through coding
Ex:
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SQL> Select sal, Case sal When 500 then 'low' When
5000 then 'high' Else 'medium' End case From emp;
SAL CASE
----- --------
500 low
2500 medium
2000 medium
3500 medium
3000 medium
5000 high
4000 medium
5000 high
1800 medium
1200 medium
2000 medium
2700 medium
2200 medium
3200 medium
DEFAULT
Default can be considered as a substitute behavior of not
null constraint when applied to new rows being entered
into the table.
When you define a column with the default keyword
followed by a value, you are actually telling the database
that, on insert if a row was not assigned a value for this
column, use the default value that you have specified.
Default is applied only during insertion of new rows.
Ex:
SQL> create table student(no number(2) default 11,name
varchar(2));
SQL> insert into student values(1,'a');
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SQL> insert into student(name) values('b');
SQL> select * from student;
NO NAME
------ ---------
1 a
11 b
SQL> insert into student values(null, 'c');
SQL> select * from student;
NO NAME
------ ---------
1 a
11 b
C -- Default can not override nulls.
ABSTRACT DATA TYPES
Some times you may want type which holds all types of
data including numbers, chars and special characters
something like this. You can not achieve this using pre-
defined types.
You can define custom types which holds your desired
data.
Ex:
Suppose in a table we have address column which holds
hno and city information.
We will define a custom type which holds both numeric as
well as char data.
CREATING ADT
SQL> create type addr as object(hno number(3),city
varchar(10)); /
CREATING TABLE BASED ON ADT
SQL> create table student(no number(2),name
varchar(2),address addr);
INSERTING DATA INTO ADT TABLES
SQL> insert into student values(1,'a',addr(111,'hyd'));
SQL> insert into student values(2,'b',addr(222,'bang'));
SQL> insert into student values(3,'c',addr(333,'delhi'));
SELECTING DATA FROM ADT TABLES
SQL> select * from student;
NO NAME ADDRESS(HNO, CITY)
--- ---- --------------------
1 a ADDR(111, 'hyd')
2 b ADDR(222, 'bang')
3 c ADDR(333, 'delhi')
SQL> select no,name,s.address.hno,s.address.city from
student s;
NO NAME ADDRESS.HNO ADDRESS.CITY
-- ---- --------- ------------
1 a 111 hyd
2 b 222 bang
3 c 333 delhi
UPDATE WITH ADT TABLES
SQL> update student s set s.address.city = 'bombay' where
s.address.hno = 333;
SQL> select no,name,s.address.hno,s.address.city from
student s;
NO NAME ADDRESS.HNO ADDRESS.CITY
--- ------ ------- ----------------
1 a 111 hyd
2 b 222 bang
3 c 333 bombay
DELETE WITH ADT TABLES
SQL> delete student s where s.address.hno = 111;
SQL> select no,name,s.address.hno,s.address.city from
student s;
NO NAME ADDRESS.HNO ADDRESS.CITY
-- ---- ------------ ----------------
2 b 222 bang
3 c 333 bombay
DROPPING ADT
SQL> drop type addr;
OBJECT VIEWS AND METHODS
OBJECT VIEWS
If you want to implement objects with the existing table,
object views come into picture.
You define the object and create a view which relates this
object to the existing table nothing but object view.
Object views are used to relate the user defined objects to
the existing table.
Ex:
1. Assume that the table student has already been created
with the following columns
SQL> create table student(no number(2),name
varchar(10),hno number(3),city varchar(10));
2. Create the following types
SQL> create type addr as object(hno
number(2),city varchar(10));/
SQL> create type stud as object(name
varchar(10),address addr);/
3. Relate the objects to the student table by creating the
object view
SQL> create view student_ov(no,stud_info) as
select no,stud(name,addr(hno,city)) from student;
4. Now you can insert data into student table in two
ways
a. By regular insert
SQL> Insert into student
values(1,'sudha',111,'hyd');
b. By using object view
SQL> Insert into student_ov
values(1,stud('sudha',addr(111,'hyd')));
METHODS
You can define methods which are nothing but functions in
types and apply in the tables which holds the types;
Ex:
1. Defining methods in types
SQL> Create type stud as object(name
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varchar(10),marks number(3), Member function
makrs_f(marks in number) return number, Pragma
restrict_references(marks_f,wnds,rnds,wnps,fnps));/
2. Defining type body
SQL> Create type body stud as Member function
marks_f(marks in number) return number is Begin
Return (marks+100); End marks_f; End;/
3. Create a table using stud type
SQL> Create table student(no number(2),info stud);
4. Insert some data into student table
SQL> Insert into student values(1,stud('sudha',100));
5. Using method in select
SQL> Select s.info.marks_f(s.info.marks) from
student s;
-- Here we are using the pragma restrict_references to
avoid the writes to the database.
VARRAYS AND NESTED TABLES
VARRAYS
A varying array allows you to store repeating attributes of
a record in a single row but with limit.
Ex:
1. We can create varrays using oracle types as well as
user defined types.
a. Varray using pre-defined types
SQL> Create type va as varray(5) of
varchar(10);/
b. Varrays using user defined types
SQL> Create type addr as object(hno
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number(3),city varchar(10));/
SQL> Create type va as varray(5) of addr;/
2. Using varray in table
SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name
varchar(10),address va);
3. Inserting values into varray table
SQL> Insert into student
values(1,'sudha',va(addr(111,'hyd')));
SQL> Insert into student
values(2,'jagan',va(addr(111,'hyd'),addr(222,'bang')));
4. Selecting data from varray table
SQL> Select * from student;
-- This will display varray column data along with
varray and adt;
SQL> Select no,name, s.* from student s1,
table(s1.address) s; -- This will display in general
format
5. Instead of s.* you can specify the columns in varray
SQL> Select no,name, s.hno,s.city from student
s1,table(s1.address) s; -- Update and delete not
possible in varrays.
-- Here we used table function which will take the
varray column as input for producing output
excluding varray and types.
NESTED TABLES
A nested table is, as its name implies, a table within a
table.
In this case it is a table that is represented as a column
within another table.
Nested table has the same effect of varrays but has no
limit.
Ex:
1. We can create nested tables using oracle types and
user defined types which has no limit
a. Nested tables using pre-defined types
SQL> Create type nt as table of varchar(10);/
b. Nested tables using user defined types
SQL> Create type addr as object(hno
number(3),city varchar(10));/
SQL> Create type nt as table of addr;/
2. Using nested table in table
SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name
varchar(10),address nt) nested table address store as
student_temp;
3. Inserting values into table which has nested table
SQL> Insert into student values
(1,'sudha',nt(addr(111,'hyd')));
SQL> Insert into student values
(2,'jagan',nt(addr(111,'hyd'),addr(222,'bang')));
4. Selecting data from table which has nested table
SQL> Select * from student;
-- This will display nested table column data along
with nested table and adt;
SQL> Select no,name, s.* from student s1,
table(s1.address) s;
-- This will display in general format
5. Instead of s.* you can specify the columns in nested
table
SQL> Select no,name, s.hno,s.city from student
s1,table(s1.address) s;
6. Inserting nested table data to the existing row
SQL> Insert into table(select address from student
where no=1) values(addr(555,'chennai'));
7. Update in nested tables
SQL> Update table(select address from student where
no=2) s set s.city='bombay' where s.hno = 222;
8. Delete in nested table
SQL> Delete table(select address from student where
no=3) s where s.hno=333;
DATA MODEL
• ALL_COLL_TYPES
• ALL_TYPES
• DBA_COLL_TYPES
• DBA_TYPES
• USER_COLL_TYPES
• USER_TYPES
FLASHBACK QUERY
Used to retrieve the data which has been already
committed with out going for recovery. Flashbacks are of
two types
• Time base flashback
• SCN based flashback (SCN stands for System Change
Number)
Ex:
1. Using time based flashback
a. SQL> Select *from student;
-- This will display all the rows
b. SQL> Delete student;
c. SQL> Commit; -- this will commit the work.
d. SQL> Select *from student;
-- Here it will display nothing
e. Then execute the following procedures
SQL> Exec
dbms_flashback.enable_at_time(sysdate-2/1440)
f. SQL> Select *from student;
-- Here it will display the lost data
-- The lost data will come but the current system
time was used
g. SQL> Exec dbms_flashback.disable
-- Here we have to disable the flashback to
enable it again
2. Using SCN based flashback
a. Declare a variable to store SCN
SQL> Variable s number
b. Get the SCN
SQL> Exec :s := exec
dbms_flashback.get_system_change_number
c. To see the SCN
SQL> Print s
d. Then execute the following procedures
SQL> Exec
dbms_flashback.enable_at_system_change_num
ber(:s)
SQL> Exec dbms_flashback.disable
EXTERNAL TABLES
• You can user external table feature to access external
files as if they are tables inside the database.
• When you create an external table, you define its
structure and location with in oracle.
• When you query the table, oracle reads the external
table and returns the results just as if the data had been
stored with in the database.
ACCESSING EXTERNAL TABLE DATA
• To access external files from within oracle, you must
first use the create directory command to define a
directory object pointing to the external file location
• who will access the external files must have the read
and write privilege on the directory.
Ex:
CREATING DIRECTORY AND OS LEVEL FILE
SQL>
SQLplus system/manager
SQL> Create directory saketh_dir as
'/Visdb/visdb/9.2.0/external';
SQL> Grant all on directory saketh_dir to saketh;
SQL> Conn saketh/saketh
SQL> Spool dept.lst
SQL> Select deptno || ',' || dname || ',' || loc from dept;
SQL> Spool off
CREATING EXTERNAL TABLE
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SQL> Create table dept_ext (deptno number(2), Dname
varchar(14), Loc varchar(13)) Organization external ( type
oracle_loader Default directory saketh_dir Access
parameters ( records delimited by newline Fields
terminated by "," ( deptno number(2), Dname varchar(14),
Loc varchar(13))) Location ('/Visdb/visdb/9.2.0/dept.lst'));
SELECTING DATA FROM EXTERNAL TABLE
SQL> select * from dept_ext;
This will read from dept.lst which is a operating system
level file.
LIMITATIONS ON EXTERNAL TABLES
a. You can not perform insert, update, and delete
operations
b. Indexing not possible
c. Constraints not possible
BENEFITS OF EXTERNAL TABLES
a. Queries of external tables complete very quickly even
though a full table scan id required with each access
b. You can join external tables to each other or to
standard tables
REF DEREF VALUE
REF
• The ref function allows referencing of existing row
objects.
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• Each of the row objects has an object id value
assigned to it.
• The object id assigned can be seen by using ref
function.
DEREF
• The deref function performs opposite action.
• It takes a reference value of object id and returns the
value of the row objects.
VALUE
• Even though the primary table is object table, still it
displays the rows in general format.
• To display the entire structure of the object, this will
be used.
Ex:
1. create vendot_adt type
SQL> Create type vendor_adt as object (vendor_code
number(2), vendor_name varchar(2), vendor_address
varchar(10));/
2. create object tables vendors and vendors1
SQL> Create table vendors of vendor_adt;
SQL> Create table vendors1 of vendor_adt;
3. insert the data into object tables
SQL> insert into vendors values(1, 'a', 'hyd');
SQL> insert into vendors values(2, 'b', 'bang');
SQL> insert into vendors1 values(3, 'c', 'delhi');
SQL> insert into vendors1 values(4, 'd', 'chennai');
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4. create another table orders which holds the
vendor_adt type also.
SQL> Create table orders (order_no number(2),
vendor_info ref vendor_adt); Or
SQL> Create table orders (order_no number(2),
vendor_info ref vendor_adt with rowid);
5. insert the data into orders table
The vendor_info column in the following syntaxes
will store object id of any table which is referenced by
vendor_adt object ( both vendors and vendors1).
SQL> insert into orders values(11,(select ref(v) from
vendors v where vendor_code = 1));
SQL> insert into orders values(12,(select ref(v) from
vendors v where vendor_code = 2));
SQL> insert into orders values(13,(select ref(v1) from
vendors1 v1 where vendor_code = 1));
SQL> insert into orders values(14,(select ref(v1) from
vendors1 v1 where vendor_code = 1));
6. To see the object ids of vendor table
SQL> Select ref(V) from vendors v;
7. If you see the vendor_info of orders it will show only
the object ids not the values, to see the values
SQL> Select deref(o.vendor_info) from orders o;
8. Even though the vendors table is object table it will
not show the adt along with data, to see the data along
with the adt
SQL>Select * from vendors;
This will give the data without adt.
SQL>Select value(v) from vendors v;
This will give the columns data along wih the type.
REF CONSTRAINTS
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• Ref can also acts as constraint.
• Even though vendors1 also holding vendor_adt, the
orders table will store the object ids of vendors only
because it is constrained to that table only.
• The vendor_info column in the following syntaxes
will store object ids of vendors only.
SQL> Create table orders (order_no number(2),
vendor_info ref vendor_adt scope is vendors);
Or
SQL> Create table orders (order_no number(2),
vendor_info ref vendor_adt constraint fk references
vendors);
OBJECT VIEWS WITH REFERENCES
• To implement the objects and the ref constraints to the
existing tables, what we can do? Simply drop the both
tables and recreate with objects and ref constrains.
• But you can achieve this with out dropping the tables
and without losing the data by creating object views
with references.
Ex:
• Create the following tables
SQL> Create table student1(no number(2) primary
key,name varchar(2),marks number(3));
SQL> Create table student2(no number(2) primary
key,hno number(3),city varchar(10),id
number(2),foreign Key(id) references student1(no));
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• Insert the records into both tables
SQL> insert into student1(1,'a',100);
SQL> insert into student1(2,'b',200);
SQL> insert into student2(11,111,'hyd',1);
SQL> insert into student2(12,222,'bang',2);
SQL> insert into student2(13,333,'bombay',1);
• Create the type
SQL> create or replace type stud as object(no
number(2),name varchar(2),marks number(3));/
• Generating OIDs
SQL> Create or replace view student1_ov of stud
with object identifier(or id) (no) as Select * from
Student1;
• Generating references
SQL> Create or replace view student2_ov as select
no,hno,city,make_ref(student1_ov,id) id from
Student2;
• Query the following
SQL> select *from student1_ov;
SQL> select ref(s) from student1_ov s;
SQL> select values(s) from student1_ov;
SQL> select *from student2_ov;
SQL> select deref(s.id) from student2_ov s;
PARTITIONS
• A single logical table can be split into a number of
physically separate pieces based on ranges of key
values. Each of the parts of the table is called a
partition.
• A non-partitioned table can not be partitioned later.
TYPES
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• Range partitions
• List partitions
• Hash partitions
• Sub partitions
ADVANTAGES
• Reducing downtime for scheduled maintenance,
which allows maintenance operations to be carried out
on selected partitions while other partitions are
available to users.
• Reducing downtime due to data failure, failure of a
particular partition will no way affect other partitions.
• Partition independence allows for concurrent use of
the various partitions for various purposes.
ADVANTAGES OF PARTITIONS BY STORING
THEM IN DIFFERENT TABLESPACES
• Reduces the possibility of data corruption in multiple
partitions.
• Back up and recovery of each partition can be done
independently.
DISADVANTAGES
• Partitioned tables cannot contain any columns with
long or long raw datatypes, LOB types or object
types.
RANGE PARTITIONS
a. Creating range partitioned table
SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name
varchar(2)) partition by range(no) (partition p1 values
less than(10), partition p2 values less than(20),
partition p3 values less than(30),partition p4 values
less than(maxvalue));
** if you are using maxvalue for the last partition, you
can not add a partition.
b. Inserting records into range partitioned table
SQL> Insert into student values(1,'a'); -- this will go
to p1
SQL> Insert into student values(11,'b'); -- this will go
to p2
SQL> Insert into student values(21,'c'); -- this will go
to p3
SQL> Insert into student values(31,'d'); -- this will go
to p4
c. Retrieving records from range partitioned table
SQL> Select *from student;
SQL> Select *from student partition(p1);
d. Possible operations with range partitions
o Add
o Drop
o Truncate
o Rename
o Split
o Move
o Exchange
e. Adding a partition
SQL> Alter table student add partition p5 values less
than(40);
f. Dropping a partition
SQL> Alter table student drop partition p4;
g. Renaming a partition
SQL> Alter table student rename partition p3 to p6;
h. Truncate a partition
SQL> Alter table student truncate partition p6;
i. Splitting a partition
SQL> Alter table student split partition p2 at(15) into
(partition p21,partition p22);
j. Exchanging a partition
SQL> Alter table student exchange partition p1 with
table student2;
k. Moving a partition
SQL> Alter table student move partition p21
tablespace saketh_ts;
LIST PARTITIONS
1. Creating list partitioned table
SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name
varchar(2)) partition by list(no) (partition p1
values(1,2,3,4,5), partition p2
values(6,7,8,9,10),partition p3 values(11,12,13,14,15),
partition p4 values(16,17,18,19,20));
2. Inserting records into list partitioned table
SQL> Insert into student values(1,'a'); -- this will go
to p1
SQL> Insert into student values(6,'b'); -- this will go
to p2
SQL> Insert into student values(11,'c'); -- this will go
to p3
SQL> Insert into student values(16,'d'); -- this will go
to p4
3. Retrieving records from list partitioned table
SQL> Select *from student;
SQL> Select *from student partition(p1);
4. Possible operations with list partitions
o Add
o Drop
o Truncate
o Rename
o Move
o Exchange
5. Adding a partition
SQL> Alter table student add partition p5
values(21,22,23,24,25);
6. Dropping a partition
SQL> Alter table student drop partition p4;
7. Renaming a partition
SQL> Alter table student rename partition p3 to p6;
8. Truncate a partition
SQL> Alter table student truncate partition p6;
9. Exchanging a partition
SQL> Alter table student exchange partition p1 with
table student2;
10. Moving a partition
SQL> Alter table student move partition p2
tablespace saketh_ts;
HASH PARTITIONS
a. Creating hash partitioned table
SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name
varchar(2)) partition by hash(no) partitions 5;
Here oracle automatically gives partition names like
SYS_P1
SYS_P2
SYS_P3
SYS_P4
SYS_P5
b. Inserting records into hash partitioned table it will
insert the records based on hash function calculated
by taking the partition key
SQL> Insert into student values(1,'a');
SQL> Insert into student values(6,'b');
SQL> Insert into student values(11,'c');
SQL> Insert into student values(16,'d');
c. Retrieving records from hash partitioned table
SQL> Select *from student;
SQL> Select *from student partition(sys_p1);
d. Possible operations with hash partitions
o Add
o Truncate
o Rename
o Move
o Exchange
e. Adding a partition
SQL> Alter table student add partition p6 ;
f. Renaming a partition
SQL> Alter table student rename partition p6 to p7;
g. Truncate a partition
SQL> Alter table student truncate partition p7;
h. Exchanging a partition
SQL> Alter table student exchange partition sys_p1
with table student2;
i. Moving a partition
SQL> Alter table student move partition sys_p2
tablespace saketh_ts;
SUB-PARTITIONS WITH RANGE AND HASH
Subpartitions clause is used by hash only.
We can not create subpartitions with list and hash
partitions.
1. Creating subpartitioned table
SQL> Create table student(no number(2),name
varchar(2),marks number(3)) Partition by range(no)
subpartition by hash(name) subpartitions 3 (Partition
p1 values less than(10),partition p2 values less
than(20));
This will create two partitions p1 and p2 with three
subpartitions for each partition
P1 - SYS_SUBP1
SYS_SUBP2
SYS_SUBP3
P2 - SYS_SUBP4
SYS_SUBP5
SYS_SUBP6
** if you are using maxvalue for the last partition, you
can not add a partition.
2. Inserting records into subpartitioned table
SQL> Insert into student values(1,'a'); -- this will go
to p1
SQL> Insert into student values(11,'b'); -- this will go
to p2
3. Retrieving records from subpartitioned table
SQL> Select *from student;
SQL> Select *from student partition(p1);
SQL> Select *from student subpartition(sys_subp1);
4. Possible operations with subpartitions
o Add
o Drop
o Truncate
o Rename
o Split
5. Adding a partition
SQL> Alter table student add partition p3 values less
than(30);
6. Dropping a partition
SQL> Alter table student drop partition p3;
7. Renaming a partition
SQL> Alter table student rename partition p2 to p3;
8. Truncate a partition
SQL> Alter table student truncate partition p1;
9. Splitting a partition
SQL> Alter table student split partition p3 at(15) into
(partition p31,partition p32);
DATA MODEL
• ALL_IND_PARTITIONS
• ALL_IND_SUBPARTITIONS
• ALL_TAB_PARTITIONS
• ALL_TAB_SUBPARTITIONS
• DBA_IND_PARTITIONS
• DBA_IND_SUBPARTITIONS
• DBA_TAB_PARTITIONS
• DBA_TAB_SUBPARTITIONS
• USER_IND_PARTITIONS
• USER_IND_SUBPARTITIONS
• USER_TAB_PARTITIONS
• USER_TAB_SUBPARTITIONS
GROUP BY AND HAVING
GROUP BY
• Using group by, we can create groups of related
information.
• Columns used in select must be used with group by,
otherwise it was not a group by expression.
Ex:
SQL> select deptno, sum(sal) from emp group by
deptno;
DEPTNO SUM(SAL)
---------- ----------
10 8750
20 10875
30 9400
SQL> select deptno,job,sum(sal) from emp group by
deptno,job;
DEPTNO JOB SUM(SAL)
---------- --------- ----------
10 CLERK 1300
10 MANAGER 2450
10 PRESIDENT 5000
20 ANALYST 6000
20 CLERK 1900
20 MANAGER 2975
30 CLERK 950
30 MANAGER 2850
30 SALESMAN 5600
HAVING
This will work as where clause which can be used only
with group by because of absence of where clause in group
by.
Ex:
SQL> select deptno,job,sum(sal) tsal from emp group
by deptno,job having sum(sal) > 3000;
DEPTNO JOB TSAL
---------- --------- ----------
10 PRESIDENT 5000
20 ANALYST 6000
30 SALESMAN 5600
SQL> select deptno,job,sum(sal) tsal from emp group
by deptno,job having sum(sal) > 3000 order by job;
DEPTNO JOB TSAL
---------- --------- ----------
20 ANALYST 6000
10 PRESIDENT 5000
30 SALESMAN 5600
ORDER OF EXECUTION
• Group the rows together based on group by clause.
• Calculate the group functions for each group.
• Choose and eliminate the groups based on the having
clause.
• Order the groups based on the specified column.
ROLLUP GROUPING CUBE
These are the enhancements to the group by feature.
USING ROLLUP
This will give the salaries in each department in each job
category along wih the total salary fot individual
departments and the total salary of all the departments.
SQL> Select deptno,job,sum(sal) from emp group by
rollup(deptno,job);
DEPTNO JOB SUM(SAL)
---------- --------- ----------
10 CLERK 1300
10 MANAGER 2450
10 PRESIDENT 5000
10 8750
20 ANALYST 6000
20 CLERK 1900
20 MANAGER 2975
20 10875
30 CLERK 950
30 MANAGER 2850
30 SALESMAN 5600
30 9400
29025
USING GROUPING
In the above query it will give the total salary of the
individual departments but with a blank in the job column
and gives the total salary of all the departments with
blanks in deptno and job columns.
To replace these blanks with your desired string grouping
will be used
SQL> select decode(grouping(deptno),1,'All
Depts',deptno),decode(grouping(job),1,'All
jobs',job),sum(sal) from emp group by rollup(deptno,job);
DECODE(GROUPING(DEPTNO),1,'ALLDEPTS',DEP DECODE(GR
SUM(SAL)
-------------------------- -----------------------
--------------
10 CLERK
1300
10 MANAGER
2450
10 PRESIDENT
5000
10 All jobs
8750
20 ANALYST
6000
20 CLERK
1900
20 MANAGER
2975
20 All jobs
10875
30 CLERK
950
30 MANAGER
2850
30 SALESMAN
5600
30 All jobs
9400
All Depts All jobs
29025
• Grouping will return 1 if the column which is
specified in the grouping function has been used in
rollup.
• Grouping will be used in association with decode.
USING CUBE
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This will give the salaries in each department in each job
category, the total salary for individual departments, the
total salary of all the departments and the salaries in each
job category.
SQL> select decode(grouping(deptno),1,'All
Depts',deptno),decode(grouping(job),1,'All
Jobs',job),sum(sal) from emp group by cube(deptno,job);
DECODE(GROUPING(DEPTNO),1,'ALLDEPTS',DEP DECODE(GR
SUM(SAL)
------------------------- ------------------------
------------
10 CLERK
1300
10 MANAGER
2450
10 PRESIDENT
5000
10 All Jobs
8750
20 ANALYST
6000
20 CLERK
1900
20 MANAGER
2975
20 All Jobs
10875
30 CLERK
950
30 MANAGER
2850
30 SALESMAN
5600
30 All Jobs
9400
All Depts ANALYST
6000
All Depts CLERK
4150
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All Depts MANAGER
8275
All Depts PRESIDENT
5000
All Depts SALESMAN
5600
All Depts All Jobs
29025
SET OPERATORS
TYPES
• Union
• Union all
• Intersect
• Minus
UNION
This will combine the records of multiple tables having the
same structure.
Ex:
SQL> select * from student1 union select * from
student2;
UNION ALL
This will combine the records of multiple tables having the
same structure but including duplicates.
Ex:
SQL> select * from student1 union all select * from
student2;
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INTERSECT
This will give the common records of multiple tables
having the same structure.
Ex:
SQL> select * from student1 intersect select * from
student2;
MINUS
This will give the records of a table whose records are not
in other tables having the same structure.
Ex:
SQL> select * from student1 minus select * from
student2;
VIEWS
• A view is a database object that is a logical
representation of a table. It is delivered from a table
but has no storage of its own and often may be used in
the same manner as a table.
• A view takes the output of the query and treats it as a
table, therefore a view can be thought of as a stored
query or a virtual table.
TYPES
• Simple view
• Complex view
Simple view can be created from one table where as
complex view can be created from multiple tables.
WHY VIEWS?
• Provides additional level of security by restricting
access to a predetermined set of rows and/or columns
of a table.
• Hide the data complexity.
• Simplify commands for the user.
VIEWS WITHOUT DML
• Read only view
• View with group by
• View with aggregate functions
• View with rownum
• Partition view
• View with distinct
Ex:
SQL> Create view dept_v as select *from dept with read
only;
SQL> Create view dept_v as select deptno, sum(sal) t_sal
from emp group by deptno;
SQL> Create view stud as select rownum no, name, marks
from student;
SQL> Create view student as select *from student1 union
select *from student2;
SQL> Create view stud as select distinct no,name from
student;
VIEWS WITH DML
• View with not null column
-- insert with out not null column not possible
-- update not null column to null is not possible
-- delete possible
• View with out not null column which was in base
table
-- insert not possible
-- update, delete possible
• View with expression
-- insert , update not possible
-- delete possible
• View with functions (except aggregate)
-- insert, update not possible
-- delete possible
• View was created but the underlying table was
dropped then we will get the message like " view has
errors ".
• View was created but the base table has been altered
but still the view was with the initial definition, we
have to replace the view to affect the changes.
• Complex view (view with more than one table)
-- insert not possible
-- update, delete possible (not always)
CREATING VIEW WITHOUT HAVING THE BASE
TABLE
SQL> Create force view stud as select *From student;
-- Once the base table was created then the view is
validated.
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VIEW WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT
SQL> Create view stud as select *from student where
marks = 500 with check option constraint Ck;
- Insert possible with marks value as 500
- Update possible excluding marks column
- Delete possible
DROPPING VIEWS
SQL> drop view dept_v;
SYNONYM AND SEQUENCE
SYNONYM
A synonym is a database object, which is used as an alias
for a table, view or sequence.
TYPES
• Private
• Public
• Private synonym is available to the particular user
who creates.
• Public synonym is created by DBA which is available
to all the users.
ADVANTAGES
• Hide the name and owner of the object.
• Provides location transparency for remote objects of a
distributed database.
CREATE AND DROP
SQL> create synonym s1 for emp;
SQL> create public synonym s2 for emp;
SQL> drop synonym s1;
SEQUENCE
• A sequence is a database object, which can generate
unique, sequential integer values.
• It can be used to automatically generate primary key
or unique key values.
• A sequence can be either in an ascending or
descending order.
Syntax:
Create sequence <seq_name> [increment bty n] [start
with n] [maxvalue n] [minvalue n] [cycle/nocycle]
[cache/nocache];
By defalult the sequence starts with 1, increments by 1
with minvalue of 1 and with nocycle, nocache.
Cache option pre-alloocates a set of sequence numbers and
retains them in memory for faster access.
Ex:
SQL> create sequence s;
SQL> create sequence s increment by 10 start with 100
minvalue 5 maxvalue 200 cycle cache 20;
USING SEQUENCE
SQL> create table student(no number(2),name
varchar(10));
SQL> insert into student values(s.nextval, 'saketh');
• Initially currval is not defined and nextval is starting
value.
• After that nextval and currval are always equal.
CREATING ALPHA-NUMERIC SEQUENCE
SQL> create sequence s start with 111234;
SQL> Insert into student values (s.nextval || translate
(s.nextval,'1234567890','abcdefghij'));
ALTERING SEQUENCE
We can alter the sequence to perform the following.
• Set or eliminate minvalue or maxvalue.
• Change the increment value.
• Change the number of cached sequence numbers.
Ex:
SQL> alter sequence s minvalue 5;
SQL> alter sequence s increment by 2;
SQL> alter sequence s cache 10;
DROPPING SEQUENCE
SQL> drop sequence s;
JOINS
• The purpose of a join is to combine the data across
tables.
• A join is actually performed by the where clause
which combines the specified rows of tables.
• If a join involves in more than two tables then oracle
joins first two tables based on the joins condition and
then compares the result with the next table and so on.
TYPES
• Equi join
• Non-equi join
• Self join
• Natural join
• Cross join
• Outer join
• Left outer
• Right outer
• Full outer
• Inner join
• Using clause
• On clause
Assume that we have the following tables.
SQL> select * from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
------ ---------- ----------
10 mkt hyd
20 fin bang
30 hr bombay
SQL> select * from emp;
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR
DEPTNO
------ ---------- ---------- ---------- -
---------
111 saketh analyst 444
10
222 sudha clerk 333
20
333 jagan manager 111
10
444 madhu engineer 222
40
EQUI JOIN
A join which contains an '=' operator in the joins
condition.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp
e,dept d where e.deptno=d.deptno;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC
------ --------- ------- ---------- -------
---
111 saketh analyst mkt
hyd
333 jagan manager mkt
hyd
222 sudha clerk fin
bang
USING CLAUSE
SQL> select empno,ename,job ,dname,loc from emp e
join dept d using(deptno);
EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC
------- ---------- -------- ---------- ----
------
111 saketh analyst mkt
hyd
333 jagan manager mkt
hyd
222 sudha clerk fin
bang
ON CLAUSE
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e
join dept d on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC
------ ---------- -------- ---------- ----
---
111 saketh analyst mkt
hyd
333 jagan manager mkt
hyd
222 sudha clerk fin
bang
NON-EQUI JOIN
A join which contains an operator other than '=' in the joins
condition.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp
e,dept d where e.deptno > d.deptno;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC
------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----
------
222 sudha clerk mkt hyd
444 madhu engineer mkt hyd
444 madhu engineer fin bang
444 madhu engineer hr
bombay
SELF JOIN
Joining the table itself is called self join.
Ex:
SQL> select e1.empno,e2.ename,e1.job,e2.deptno from
emp e1,emp e2 where e1.empno=e2.mgr;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO
------ -------- ------- --------
111 jagan analyst 10
222 madhu clerk 40
333 sudha manager 20
444 saketh engineer 10
NATURAL JOIN
Natural join compares all the common columns.
Ex:
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SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp
natural join dept;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME
LOC
---------- ---------- ---------- ------ ---
-----
111 saketh analyst mkt
hyd
333 jagan manager mkt
hyd
222 sudha clerk fin
bang
CROSS JOIN
This will gives the cross product.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp
cross join dept;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC
------- ------- ---------- ------- ----
--
111 saketh analyst mkt
hyd
222 sudha clerk mkt
hyd
333 jagan manager mkt
hyd
444 madhu engineer mkt
hyd
111 saketh analyst fin
bang
222 sudha clerk fin
bang
333 jagan manager fin
bang
444 madhu engineer fin
bang
111 saketh analyst hr
bombay
222 sudha clerk hr
bombay
333 jagan manager hr
bombay
444 madhu engineer hr
bombay
OUTER JOIN
Outer join gives the non-matching records along with
matching records.
LEFT OUTER JOIN
This will display the all matching records and the records
which are in left hand side table those that are not in right
hand side table.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e
left outer join dept d on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
Or
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp
e,dept d where e.deptno=d.deptno(+);
EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC
-------- -------- -------- -------- ----
--
111 saketh analyst mkt
hyd
333 jagan manager mkt
hyd
222 sudha clerk fin
bang
444 madhu engineer
RIGHT OUTER JOIN
This will display the all matching records and the records
which are in right hand side table those that are not in left
hand side table.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e
right outer join dept d on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
Or
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp
e,dept d where e.deptno(+) = d.deptno;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC
------- -------- ---------- ---------- ---
-------
111 saketh analyst mkt
hyd
333 jagan manager mkt
hyd
222 sudha clerk fin
bang
hr
bombay
FULL OUTER JOIN
This will display the all matching records and the non-
matching records from both tables.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e
full outer join dept d on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC
------ ------- ---------- ---------- -----
-----
333 jagan manager mkt hyd
111 saketh analyst mkt hyd
222 sudha clerk fin bang
444 madhu engineer
hr
bombay
INNER JOIN
This will display all the records that have matched.
Ex:
SQL> select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp
inner join dept using(deptno);
EMPNO ENAME JOB DNAME LOC
------ -------- -------- -------- ------
--
111 saketh analyst mkt hyd
333 jagan manager mkt hyd
222 sudha clerk fin
bang
SUBQUERIES AND EXISTS
SUBQUERIES
• Nesting of queries, one within the other is termed as a
subquery.
• A statement containing a subquery is called a parent
query.
• Subqueries are used to retrieve data from tables that
depend on the values in the table itself.
TYPES
• Single row subqueries
• Multi row subqueries
• Multiple subqueries
• Correlated subqueries
SINGLE ROW SUBQUERIES
In single row subquery, it will return one value.
Ex:
SQL> select * from emp where sal > (select sal from
emp where empno = 7566);
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR
HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
---------- ------ --------- ------- -------
--- ----- ------ --------
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-
87 3000 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-
81 5000 10
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-
81 3000 20
MULTI ROW SUBQUERIES
• In multi row subquery, it will return more than one
value.
• In such cases we should include operators like any,
all, in or not in between the comparision operator and
the subquery.
Ex:
SQL> select * from emp where sal > any (select sal
from emp where sal between 2500 and 4000);
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE
SAL COMM DEPTNO
------ ------- ------- ------ ----------
------ ------ ---------
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81
2975 20
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87
3000 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81
5000 10
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81
3000 20
SQL> select * from emp where sal > all (select sal from
emp where sal between 2500 and 4000);
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR
HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
------ ------- --------- ----- --------
-- ------ ----- -------
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-
81 5000 10
MULTIPLE SUBQUERIES
• There is no limit on the number of subqueries
included in a where clause.
• It allows nesting of a query within a subquery.
Ex:
SQL> select * from emp where sal = (select max(sal)
from emp where sal < (select max(sal) from emp));
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR
HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
---------- ------ -------- ---------- -------
-- ----- ----- -------
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87
3000 20
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81
3000 20
CORRELATED SUBQUERIES
A subquery is evaluated once for the entire parent
statement where as a correlated subquery is evaluated once
for every row processed by the parent statement.
Ex:
SQL> select distinct deptno from emp e where 5 <=
(select count(ename) from emp where e.deptno =
deptno);
DEPTNO
--------
20
30
EXISTS
Exists function is a test for existence. This is a logical test
for the return of rows from a query.
Ex:
Suppose we want to display the department numbers
which has more than 4 employees.
SQL> select deptno,count(*) from emp group by
deptno having count(*) > 4;
DEPTNO COUNT(*)
--------- ----------
20 5
30 6
From the above query can you want to display the names
of employees ?
SQL> select deptno,ename, count(*) from emp group
by deptno,ename having count(*) > 4;
no rows selected
The above query returns nothing because combination of
deptno and ename never return more than one count.
The solution is to use exists which follows.
SQL> select deptno,ename from emp e1 where exists
(select * from emp e2 where e1.deptno=e2.deptno
group by e2.deptno having count(e2.ename) > 4) order
by deptno,ename;
DEPTNO ENAME
--------- ----------
20 ADAMS
20 FORD
20 JONES
20 SCOTT
20 SMITH
30 ALLEN
30 BLAKE
30 JAMES
30 MARTIN
30 TURNER
30 WARD
NOT EXISTS
SQL> select deptno,ename from emp e1 where not
exists (select * from emp e2 where e1.deptno=e2.deptno
group by e2.deptno having count(e2.ename) > 4) order
by deptno,ename;
DEPTNO ENAME
--------- ----------
10 CLARK
10 KING
10 MILLER
WALKUP TREES AND INLINE VIEW
WALKUP TREES
Using hierarchical queries, you can retrieve data based on
a natural hierarchical relationship between rows in a table.
However, where a hierarchical relationship exists between
the rows of a table, a process called tree walking enables
the hierarchy to be constructed.
Ex:
SQL> select ename || '==>' || prior ename, level from
emp start with ename = 'KING' connect by prior
empno=mgr;
ENAME||'==>'||PRIORENAM LEVEL
------------------------ --------
KING==> 1
JONES==>KING 2
SCOTT==>JONES 3
ADAMS==>SCOTT 4
FORD==>JONES 3
SMITH==>FORD 4
BLAKE==>KING 2
ALLEN==>BLAKE 3
WARD==>BLAKE 3
MARTIN==>BLAKE 3
TURNER==>BLAKE 3
JAMES==>BLAKE 3
CLARK==>KING 2
MILLER==>CLARK 3
• In the above Start with clause specifies the root row of
the table.
• Level pseudo column gives the 1 for root , 2 for child
and so on.
• Connect by prior clause specifies the columns which
has parent-child relationship.
INLINE VIEW OR TOP-N ANALYSIS
In the select statement instead of table name, replacing the
select statement is known as inline view.
Ex:
SQL> Select ename, sal, rownum rank from (select
*from emp order by sal);
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ENAME SAL RANK
------- ---------- -------
SMITH 800 1
JAMES 950 2
ADAMS 1100 3
WARD 1250 4
MARTIN 1250 5
MILLER 1300 6
TURNER 1500 7
ALLEN 1600 8
CLARK 2450 9
BLAKE 2850 10
JONES 2975 11
SCOTT 3000 12
FORD 3000 13
KING 5000 14
LOCKS
• Locks are the mechanisms used to prevent destructive
interaction between users accessing same resource
simultaneously.
• Locks provides high degree of data concurrency.
TYPES
• Row level locks
• Table level locks
ROW LEVEL LOCKS
• In the row level lock a row is locked exclusively so
that other cannot modify the row until the transaction
holding the lock is committed or rolled back.
• This can be done by using select..for update clause.
Ex:
SQL> select * from emp where sal > 3000 for update of
comm.;
TABLE LEVEL LOCKS
A table level lock will protect table data thereby
guaranteeing data integrity when data is being accessed
concurrently by multiple users.
A table lock can be held in several modes.
• Share lock
• Share update lock
• Exclusive lock
SHARE LOCK
• A share lock locks the table allowing other users to
only query but not insert, update or delete rows in a
table.
• Multiple users can place share locks on the same
resource at the same time.
Ex:
SQL> lock table emp in share mode;
SHARE UPDATE LOCK
• It locks rows that are to be updated in a table.
• It permits other users to concurrently query, insert ,
update or even lock other rows in the same table.
• It prevents the other users from updating the row that
has been locked.
Ex:
SQL> lock table emp in share update mode;
EXCLUSIVE LOCK
• Exclusive lock is the most restrictive of tables locks.
• When issued by any user, it allows the other user to
only query.
• It is similar to share lock but only one user can place
exclusive lock on a table at a time.
Ex:
SQL> lock table emp in share exclusive mode;
NOWAIT
• If one user locked the table without nowait then
another user trying to lock the same table then he has
to wait until the user who has initially locked the table
issues a commit or rollback statement.
• This delay could be avoided by appending a nowait
clause in the lock table command.
Ex:
SQL> lock table emp in exclusive mode nowait.
DEADLOCK
• A deadlock occurs when tow users have a lock each
on separate object, and they want to acquire a lock on
the each other's object.
• When this happens, the first user has to wait for the
second user to release the lock, but the second user
will not release it until the lock on the first user's
object is freed.
• In such a case, oracle detects the deadlock
automatically and solves the problem by aborting one
of the two transactions.
INDEXES
• Index is typically a listing of keywords accompanied
by the location of information on a subject.
• We can create indexes explicitly to speed up SQL
statement execution on a table.
• The index points directly to the location of the rows
containing the value.
WHY INDEXES?
Indexes are most useful on larger tables, on columns that
are likely to appear in where clauses as simple equality.
TYPES
• Unique index
• Non-unique index
• Btree index
• Bitmap index
• Composite index
• Reverse key index
• Function-based index
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• Descending index
• Domain index
• Object index
• Cluster index
• Text index
• Index organized table
• Partition index
• Local index
• Local prefixed
• Local non-prefixed
• Global index
• Global prefixed
• Global non-prefixed
UNIQUE INDEX
• Unique indexes guarantee that no two rows of a table
have duplicate values in the columns that define the
index.
• Unique index is automatically created when primary
key or unique constraint is created.
Ex:
SQL> create unique index stud_ind on student(sno);
NON-UNIQUE INDEX
Non-Unique indexes do not impose the above restriction
on the column values.
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_ind on student(sno);
BTREE INDEX or ASCENDING INDEX
1. The default type of index used in an oracle database is
the btree index.
2. A btree index is designed to provide both rapid access
to individual rows and quick access to groups of rows
within a range.
3. The btree index does this by performing a succession
of value comparisons.
4. Each comparison eliminates many of the rows.
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_ind on student(sno);
BITMAP INDEX
This can be used for low cardinality columns: that is
columns in which the number of distinct values is snall
when compared to the number of the rows in the table.
Ex:
SQL> create bitmap index stud_ind on student(sex);
COMPOSITE INDEX
• A composite index also called a concatenated index is
an index created on multiple columns of a table.
• Columns in a composite index can appear in any order
and need not be adjacent columns of the table.
Ex:
SQL> create bitmap index stud_ind on student(sno,
sname);
REVERSE KEY INDEX
1. A reverse key index when compared to standard
index, reverses each byte of the column being indexed
while keeping the column order.
2. When the column is indexed in reverse mode then the
column values will be stored in an index in different
blocks as the starting value differs.
3. Such an arrangement can help avoid performance
degradations in indexes where modifications to the
index are concentrated on a small set of blocks.
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_ind on student(sno, reverse);
We can rebuild a reverse key index into normal index
using the noreverse keyword.
Ex:
SQL> alter index stud_ind rebuild noreverse;
FUNCTION BASED INDEX
This will use result of the function as key instead of using
column as the value for the key.
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_ind on student(upper(sname));
DESCENDING INDEX
1. The order used by B-tree indexes has been ascending
order.
2. You can categorize data in B-tree index in descending
order as well.
3. This feature can be useful in applications where
sorting operations are required.
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_ind on student(sno desc);
TEXT INDEX
1. Querying text is different from querying data because
words have shades of meaning, relationships to other
words, and opposites.
2. You may want to search for words that are near each
other, or words that are related to thers.
3. These queries would be extremely difficult if all you
had available was the standard relational operators.
4. By extending SQL to include text indexes, oracle text
permits you to ask very complex questions about the
text.
5. To use oracle text, you need to create a text index on
the column in which the text is stored.
6. Text index is a collection of tables and indexes that
store information about the text stored in the column.
TYPES
There are several different types of indexes available in
oracle 9i.
The first, CONTEXT is supported in oracle 8i as well as
oracle 9i.
As of oracle 9i, you can use the CTXCAT text index fo
further enhance your text index management and query
capabilities.
• CONTEXT
• CTXCAT
• CTXRULE
The CTXCAT index type supports the transactional
synchronization of data between the base table and its text
index.
With CONTEXT indexes, you need to manually tell oracle
to update the values in the text index after data changes in
base table.
CTXCAT index types do not generate score values during
the text queries.
HOW TO CREATE TEXT INDEX ?
• You can create a text index via a special version of the
create index comman.
• For context index, specify the ctxsys.context index
type and for ctxcat index, specify the ctxsys.ctxcat
index type.
Ex:
Suppose you have a table called BOOKS with the
following columns Title, Author, Info.
SQL> create index book_index on books(info)
indextype is ctxsys.context;
SQL> create index book_index on books(info)
indextype is ctxsys.ctxcat;
TEXT QUERIES
Once a text index is created on the info column of BOOKS
table, text-searching capabilities increase dynamically.
CONTAINS & CATSEARCH
CONTAINS function takes two parameters - the column
name and the search string.
Syntax:
Contains(indexed_column, search_str);
If you create a CTXCAT index, use the CATSEARCH
function in place of CONTAINS.
CATSEARCH takes three parameters - the column name,
the search string and the index set.
Syntax:
Contains(indexed_column, search_str, index_set);
HOW A TEXT QEURY WORKS ?
• When a function such as CONTAINS or
CATSEARCH is used in query, the text portion of the
query is processed by oracle text.
• The remainder of the query is processed just like a
regular query within the database.
• The result of the text query processing and the regular
query processing are merged to return a single set of
records to the user.
• SEARCHING FOR AN EXACT MATCH OF A
WORD The following queries will search for a word
called 'prperty' whose score is greater than zero.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info,
'property') > 0;
SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info,
'property', null) > 0;
Suppose if you want to know the score of the 'property' in
each book, if score values for individual searches range
from 0 to 10 for each occurrence of the string within the
text then use the score function.
SQL> select title, score(10) from books where
contains(info, 'property', 10) > 0;
SEARCHING FOR AN EXACT MATCH OF
MULTIPLE WORDS
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The following queries will search for two words.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, 'property
AND harvests') > 0;
SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, 'property
AND harvests', null) > 0;
Instead of using AND you could hae used an
ampersand(&). Before using this method, set define off
so the & character will not be seen as part of a variable
name.
SQL> set define off
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, 'property
& harvests') > 0;
SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, 'property
harvests', null) > 0;
The following queries will search for more than two
words.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, 'property
AND harvests AND workers') > 0;
SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, 'property
harvests workers', null) > 0;
The following queries will search for either of the two
words.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, 'property
OR harvests') > 0;
Instead of OR you can use a vertical line (|).
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, 'property |
harvests') > 0;
SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, 'property |
harvests', null) > 0;
In the following queries the ACCUM(accumulate)
operator adds together the scores of the individual
searches and compares the accumulated score to the
threshold value.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, 'property
ACCUM harvests') > 0;
SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, 'property
ACCUM harvests', null) > 0;
Instead of OR you can use a comma(,).
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, 'property ,
harvests') > 0;
SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, 'property ,
harvests', null) > 0;
In the following queries the MINUS operator subtracts
the score of the second term's search from the score of
the first term's search.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, 'property
MINUS harvests') > 0;
SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, 'property
NOT harvests', null) > 0;
Instead of MINUS you can use - and instead of NOT
you can use ~.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, 'property -
harvests') > 0;
SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info, 'property
~ harvests', null) > 0;
SEARCHING FOR AN EXACT MATCH OF A
PHRASE
The following queries will search for the phrase.
If the search phrase includes a reserved word within oracle
text, the you must use curly braces ({}) to enclose text.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info,
'transactions {and} finances') > 0;
SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info,
'transactions {and} finances', null) > 0;
You can enclose the entire phrase within curly braces, in
which case any reserved words within the phrase will be
treated as part of the search criteria.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info,
'{transactions and finances}') > 0;
SQL> select * from books where catsearch(info,
'{transactions and finances}', null) > 0;
SEARCHING FOR WORDS THAT ARE NEAR EACH
OTHER
The following queries will search for the words that are in
between the search terms.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info,
'workers NEAR harvests') > 0;
Instead of NEAR you can use ;.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info,
'workers ; harvests') > 0;
In CONTEXT index queries, you can specify the
maximum number of words between the search terms.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info,
'NEAR((workers, harvests),10)' > 0;
USING WILDCARDS DURING SEARCHES
You can use wildcards to expand the list of valid search
terms used during your query.
Just as in regular text-string wildcard processing, two
wildcards are available.
% - percent sign; multiple-character wildcard _ -
underscore; single-character wildcard
SQL> select * from books where contains(info,
'worker%') > 0;
SQL> select * from books where contains(info,
'work___') > 0;
SEARCHING FOR WORDS THAT SHARE THE
SAME STEM
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Rather than using wildcards, you can use stem-expansion
capabilities to expand the list of text strings.
Given the 'stem' of a word, oracle will expand the list of
words to search for to include all words having the same
stem.
Sample expansions are show here. Play - plays playing
played playful
SQL> select * from books where contains(info,
'$manage') > 0;
SEARCHING FOR FUZZY MATCHES
1. A fuzzy match expands the specified search term to
include words that are spelled similarly but that do not
necessarily have the same word stem. Fuzzy matches
are most helpful when the text contains misspellings.
2. The misspellings can be either in the searched text or
in the search string specified by the user during the
query.
3. The following queries will not return anything
because its search does not contain the word 'hardest'.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info,
'hardest') > 0;
1. It does, however, contains the word 'harvest'.
2. A fuzzy match will return the books containing the
word 'harvest' even though 'harvest' has a different
word stem thant the word used as the search term.
3. To use a fuzzy match, precede the search term with a
question mark, with no space between the question
mark and the beginning of the search term.
SQL> select * from books where contains(info,
'?hardest') > 0;
SEARCHING FOR WORDS THAT SOUND LIKE
OTHER WORDS
1. SOUNDEX, expands search terms based on how the
word sounds.
2. The SOUNDEX expansion method uses the same
text-matching logic available via the SOUNDEX
function in SQL.
3. To use the SOUNDEX option, you must precede the
search term with an exclamation mark(!).
SQL> select * from books where contains(info, '!grate')
> 0;
INDEX SYNCHRONIZATION
• When using CONTEXT indexes, you need to manage
the text index contents;
• the text indexes are not updated when the base table is
updated.
• When the table was updated, its text index is out of
sync with the base table.
• To sync of the index, execute the SYNC_INDEX
procedure of the CTX_DDL package.
SQL> exec CTX_DDL.SYNC_INDEX('book_index');
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INDEX SETS
• Historically, problems with queries of text indexes
have occurred when other criteria are used alongside
text searches as part of the where clause.
• To improve the mixed query capability, oracle
features index sets.
• The indexes within the index set may be structured
relational columns or on text columns.
• To create an index set, use the CTX_DDL package to
create the index set and add indexes to it.
• When you create a text index, you can then specify
the index set it belongs to.
SQL> exec
CTX_DDL.CREATE_INDEX_SET('books_index_set');
The add non-text indexes.
SQL> exec CTX_DDL.ADD_INDEX('books_index_set',
'title_index'); Now create a CTXCAT text index.
Specify ctxsys.ctxcat as the index type, and list the index
set in the parameters clause.
SQL> create index book_index on books(info) indextype
is ctxsys.ctxcat parameters('index set books_index_set');
INDEX-ORGANIZED TABLE
1. An index-organized table keeps its data sorted
according to the primary key column values for the
table.
2. Index-organized tables store their data as if the entire
table was stored in an index.
3. An index-organized table allows you to store the
entire table's data in an index.
Ex:
SQL> create table student (sno number(2),sname
varchar(10),smarks number(3) constraint pk primary
key(sno) organization index;
PARTITION INDEX
• Similar to partitioning tables, oracle allows you to
partition indexes too.
• Like table partitions, index partitions could be in
different tablespaces.
LOCAL INDEXES
• Local keyword tells oracle to create a separte index
for each partition.
• In the local prefixed index the partition key is
specified on the left prefix. When the underlying table
is partitioned baes on, say two columns then the index
can be prefixed on the first column specified.
• Local prefixed indexes can be unique or non unique.
• Local indexes may be easier to manage than global
indexes.
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_index on student(sno) local;
GLOBAL INDEXES
• A global index may contain values from multiple
partitions.
• An index is global prefixed if it is partitioned on the
left prefix of the index columns.
• The global clause allows you to create a non-
partitioned index.
• Global indexes may perform uniqueness checks faster
than local (partitioned) indexes.
• You cannot create global indexes for hash partitions
or subpartitions.
Ex:
SQL> create index stud_index on student(sno) global;
▪ Similar to table partitions, it is possible to move them
from one device to another.
▪ But unlike table partitions, movement of index
partitions requires individual reconstruction of the
index or each partition (only in the case of global
index).
Ex:
SQL> alter index stud_ind rebuild partition p2
• Index partitions cannot be dropped manually.
• They are dropped implicitly when the data they refer
to is dropped from the partitioned table.
MONITORING USE OF INDEXES
• Once you turned on the monitoring the use of indexes,
then we can check whether the table is hitting the
index or not.
• To monitor the use of index use the follwing syntax.
Syntax:
alter index index_name monitoring usage;
then check for the details in V$OBJECT_USAGE view.
If you want to stop monitoring use the following.
Syntax:
alter index index_name nomonitoring usage;
DATA MODEL
• ALL_INDEXES
• DBA_INDEXES
• USER_INDEXES
• ALL_IND-COLUMNS
• DBA-IND_COLUMNS
• USER_IND_COLUMNS
• ALL_PART_INDEXES
• DBA_PART_INDEXES
• USER_PART_INDEXES
• V$OBJECT_USAGE
SQL*PLUS COMMNANDS
These commands does not require statement terminator
and applicable to the sessions , those will be automatically
cleared when session was closed.
BREAK
This will be used to breakup the data depending on the
grouping.
Syntax:
Break or bre [on <column_name> on report]
COMPUTE
This will be used to perform group functions on the data.
Syntax:
Compute or comp [group_function of column_name on
breaking_column_name or report]
TTITLE
This will give the top title for your report. You can on or
off the ttitle.
Syntax:
Ttitle or ttit [left | center | right] title_name skip n
other_characters
Ttitle or ttit [on or off]
BTITLE
This will give the bottom title for your report. You can on
or off the btitle.
Syntax:
Btitle or btit [left | center | right] title_name skip n
other_characters
Btitle or btit [on or off]
Ex:
SQL> bre on deptno skip 1 on report
SQL> comp sum of sal on deptno
SQL> comp sum of sal on report
SQL> ttitle center 'EMPLOYEE DETAILS' skip1 center '-
---------------'
SQL> btitle center '** THANKQ **'
SQL> select * from emp order by deptno; Output:
EMPLOYEE DETAILS
------------------
-----
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE
SAL COMM DEPTNO
------ ------- -------- ------- ---------
-------- ------ ----------
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81
2450 10
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81
5000
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82
1300
--------- **********
8750 sum
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80
800 20
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87
1100
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81
3000
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87
3000
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81
2975
---------- **********
10875 sum
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81
1600 300 30
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81
2850
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81
1250 1400
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81
950
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81
1500 0
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81
1250 500
---------- **********
9400 sum
----------
sum
29025
** THANKQ **
CLEAR
This will clear the existing buffers or break or
computations or columns formatting.
Syntax:
Clear or cle buffer | bre | comp | col;
Ex:
SQL> clear buffer
Buffer cleared
SQL> clear bre
Breaks cleared
SQL> clear comp
Computes cleared
SQL> clear col
Columns cleared
CHANGE
This will be used to replace any strings in SQL
statements.
Syntax:
Change or c/old_string/new_string
If the old_string repeats many times then new_string
replaces the first string only.
Ex:
SQL> select * from det;
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select * from det
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00942: table or view does not exist
SQL> c/det/dept
1* select * from dept
SQL> /
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
---------- ------------ -----------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH ALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
COLUMN
This will be used to increase or decrease the width of the
table columns.
Syntax:
Column or col <column_name> format
<num_format|text_format>
Ex:
SQL> col deptno format 999
SQL> col dname format a10
SAVE
This will be used to save your current SQL statement as
SQL Script file.
Syntax:
Save or sav <file_name>.[extension] replace or rep
If you want to save the filename with existing filename
the you have to use replace option. By default it will take
sql as the extension.
Ex:
SQL> save ss
Created file ss.sql
SQL> save ss replace
Wrote file ss.sql
EXECUTE
This will be used to execute stored subprograms or
packaged subprograms.
Syntax:
Execute or exec <subprogram_name>
Ex:
SQL> exec sample_proc
SPOOL
This will record the data when you spool on, upto when
you say spool off. By default it will give lst as extension.
Syntax:
Spool on | off | out | <file_name>.[Extension]
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Ex:
SQL> spool on
SQL> select * from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
------- ------------ ----------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
SQL> spool off
SQL> ed on.lst
SQL> select * from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
------ ------------ ----------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
SQL> spool off
LIST
This will give the current SQL statement.
Syntax:
List or li [start_line_number] [end_line_number]
Ex:
SQL> select
2 *
3 from
4 dept;
SQL> list
1 select
2 *
3 from
4 * dept
SQL> list 1
1 * select
SQL> list 3
3 * from
SQL> list 1 3
1 select
2 *
3 * from
INPUT
This will insert the new line to the current SQL statement.
Syntax:
Input or in <string>
Ex:
SQL> select *
SQL> list
1 * select *
SQL> input from dept
SQL> list
1 select *
2 * from dept
APPEND
This will adds a new string to the existing string in the
SQL statement without any space.
Syntax:
Append or app <string>
Ex:
SQL> select *
SQL> list
1 * select *
SQL> append from dept
1 * select * from dept
SQL> list
1 * select * from dept
DELETE
This will delete the current SQL statement lines.
Syntax:
Delete or del <start_line_number>
[<end_line_number>]
Ex:
SQL> select
2 *
3 from
4 dept
5 where
6 deptno
7 >10;
SQL> list
1 select
2 *
3 from
4 dept
5 where
6 deptno
7 * >10
SQL> del 1
SQL> list
1 *
2 from
3 dept
4 where
5 deptno
6 * >10
SQL> del 2
SQL> list
1 *
2 dept
3 where
4 deptno
5 * >10
SQL> del 2 4
SQL> list
1 *
2 * >10
SQL> del
SQL> list
1 *
VARIABLE
This will be used to declare a variable.
Syntax:
Variable or var <variable_name> <variable_type>
Ex:
SQL> var dept_name varchar(15)
SQL> select dname into dept_name from dept where
deptno = 10;
This will be used to print the output of the variables that
will be declared at SQL level.
Syntax:
Print <variable_name>
Ex:
SQL> print dept_name
DEPT_NAME
--------------
ACCOUNTING
START
This will be used to execute SQL scripts.
Syntax:
start <filename_name>.sql
Ex:
SQL> start ss.sql
SQL> @ss.sql -- this will execute sql script files
only.
HOST
This will be used to interact with the OS level from SQL.
Syntax:
Host [operation]
Ex:
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SQL> host
SQL> host dir
SHOW
Using this, you can see several commands that use the set
command and status.
Syntax:
Show all | <set_command>
Ex:
SQL> show all
appinfo is OFF and set to "SQL*Plus"
arraysize 15
autocommit OFF
autoprint OFF
autorecovery OFF
autotrace OFF
blockterminator "." (hex 2e)
btitle OFF and is the first few characters of the
next SELECT statement
cmdsep OFF
colsep " "
compatibility version NATIVE
concat "." (hex 2e)
copycommit 0
COPYTYPECHECK is ON
define "&" (hex 26)
describe DEPTH 1 LINENUM OFF INDENT ON
echo OFF
editfile "afiedt.buf"
embedded OFF
escape OFF
FEEDBACK ON for 6 or more rows
flagger OFF
flush ON
SQL> show verify
verify OFF
RUN
This will runs the command in the buffer.
Syntax:
Run | /
Ex:
SQL> run
SQL> /
STORE
This will save all the set command statuses in a file.
Syntax:
Store set <filename>.[extension] [create] | [replace] |
[append]
Ex:
SQL> store set my_settings.scmd Created file
my_settings.scmd
SQL> store set my_settings.cmd replace Wrote file
my_settings.cmd
SQL> store set my_settings.cmd append Appended file to
my_settings.cmd
FOLD_AFTER
This will fold the columns one after the other.
Syntax:
Column <column_name> fold_after [no_of_lines]
Ex:
SQL> col deptno fold_after 1
SQL> col dname fold_after 1
SQL> col loc fold_after 1
SQL> set heading off
SQL> select * from dept;
10
ACCOUNTING
NEW YORK
20
RESEARCH
DALLAS
30
SALES
CHICAGO
40
OPERATIONS
BOSTON
FOLD_BEFORE
This will fold the columns one before the other.
Syntax:
Column <column_name> fold_before [no_of_lines]
DFINE
This will give the list of all the variables currently
defined.
Syntax:
Define [variable_name]
Ex:
SQL> define
DEFINE _DATE = "16-MAY-07" (CHAR)
DEFINE _CONNECT_IDENTIFIER = "oracle" (CHAR)
DEFINE _USER = "SCOTT" (CHAR)
DEFINE _PRIVILEGE = "" (CHAR)
DEFINE _SQLPLUS_RELEASE = "1001000200" (CHAR)
DEFINE _EDITOR = "Notepad" (CHAR)
DEFINE _O_VERSION = "Oracle Database 10g
Enterprise Edition Release 10.1.0.2.0 -
Production With the
Partitioning, OLAP and Data Mining
options" (CHAR)
DEFINE _O_RELEASE = "1001000200" (CHAR)
SET COMMANDS
These commands does not require statement terminator
and applicable to the sessions , those will be automatically
cleared when session was closed.
LINESIZE
This will be used to set the linesize.
Default linesize is 80.
Syntax:
Set linesize <value>
Ex:
SQL> set linesize 100
PAGESIZE
This will be used to set the pagesize.
Default pagesize is 14.
Syntax:
Set pagesize <value>
Ex:
SQL> set pagesize 30
DESCRIBE
This will be used to see the object's structure.
Syntax:
Describe or desc <object_name>
Ex:
SQL> desc dept
Name Null? Type
--------- ------------- ------------
DEPTNO NOT NULL NUMBER(2)
DNAME VARCHAR2(14)
LOC VARCHAR2(13)
PAUSE
• When the displayed data contains hundreds or
thousands of lines, when you select it then it will
automatically scrolls and displays the last page data.
• To prevent this you can use this pause option.
• By using this it will display the data correspoinding to
the pagesize with a break which will continue by
hitting the return key.
• By default this will be off.
Syntax:
Set pause on | off
Ex:
SQL> set pause on
FEEDBACK
• This will give the information regarding howmany
rows you selected the object.
• By default the feedback message will be displayed,
only when the object contains more than 5 rows.
Syntax:
Set feedback <value>
Ex:
SQL> set feedback 4
SQL> select * from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
-------- -------------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
4 rows selected.
HEADING
• If you want to display data without headings, then you
can achieve with this.
• By default heading is on.
Syntax:
Set heading on | off
Ex:
SQL> set heading off
SQL> select * from dept;
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
SERVEROUTPUT
• This will be used to display the output of the PL/SQL
programs.
• By default this will be off.
Syntax:
Set serveroutput on | off
Ex:
SQL> set serveroutput on
TIME
• This will be used to display the time.
• By default this will be off.
Syntax:
Set time on | off
Ex:
SQL> set time on
19:56:33 SQL>
TIMING
• This will give the time taken to execute the current
SQL statement.
• By default this will be off.
Syntax:
Set timing on | off
Ex:
SQL> set timing on
SQL> select * from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
-------- ---------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
Elapsed: 00:00:00.06
SQLPROMPT
This will be used to change the SQL prompt.
Syntax:
Set sqlprompt <prompt>
Ex:
SQL> set sqlprompt 'ORACLE>'
ORACLE>
SQLCASE
• This will be used to change the case of the SQL
statements.
• By default the case is mixed.
Syntax:
Set sqlcase upper | mixed | lower
Ex:
SQL> set sqlcase upper
SQLTERMINATOR
• This will be used to change the terminator of the SQL
statements.
• By default the terminator is ;.
Syntax:
Set sqlterminator <termination_character>
Ex:
SQL> set sqlterminator :
SQL> select * from dept:
DEFINE
• By default if the & character finds then it will treat as
bind variable and ask for the input.
• Suppose your want to treat it as a normal character
while inserting data, then you can prevent this by
using the define option.
• By default this will be on
Syntax:
Set define on | off
Ex:
SQL>insert into dept values(50,'R&D','HYD');
Enter value for d:
old 1: insert into dept values(50,'R&D','HYD')
new 1: INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES(50,'R','HYD')
SQL> set define off
SQL>insert into dept values(50,'R&D','HYD'); -- here it
won't ask for value
NEWPAGE
• This will shows how many blank lines will be left
before the report.
• By default it will leave one blank line.
Syntax:
Set newpage <value>
Ex:
SQL> set newpage 10
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• The zero value for newpage does not produce zero
blank lines instead it switches to a special property
which produces a top-of-form character (hex 13) just
before the date on each page.
• Most modern printers respond to this by moving
immediately to the top of the next page, where the
priting of the report will begin.
HEADSEP
• This allow you to indicate where you want to break a
page title or a column heading that runs longer than
one line.
• The default heading separator is vertical bar (|).
Syntax:
Set headsep <separation_char>
Ex:
SQL> select * from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
------- ----------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
SQL> set headsetp !
SQL> col dname heading 'DEPARTMENT ! NAME'
SQL> /
DEPARTMENT
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DEPTNO NAME LOC
---------- -------------- ----------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
ECHO
• When using a bind variable, the SQL statement is
maintained by echo.
• By default this is off.
Syntax:
Set echo on | off
VERIFY
• When using a bind variable, the old and new
statements will be maintained by verify.
• By default this is on.
Syntax:
Set verify on | off
Ex:
SQL> select * from dept where deptno = &dno;
Enter value for dno: 10
old 1: select * from dept where deptno = &dno
new 1: select * from dept where deptno = 10
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
-------- ------------ -----------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
SQL> set verify off
SQL> select * from dept where deptno = &dno;
Enter value for dno: 20
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
-------- ---------- -----------
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
PNO
• This will give displays the page numbers.
• By default the value would be zero.
Ex:
SQL> col hiredate new_value xtoday noprint format a1
trunc
SQL> ttitle left xtoday right 'page' sql.pno
SQL> select * from emp where deptno = 10;
09-JUN-81
page 1
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR SAL COMM
DEPTNO
------ -------- ---------- ------- ----- -----
--------
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 2450
10
7839 KING PRESIDENT 5000
10
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 1300
10
• In the above noprint tells SQLPLUS not to display
this column when it prints the results of the SQL
statement.
• Dates that have been reformatted by TO_CHAR get a
default width of about 100 characters. By changing
the format to a1 trunc, you minimize this effect.
• NEW_VALUE inserts contents of the column
retrieved by the SQL statement into a variable called
xtoday.
SPECIAL FILES
LOGIN.sql
• If you would like SQLPLUS to define your own
environmental settings, put all the required commands
in a file named login.sql.
• This is a special filename that SQLPLUS always
looks for whenever it starts up.
• If it finds login.sql, it executes any commands in it as
if you had entered then by hand.
• You can put any command in login.sql that you can
use in SQLPLUS, including SQLPLUS commands
and SQL statements.
• All to them executed before SQLPLUS gives you the
SQL> prompt.
GLOGIN.sql
This is used in the same ways as LOGIN.sql but to
establish default SQLPLUS settings for all users of a
database.
IMP QUERIES
1. To find the nth row of a table
SQL> Select *from emp where rowid = (select
max(rowid) from emp where rownum <= 4); Or
SQL> Select *from emp where rownum <= 4 minus
select *from emp where rownum <= 3;
2. To find duplicate rows
SQL> Select *from emp where rowid in (select
max(rowid) from emp group by empno, ename, mgr,
job, hiredate, comm, deptno, sal); Or
SQL> Select empno,ename,sal,job,hiredate,comm ,
count(*) from emp group by
empno,ename,sal,job,hiredate,comm having count(*)
>=1;
3. To delete duplicate rows
SQL> Delete emp where rowid in (select max(rowid)
from emp group by
empno,ename,mgr,job,hiredate,sal,comm,deptno);
4. To find the count of duplicate rows
SQL> Select ename, count(*) from emp group by
ename having count(*) >= 1;
5. How to display alternative rows in a table ?
SQL> select *from emp where (rowid,0) in (select
rowid,mod(rownum,2) from emp);
6. Getting employee details of each department who
is drawing maximum sal ?
SQL> select *from emp where (deptno,sal) in ( select
deptno,max(sal) from emp group by deptno);
7. How to get number of employees in each
department , in which department is having more
than 2500 employees ?
SQL> Select deptno,count(*) from emp group by
deptno having count(*) >2500;
8. To reset the time to the beginning of the day
SQL> Select to_char(trunc(sysdate),'dd-mon-yyyy
hh:mi:ss am') from dual;
9. To find nth maximum sal
SQL> Select *from emp where sal in (select max(sal)
from (select *from emp order by sal) where rownum
<= 5);
INTRODUCTION
CHARACTERSTICS
• Highly structured, readable and accessible language.
• Standard and Protable language.
• Embedded language.
• Improved execution authority.
10g FEATURES
▪ Optimized compiler
To change the optimizer settings for the entire
database, set the database parameter
PLSQL_OPTIMIZE_LEVEL. Valid settings are as
follows
0 - No optimization
1 - Moderate optimization
2 - Aggressive optimization
These settings are also modifiable for the current
session.
SQL> alter session set plsql_optimze_level=2;
Oracle retains optimizer settings on a module-by-
module basis. When you recompile a particular
module with nondefault settings, the settings will stick
allowing you to recompile later on using REUSE
SETTINGS.
SQL> Alter procedure proc compile
plsql_optimize_level=1;
SQL> Alter procedure proc compile reuse settings;
▪ Compile-time warnings.
Starting with oracle database 10g release 1 you can
enable additional compile-time warnings to help make
your programs more robust. The compiler can detect
potential runtime problems with your code, such as
identifying lines of code that will never be run. This
process, also known as lint checking.
To enable these warnings for the entire database, set
the database parameter PLSQL_WARNINGS. These
settings are also modifiable for the current session.
SQL> alter session set plsql_warnings =
'enable:all'; The above can be achieved using the
built-in package DBMS_WARNING.
▪ Conditional compilation.
Conditional compilation allows the compiler to allow
to compile selected parts of a program based on
conditions you provide with the $IF directive.
▪ Support for non-sequential collections in FORALL.
▪ Improved datatype support.
▪ Backtrace an exception to its line number.
When handling an error, how can you find the line
number on which the error was originally raised ?
In earlier release, the only way to do this was allow
you exception to go unhandled and then view the full
error trace stack.
Now you can
call DBMS_UTILITY.FORMAT_ERROR_BACK
TRACE function to obtain that stack and manipulate
it programmatically within your program.
▪ Set operators for nested tables.
▪ built-in functions.
▪ REGEXP_LIKE
▪ REGEXP_INSTR
▪ REGEXP_SUBSTR
▪ REGEXP_REPLACE
▪ Programmer-defined quoting mechanism.
Starting with oracle database 10g release 1, you can
define your own quoting mechanism for string literals
in both SQL and PL/SQL.
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Use the characters q'(q followed by a single quote) to
note the programmer-defined deliemeter for you
string literal.
Ex:
DECLARE
v varchar(10) := 'computer';
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line(q'*v = *' || v);
dbms_output.put_line(q'$v = $' || v);
END;
Output:
v = computer
v = computer
▪ Many new built-in packages.
DBMS_SCHEDULER
Represents a major update to DBMS_JOB.
DBMS_SCHEDULER provides much improved
functionality for scheduling and executing jobs
defined via stored procedures.
DBMS_CRYPTO
Offers the ability to encrypt and decrypt common
oracle datatype, including RAWs, BLOBs, and
CLOBs. It also provides globalization support for
encrypting data across different charactersets.
DBMS_MONITOR
Provides an API to control additional tracing and
statistics gathering of sessions.
DBMS_WARNING
Provides an API into the PL/SQL compiler warnings
module, allowing you to read and change settings that
control which warnings are suppressed, displayed, or
treated as errors.
STANDARD PACKAGE
Oracle has defined in this special package. Oracle
defines quite a few identifiers in this package,
including built-in exceptions, functions and subtypes.
You can reference the built-in form by prefixing it
with STANDARD.
The basic unit in any PL/SQL program is block. All
PL/SQL programs are composed of blocks which can
occur sequentially or nested.
BLOCK STRUCTURE
Declare
-- declarative section
Begin
-- executable section
Exception
-- exception section
End;
In the above declarative and exceptiona sections are
optional.
BLOCK TYPES
• Anonymous blocks
• Named blocks
o Labeled blocks
o Subprograms
o Triggers
ANONYMOUS BLOCKS
Anonymous blocks implies basic block structure.
Ex:
BEGIN
Dbms_output.put_line('My first
program'):
END;
LABELED BLOCKS
Labeled blocks are anonymous blocks with a label which
gives a name to the block.
Ex:
<<my_bloock>>
BEGIN
Dbms_output.put_line('My first program'):
END;
SUBPROGRAMS
Subprograms are procedures and functions. They can be
stored in the database as stand-alone objects, as part of
package or as methods of an object type.
TRIGGERS
Triggers consists of a PL/SQL block that is associated with
an event that occur in the database.
NESTED BLOCKS
A block can be nested within the executable or exception
section of an outer block.
IDENTIFIERS
Identifiers are used to name PL/SQL objects, such as
variables, cursors, types and subprograms. Identifiers
consists of a letter, optionally followed by any sequence of
characters, including letters, numbers, dollar signs,
underscores, and pound signs only. The maximum length
for an identifier is 30 characters.
QUOTED IDENTIFIERS
If you want to make an identifier case sensitive, include
characters such as spaces or use a reserved word, you can
enclose the identifier in double quotation marks.
Ex:
DECLARE
"a" number := 5;
"A" number := 6;
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || a);
dbms_output.put_line('A = ' || A);
END;
Output:
a = 6
A = 6
COMMENTS
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Comments improve readability and make your program
more understandable. They are ignored by the PL/SQL
compiler. There are two types of comments available.
• Single line comments
• Multiline comments
SINGLE LINE COMMENTS
A single-line comment can start any point on a line with
two dashes and continues until the end of the line.
Ex:
BEGIN
Dbms_output.put_line('hello'); -
- sample program
END;
MULTILINE COMMENTS
Multiline comments start with the /* delimiter and ends
with */ delimiter.
Ex:
BEGIN
Dbms_output.put_line('hello');
/* sample program */
END;
VARIABLE DECLERATIONS
Variables can be declared in declarative section of the
block;
Ex:
DECLARE
a number;
b number := 5;
c number default 6;
CONSTANT DECLERATIONS
To declare a constant, you include the CONSTANT
keyword, and you must supply a default value.
Ex:
DECLARE
b constant number := 5;
c constant number default 6;
NOT NULL CLAUSE
You can also specify that the variable must be not null.
Ex:
DECLARE
b constant number not null:= 5;
c number not null default 6;
ANCHORED DECLERATIONS
PL/SQL offers two kinds of achoring.
• Scalar anchoring
• Record anchoring
SCALAR ANCHORING
Use the %TYPE attribute to define your variable based on
table's column of some other PL/SQL scalar variable.
Ex:
DECLARE
dno dept.deptno%type;
Subtype t_number is number;
a t_number;
Subtype t_sno is
student.sno%type;
V_sno t_sno;
RECORD ANCHORING
Use the %ROWTYPE attribute to define your record
structure based on a table.
Ex:
DECLARE
V_dept dept%rowtype;
BENEFITS OF ANCHORED DECLARATIONS
• Synchronization with database columns.
• Normalization of local variables.
PROGRAMMER-DEFINED TYPES
With the SUBTYPE statement, PL/SQL allows you to
define your own subtypes or aliases of predefined
datatypes, sometimes referred to as abstract datatypes.
There are two kinds of subtypes.
• Constrained
• Unconstrained
CONSTRAINED SUBTYPE
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A subtype that restricts or constrains the values normally
allowd by the datatype itself.
Ex:
Subtype positive is binary_integer range
1..2147483647;
In the above declaration a variable that is declared as
positive can store only ingeger greater than zero even
though binary_integer ranges from -
2147483647..+2147483647.
UNCONSTRAINED SUBTYPE
A subtype that does not restrict the values of the original
datatype in variables declared with the subtype.
Ex:
Subtype float is number;
DATATYPE CONVERSIONS
PL/SQL can handle conversions between different families
among the datatypes. Conversion can be done in two ways.
• Explicit conversion
• Implicit conversion
EXPLICIT CONVERSION
This can be done using the built-in functions available.
IMPLICIT CONVERSION
PL/SQL will automatically convert between datatype
families when possible.
Ex:
DECLARE
a varchar(10);
BEGIN
select deptno into a from dept where
dname='ACCOUNTING';
END;
In the above variable a is char type and deptno is number
type even though, oracle will automatically converts the
numeric data into char type assigns to the variable.
PL/SQL can automatically convert between
• Characters and numbers
• Characters and dates
VARIABLE SCOPE AND VISIBILITY
The scope of a variable is the portion of the program in
which the variable can be accessed. For PL/SQL variables,
this is from the variable declaration until the end of the
block. When a variable goes out of scope, the PL/SQL
engine will free the memory used to store the variable.
The visibility of a variable is the portion of the program
where the variable can be accessed without having to
qualify the reference. The visibility is always within the
scope. If it is out of scope, it is not visible.
Ex1:
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DECLARE
a number; -- scope of a
BEGIN
--------
DECLARE
b number; -- scope of b
BEGIN
-----
END;
------
END;
Ex2:
DECLARE
a number;
b number;
BEGIN
-- a , b available here
DECLARE
b char(10);
BEGIN
-- a and char type b is available here
END;
-----
END;
Ex3:
<<my_block>>
DECLARE
a number;
b number;
BEGIN
-- a , b available here
DECLARE
b char(10);
BEGIN
-- a and char type b is available here
-- number type b is available using
<<my_block>>.b
END;
------
END;
PL/SQL CONTROL STRUCTURES
PL/SQL has a variety of control structures that allow you
to control the behaviour of the block as it runs.
These structures include conditional statements and loops.
• If-then-else
• Case
• Case with no else
• Labeled case
• Searched case
• Simple loop
• While loop
• For loop
• Goto and Labels
IF-THEN-ELSE
Syntax:
If <condition1> then
Sequence of statements;
Elsif <condition1> then
Sequence of statements;
......
Else
Sequence of statements;
End if;
Ex:
DECLARE
dno number(2);
BEGIN
select deptno into dno from dept where
dname = 'ACCOUNTING';
if dno = 10 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is NEW
YORK');
elsif dno = 20 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is
DALLAS');
elsif dno = 30 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is
CHICAGO');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Location is
BOSTON');
end if;
END;
Output:
Location is NEW YORK
CASE
Syntax:
Case test-variable
When value1 then sequence of
statements;
When value2 then sequence of
statements;
......
When valuen then sequence of
statements;
Else sequence of statements;
End case;
Ex:
DECLARE
dno number(2);
BEGIN
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select deptno into dno from dept where
dname = 'ACCOUNTING';
case dno
when 10 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is NEW YORK');
when 20 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is DALLAS');
when 30 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is CHICAGO');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Location is BOSTON');
end case;
END;
Output:
Location is NEW YORK
CASE WITHOUT ELSE
Syntax:
Case test-variable
When value1 then sequence of
statements;
When value2 then sequence of
statements;
......
When valuen then sequence of
statements;
End case;
Ex:
DECLARE
dno number(2);
BEGIN
select deptno into dno from dept where
dname = 'ACCOUNTING';
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case dno
when 10 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is NEW YORK');
when 20 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is DALLAS');
when 30 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is CHICAGO');
when 40 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is BOSTON');
end case;
END;
Output:
Location is NEW YORK
LABELED CASE
Syntax:
<<label>>
Case test-variable
When value1 then sequence of
statements;
When value2 then sequence of
statements;
......
When valuen then sequence of
statements;
End case;
Ex:
DECLARE
dno number(2);
BEGIN
select deptno into dno from dept where
dname = 'ACCOUNTING';
<<my_case>>
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case dno
when 10 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is NEW YORK');
when 20 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is DALLAS');
when 30 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is CHICAGO');
when 40 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is BOSTON');
end case my_case;
END;
Output:
Location is NEW YORK
SEARCHED CASE
Syntax:
Case
When <condition1> then sequence of
statements;
When <condition2> then sequence of
statements;
......
When <conditionn> then sequence of
statements;
End case;
Ex:
DECLARE
dno number(2);
BEGIN
select deptno into dno from dept where
dname = 'ACCOUNTING';
case dno
when dno = 10 then
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dbms_output.put_line('Location is NEW YORK');
when dno = 20 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is DALLAS');
when dno = 30 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is CHICAGO');
when dno = 40 then
dbms_output.put_line('Location is BOSTON');
end case;
END;
Output:
Location is NEW YORK
SIMPLE LOOP
Syntax:
Loop
Sequence of statements;
Exit when <condition>;
End loop;
In the syntax exit when <condition> is equivalent to
If <condition> then
Exit;
End if;
Ex:
DECLARE
i number := 1;
BEGIN
loop
dbms_output.put_line('i = ' || i);
i := i + 1;
exit when i > 5;
end loop;
END;
Output:
i = 1
i = 2
i = 3
i = 4
i = 5
WHILE LOOP
Syntax:
While <condition> loop
Sequence of statements;
End loop;
Ex:
DECLARE
i number := 1;
BEGIN
While i <= 5 loop
dbms_output.put_line('i = ' || i);
i := i + 1;
end loop;
END;
Output:
i = 1
i = 2
i = 3
i = 4
i = 5
FOR LOOP
Syntax:
For <loop_counter_variable> in
low_bound..high_bound loop
Sequence of statements;
End loop;
Ex1:
BEGIN
For i in 1..5 loop
dbms_output.put_line('i = ' || i);
end loop;
END;
Output:
i = 1
i = 2
i = 3
i = 4
i = 5
Ex2:
BEGIN
For i in reverse 1..5 loop
dbms_output.put_line('i = ' || i);
end loop;
END;
Output:
i = 5
i = 4
i = 3
i = 2
i = 1
NULL STATEMENT
Usually when you write a statement in a program, you
want it to do something.
There are cases, however, when you want to tell PL/SQL
to do absolutely nothing, and that is where the NULL
comes.
The NULL statement deos nothing except pass control to
the next executable statement.
You can use NULL statement in the following situations.
• Improving program readability: Sometimes, it is
helpful to avoid any ambiguity inherent in an IF
statement that doesn't cover all possible cases. For
example, when you write an IF statement, you do not
have to include an ELSE clause.
• Nullifying a raised exception: When you don't want
to write any special code to handle an exception, you
can use the NULL statement to make sure that a
raised exception halts execution of the current
PL/SQL block but does not propagate any exceptions
to enclosing blocks.
• Using null after a label: In some cases, you can pair
NULL with GOTO to avoid having to execute
additional statements. For example, I use a GOTO
statement to quickly move to the end of my program
if the state of my data indicates that no further
processing is required. Because I do not have to do
anything at the termination of the program, I place a
NULL statement after the label because at least one
executable statement is required there. Even though
NULL deos nothing, it is still an executable statement.
GOTO AND LABELS
Syntax:
Goto label;
Where label is a label defined in the PL/SQL block. Labels
are enclosed in double angle brackets. When a goto
statement is evaluated, control immediately passes to the
statement identified by the label.
Ex:
BEGIN
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For i in 1..5 loop
dbms_output.put_line('i = ' || i);
if i = 4 then
goto exit_loop;
end if;
end loop;
<<exit_loop>>
Null;
END;
Output:
i = 1
i = 2
i = 3
i = 4
RESTRICTIONS ON GOTO
• It is illegal to branch into an inner block, loop.
• At least one executable statement must follow.
• It is illegal to branch into an if statement.
• It is illegal to branch from one if statement to another
if statement.
• It is illegal to branch from exception block to the
current block.
PRAGMAS
Pragmas are compiler directives. They serve as
instructions to the PL/SQL compiler. The compiler will act
on the pragma during the compilation of the block.
Syntax:
PRGAMA instruction_to_compiler.
PL/SQL offers several pragmas:
• AUTONOMOUS_TRANSACTION
• EXCEPTION_INIT
• RESTRICT_REFERENCES
• SERIALLY_REUSABLE
SUBPROGRAMS
PROCEDURES
A procedure is a module that performs one or more
actions.
Syntax:
Procedure [schema.]name [(parameter1
[,parameter2 ...])]
[authid definer |
current_user] is
-- [declarations]
Begin
-- executable statements
[Exception
-- exception handlers]
End [name];
In the above authid clause defines whether the procedure
will execute under the authority of the definer of the
procedure or under the authority of the current user.
FUNCTIONS
A function is a module that returns a value.
Syntax:
Function [schema.]name [(parameter1
[,parameter2 ...])]
Return return_datatype
[authid definer |
current_user]
[deterministic]
[parallel_enable] is
-- [declarations]
Begin
-- executable statements
[Exception
-- exception handlers]
End [name];
In the above authid clause defines whether the procedure
will execute under the authority of the definer of the
procedure or under the authority of the current user.
Deterministic clause defines, an optimization hint that lets
the system use a saved copy of the function's return result,
if available. The quety optimizer can choose whether to
use the saved copy or re-call the function.
Parallel_enable clause defines, an optimization hint that
enables the function to be executed in parallel when called
from within SELECT statement.
PARAMETER MODES
• In (Default)
• Out
• In out
IN
In parameter will act as pl/sql constant.
OUT
• Out parameter will act as unintialized variable.
• You cannot provide a default value to an out
parameter.
• Any assignments made to out parameter are rolled
back when an exception is raised in the program.
• An actual parameter corresponding to an out formal
parameter must be a variable.
IN OUT
• In out parameter will act as initialized variable.
• An actual parameter corresponding to an in out formal
parameter must be a variable.
DEFAULT PARAMETERS
• Default Parameters will not allow in the beginning
and middle.
• Out and In Out parameters can not have default
values.
Ex:
procedure p(a in number default 5, b in number default 6, c
in number default 7) - valid
procedure p(a in number, b in number default 6, c in
number default 7) - valild
procedure p(a in number, b in number, c in number default
7) - valild
procedure p(a in number, b in number default 6, c in
number) - invalild
procedure p(a in number default 5, b in number default 6, c
in number) - invalild
procedure p(a in number default 5, b in number, c in
number) - invalild
NOTATIONS
Notations are of two types.
• Positional notation
• Name notation
We can combine positional and name notation but
positional notation can not be followed by the name
notation.
Ex:
Suppose we have a procedure proc(a number,b number,c
number) and we have one anonymous block which
contains v1,v2, and v3;
SQL> exec proc (v1,v2,v3) -- Positional notation
SQL> exec proc (a=>v1,b=>v2,c=>v3) -- Named
notation
FORMAL AND ACTUAL PARAMETERS
• Parametes which are in calling subprogram are actual
parameters.
• Parametes which are in called subprogram are formal
parameters.
• If any subprogram was called, once the call was
completed then the values of formal parameters are
copied to the actual parameters.
Ex1:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE SAMPLE(a in number,b
out number,c in out number) is
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('After call');
dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || a ||' b = ' ||
b || ' c = ' || c);
b := 10;
c := 20;
dbms_output.put_line('After assignment');
dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || a ||' b = ' ||
b || ' c = ' || c);
END SAMPLE;
DECLARE
v1 number := 4;
v2 number := 5;
v3 number := 6;
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Before call');
dbms_output.put_line('v1 = ' || v1 || ' v2 =
' || v2 || ' v3 = ' || v3);
sample(v1,v2,v3);
dbms_output.put_line('After completion of
call');
dbms_output.put_line('v1 = ' || v1 || ' v2 =
' || v2 || ' v3 = ' || v3);
END;
Output:
Before call
v1 = 4 v2 = 5 v3 = 6
After call
a = 4 b = c = 6
After assignment
a = 4 b = 10 c = 20
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After completion of call
v1 = 4 v2 = 10 v3 = 20
Ex2:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUN(a in number,b out number,c
in out number) return number IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('After call');
dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || a || ' b = '
|| b || ' c = ' || c);
dbms_output.put_line('Before assignement
Result = ' || (a*nvl(b,1)*c));
b := 5;
c := 7;
dbms_output.put_line('After assignment');
dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || a || ' b = '
|| b || ' c = ' || c);
return (a*b*c);
END FUN;
DECLARE
v1 number := 1;
v2 number := 2;
v3 number := 3;
v number;
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Before call');
dbms_output.put_line('v1 = ' || v1 || ' v2 =
' || v2 || ' v3 = ' || v3);
v := fun(v1,v2,v3);
dbms_output.put_line('After call
completed');
dbms_output.put_line('v1 = ' || v1 || ' v2 =
' || v2 || ' v3 = ' || v3);
dbms_output.put_line('Result = ' || v);
END;
Output:
Before call
v1 = 1 v2 = 2 v3 = 3
After call
a = 1 b = c = 3
Before assignement Result = 3
After assignment
a = 1 b = 5 c = 7
After call completed
v1 = 1 v2 = 5 v3 = 7
Result = 35
RESTRICTIONS ON FORMAL PARAMETERS
• By declaring with specified size in actual parameters.
• By declaring formal parameters with %type specifier.
USING NOCOPY
• Nocopy is a hint, not a command. This means that the
compiler might silently decide that it can't fulfill your
request for a nocopy parameter.
• The copying from formal to actual can be restricted by
issuing nocopy qualifier.
• To pass the out and in out parameters by reference use
nocopy qualifier.
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE PROC(a in out
nocopy number) IS
BEGIN
----
END PROC;
CALL AND EXEC
Call is a SQL statement, which can be used to execute
subprograms like exec. Syntax: Call
subprogram_name([argument_list]) [into host_variable];
• The parantheses are always required, even if the
subprogram takes no arguments.
• We can not use call with out and in out parameters.
• Call is a SQL statement, it is not valid inside a
PL/SQL block;
• The INTO clause is used for the output variables of
functions only.
• We can not use 'exec' with out or in out parameters.
• Exec is not valid inside a PL/SQL block;
Ex1:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROC IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('hello world');
END PROC;
Output:
SQL> call proc();
hello world
Ex2:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROC(a in number,b in number) IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || a || ' b = '
|| b);
END PROC;
Output:
SQL> call proc(5,6);
a = 5 b = 6
Ex3:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION FUN RETURN VARCHAR IS
BEGIN
return 'hello world';
END FUN;
Output:
SQL> variable v varchar(20)
SQL> call fun() into :v;
SQL> print v
hello world
CALL BY REFERENCE AND CALL BY VALUE
• In parameters by default call by reference where as
out and in out call by value.
• When parameter passed by reference, a pointer to the
actual parameter is passed to the corresponding formal
parameter.
• When parameter passed by value it copies the value of
the actual parameter to the formal parameter.
• Call by reference is faster than the call by value
because it avoids the copying.
SUBPROGRAMS OVERLOADING
• Possible with different number of parameters.
• Possible with different types of data.
• Possible with same type with objects.
• Can not be possible with different types of modes.
• We can overload local subprograms also.
Ex:
SQL> create or replace type t1 as object(a number);/
SQL> create or replace type t1 as object(a number);/
DECLARE
i t1 := t1(5);
j t2 := t2(5);
PROCEDURE P(m t1) IS
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BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('a = ' || m.a);
END P;
PROCEDURE P(n t2) IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('b = ' || n.b);
END P;
PROCEDURE PRODUCT(a number,b number) IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Product of a,b = '
|| a * b);
END PRODUCT;
PROCEDURE PRODUCT(a number,b number,c
number) IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Product of a,b = '
|| a * b * c);
END PRODUCT;
BEGIN
p(i);
p(j);
product(4,5);
product(4,5,6);
END;
Output:
a = 5
b = 5
Product of a,b = 20
Product of a,b = 120
BENEFITS OF OVERLOADING
• Supporting many data combinations
• Fitting the program to the user.
RESTRICTIONS ON OVERLOADING
• Overloaded programs with parameter lists that differ
only by name must be called using named notation.
• The parameter list of overloaded programs must differ
by more than parameter mode.
• All of the overloaded programs must be defined
within the same PL/SQL scope or block.
• Overloaded functions must differ by more than their
return type.
IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT SUBPROGRAMS
• When a stored subprogram is created, it is stored in
the data dictionary.
• The subprogram is stored in compile form which is
known as p-code in addition to the source text.
• The p-code has all of the references in the subprogram
evaluated, and the source code is translated into a
form that is easily readable by PL/SQL engine.
• When the subprogram is called, the p-code is read
from the disk, if necessary, and executed.
• Once it reads from the disk, the p-code is stored in the
shared pool portion of the system global area (SGA),
where it can be accessed by multiple users as needed.
• Like all of the contents of the shared pool, p-code is
aged out of the shared pool according to a least
recently used (LRU) algorithm.
• Subprograms can be local.
• Local subprograms must be declared in the declarative
section of PL/SQL block and called from the
executable section.
• Subprograms can not have the declarative section
separately.
• Stored subprograms can have local subprograms;
• Local subprograms also can have local subprograms.
• If the subprogram contains a variable with the same
name as the column name of the table then use the dot
method to differentiate (subprogram_name.sal).
• Subprograms can be invalidated.
PROCEDURES Vs FUNCTIONS
• Procedures may return through out and in out
parameters where as function must return.
• Procedures can not have return clause where as
functions must.
• We can use call statement directly for executing
procedure where as we need to declare a variable in
case of functions.
• Functions can use in select statements where as
procedures can not.
• Functions can call from reports environment where as
procedures can not.
• We can use exec for executing procedures where as
functions can not.
• Function can be used in dbms_output where as
procedure can not.
• Procedure call is a standalone executable statement
where as function call is a part of an executable
statement.
STORED Vs LOCAL SUBPROGRAMS
• The stored subprogram is stored in compiled p-code
in the database, when the procedure is called it does
not have to be compiled. The local subprogram is
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compiled as part of its containing block. If the
containing block is anonymous and is run multiple
times, the subprogram has to be compiled each time.
• Stored subprograms can be called from any block
submitted by a user who has execute privileges on the
subprogram. Local subprograms can be called only
from the block containing the subprogram.
• By keeping the stored subprogram code separate from
the calling block, the calling block is shorter and
easier to understand. The local subprogram and the
calling block are one and the same, which can lead to
part confusion. If a change to the calling block is
made, the subprogram will be recompiled as of the
recompilation of the containing block.
• The compiled p-code can be pinned in the shared pool
using the DBMS_SHARED_POOL Package. This can
improve performance. Local subprograms cannot be
pinned in the shared pool by themselves.
• Stand alone stored subprograms can not be
overloaded, but packaged subprograms can be
overloaded within the same package.
• Local subprograms can be overloaded within the same
block.
Ex1:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Stored subprogram');
END;
Output:
SQL> exec p
Stored subprogram
Ex2:
DECLARE
PROCEDURE P IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Local
subprogram');
END;
BEGIN
p;
END;
Output:
Local subprogram
COMPILING SUBPROGRAMS
SQL> Alter procedure P1 compile;
SQL> Alter function F1 compile;
SUBPROGRAMS DEPENDECIES
• A stored subprogram is marked as invalid in the data
dictionary if it has compile errors.
• A stored subprogram can also become invalid if a
DDL operation is performed on one of its dependent
objects.
• If a subprogram is invalidated, the PL/SQL engine
will automatically attempt to recompile in the next
time it is called.
• If we have two procedures like P1 and P2 in which P1
depends on P2. If we compile P2 then P1 is
invalidated.
SUBPROGRAMS DEPENDENCIES IN REMOTE
DATABASES
• We will call remote subprogram using connect string
like P1@ORACLE;
• If we have two procedures like P1 and P2 in which P1
depends on P2 but P2 was in remote database. If we
compile P2 it will not invalidate P1 immediately
because the data dictionary does not track remote
dependencies.
• Instead the validity of remote objects is checked at
runtime. When P1 is called, the remote data dictionary
is queried to determine the status of P2.
• P1 and P2 are compared to see it P1 needs to be
recompiled, there are two different methods of
comparision
o Timestamp Model
o Signature Model
TIMESTAMP MODEL
• This is the default model used by oracle.
• With this model, the timestamps of the last
modifications of the two objects are compared.
• The last_ddl_time field of user_objects contains the
timestamp.
• If the base object has a newer timestamp than the
dependent object, the dependent object will be
recompiled.
ISSUES WITH THIS MODEL
• If the objects are in different time zones, the
comparison is invalid.
• When P1 is in a client side PL/SQL engine such as
oracle forms, in this case it may not possible to
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recompile P1, because the source for it may not be
included with the forms.
SIGNATURE MODEL
• When a procedure is created, a signature is stored in
the data dictionary in addition to the p-code.
• The signature encodes the types and order of the
parametes.
• When P1 is compiled the first time, the signature of
P2 is included. Thus, P1 only needs to recompiled
when the signature of P2 changes.
• In order to use the signature model, the parameter
REMOTE_DEPENDENCIES_MODE must be set to
SIGNATURE. This is a parameter in the database
initialization file.
THREE WAYS OF SETTING THIS MODE
• Add the
line REMOTE_DEPENDENCIES_MODE=SIGNA
TURE to the database initialization file. The next time
the database is started, the mode will be set to
SIGNATURE for all sessions.
• Alter system set remote_dependencies_mode =
signature; This will affect the entire database (all
sessions) from the time the statement is issued. You
must have the ALTER SYSTEM privilege to issue
this command.
• Alter session set remote_dependencies_mode =
signature; This will only affect your session
ISSUES WITH THIS MODEL
• Signatures don't get modified if the default values of
formal parameters are changed.
• Suppose P2 has a default value for one of its
parameters, and P1 is using this default value. If the
default in the specification for P2 is changed, P1 will
not be recompiled by default. The old value for the
default parameter will still be used until P1 is
manually recompiled.
• If P1 is calling a packaged procedure P2, and a new
overloaded version of P2 is added to the remote
package, the signature is not changed. P1 will still use
the old version (not the new overloaded one) until P1
is recompiled manually.
FORWARD DECLERATION
Before going to use the procedure in any other
subprogram or other block , you must declare the
prototype of the procedure in declarative section.
Ex1:
DECLARE
PROCEDURE P1 IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('From procedure
p1');
p2;
END P1;
PROCEDURE P2 IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('From procedure
p2');
p3;
END P2;
PROCEDURE P3 IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('From procedure
p3');
END P3;
BEGIN
p1;
END;
Output:
p2;
*
ERROR at line 5:
ORA-06550: line 5, column 1:
PLS-00313: 'P2' not declared in this scope
ORA-06550: line 5, column 1:
PL/SQL: Statement ignored
ORA-06550: line 10, column 1:
PLS-00313: 'P3' not declared in this scope
ORA-06550: line 10, column 1:
PL/SQL: Statement ignored
Ex2:
DECLARE
PROCEDURE P2; -- forward declaration
PROCEDURE P3;
PROCEDURE P1 IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('From procedure
p1');
p2;
END P1;
PROCEDURE P2 IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('From procedure
p2');
p3;
END P2;
PROCEDURE P3 IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('From procedure
p3');
END P3;
BEGIN
p1;
END;
Output:
From procedure p1
From procedure p2
From procedure p3
PRIVILEGES AND STORED SUBPROGRAMS
EXECUTE PREVILEGE
• For stored subprograms and packages the relevant
privilege is EXECUTE.
• If user A had the procedure called emp_proc then user
A grants execute privilege on procedure to user B
with the following command.
SQL> Grant execute on emp_proc to user B.
• Then user B can run the procedure by issuing
SQL> Exec user A.emp_proc
userA created the following procedure
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P IS
cursor is select *from student1;
BEGIN
for v in c loop
insert into student2
values(v.no,v.name,v.marks);
end loop;
END P;
userA granted execute privilege to userB using
SQL> grant execute on p to userB
Then userB executed the procedure
SQL> Exec userA.p
If suppose userB also having student2 table then which
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table will populate whether userA's or userB's.
The answer is userA's student2 table only because by
default the procedure will execute under the privlige set of
its owner.
The above procedure is known as definer's procedure.
HOW TO POPULATE USER B's TABLE
• Oracle introduces Invoker's and Definer's rights.
• By default it will use the definer's rights.
• An invoker's rights routine can be created by using
AUTHID clause to populate the userB's table.
• It is valid for stand-alone subprograms, package
specifications, and object type specifications only.
userA created the following procedure
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P
AUTHID CURRENT_USER IS
cursor is select *from student1;
BEGIN
for v in c loop
insert into student2
values(v.no,v.name,v.marks);
end loop;
END P;
Then grant execute privilege on p to userB.
Executing the procedure by userB, which populates
userB's table.
The above procedure is called invoker's procedure.
Instead of current_user of authid clause, if you use definer
then it will be called definer' procedure.
STORED SUBPROGRAMS AND ROLES
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we have two users saketh and sudha in which saketh has
student table and sudha does not. Sudha is going to create
a procedure based on student table owned by saketh.
Before doing this saketh must grant the permissions on this
table to sudha.
SQL> conn saketh/saketh
SQL> grant all on student to sudha;
then sudha can create procedure
SQL> conn sudha/sudha
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P IS
cursor c is select *from saketh.student;
BEGIN
for v in c loop
dbms_output.put_line('No = ' || v.no);
end loop;
END P;
here procedure will be created.
If the same privilege was granted through a role it wont
create the procedure.
Examine the following code
SQL> conn saketh/saketh
SQL> create role saketh_role;
SQL> grant all on student to saketh_role;
SQL> grant saketh_role to sudha;
then conn sudha/sudha
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P IS
cursor c is select *from saketh.student;
BEGIN
for v in c loop
dbms_output.put_line('No = ' || v.no);
end loop;
END P;
• The above code will raise error instead of creating
procedure .
• This is because of early binding which PL/SQL uses
by default in which references are evaluated in
compile time but when you are using a role this will
affect immediately.
ISSUES WITH INVOKER'S RIGHTS
• In an invoker's rights routine, external references in
SQL statements will be resolved using the caller's
privilege set.
• But references in PL/SQL statements are still resolved
under the owner's privilege set.
TRIGGERS, VIEWS AND INVOKER'S RIGHTS
• A database trigger will always be executed with
definer's rights and will execute under the privilege
set of the schema that owns the triggering table.
• This is also true for PL/SQL function that is called
from a view. In this case, the function will execute
under the privilege set of the view's owner.
PACKAGES
• A package is a container for related objects.
• It has specification and body.
• Each of them is stored separately in data dictionary.
PACKAGE SYNTAX
Create or replace package <package_name> is
-- package specification includes subprograms
signatures,
cursors and global or public
variables.
End <package_name>;
Create or replace package body <package_name> is
-- package body includes body for all the
subprograms declared
in the spec, private Variables and
cursors.
Begin
-- initialization section
Exception
-- Exception handling seciton
End <package_name>;
IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT PACKAGES
• The first time a packaged subprogram is called or any
reference to a packaged variable or type is made, the
package is instantiated.
• Each session will have its own copy of packaged
variables, ensuring that two sessions executing
subprograms in the same package use different
memory locations.
• In many cases initialization needs to be run the first
time the package is instantiated within a session. This
can be done by adding initialization section to the
package body after all the objects.
• Packages are stored in the data dictionary and can not
be local.
• Packaged subprograms has an advantage over stand
alone subprogram.
• When ever any reference to package, the whole
package p-code was stored in shared pool of SGA.
• Package may have local subprograms.
• You can include authid clause inside the package spec
not in the body.
• The execution section of a package is know as
initialization section.
• You can have an exception section at the bottom of a
package body.
• Packages subprograms are not invalidated.
COMPILING PACKAGES
• SQL> Alter package PKG compile;
• SQL> Alter package PKG compile specification;
• SQL> Alter package PKG compile body;
PACKAGE DEPENDENCIES
• The package body depends on the some objects and
the package header.
• The package header does not depend on the package
body, which is an advantage of packages.
• We can change the package body with out changing
the header.
PACKAGE RUNTIME STATE
Package runtime state is differ for the following packages.
• Serially reusable packages
• Non serially reusable packages
SERIALLY REUSABLE PACKAGES
To force the oracle to use serially reusable version then
include PRAGMA SERIALLY_REUSABLE in both
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package spec and body,
Examine the following package.
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS
pragma serially_reusable;
procedure emp_proc;
END PKG;
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS
pragma serially_reusable;
cursor c is select ename from emp;
PROCEDURE EMP_PROC IS
v_ename emp.ename%type;
v_flag boolean := true;
v_numrows number := 0;
BEGIN
if not c%isopen then
open c;
end if;
while v_flag loop
fetch c into v_ename;
v_numrows := v_numrows + 1;
if v_numrows = 5 then
v_flag := false;
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('Ename = ' ||
v_ename);
end loop;
END EMP_PROC;
END PKG;
SQL> exec pkg.emp_proc
Ename = SMITH
Ename = ALLEN
Ename = WARD
Ename = JONES
Ename = MARTIN
SQL> exec pkg.emp_proc
Ename = SMITH
Ename = ALLEN
Ename = WARD
Ename = JONES
Ename = MARTIN
• The above package displays the same output for each
execution even though the cursor is not closed.
• Because the serially reusable version resets the state
of the cursor each time it was called.
NON SERIALL Y REUSABLE PACKAGES
This is the default version used by the oracle,
examine the following package.
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS
procedure emp_proc;
END PKG;
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY IS
cursor c is select ename from emp;
PROCEDURE EMP_PROC IS
v_ename emp.ename%type;
v_flag boolean := true;
v_numrows number := 0;
BEGIN
if not c%isopen then
open c;
end if;
while v_flag loop
fetch c into v_ename;
v_numrows := v_numrows + 1;
if v_numrows = 5 then
v_flag := false;
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('Ename = ' ||
v_ename);
end loop;
END EMP_PROC;
END PKG;
SQL> exec pkg.emp_proc
Ename = SMITH
Ename = ALLEN
Ename = WARD
Ename = JONES
Ename = MARTIN
SQL> exec pkg.emp_proc
Ename = BLAKE
Ename = CLARK
Ename = SCOTT
Ename = KING
Ename = TURNER
• The above package displays the different output for
each execution even though the cursor is not closed.
• Because the non-serially reusable version remains the
state of the cursor over database calls.
DEPENDENCIES OF PACKAGE RUNTIME STATE
Dependencies can exists between package state and
anonymous blocks.
Examine the following program
Create this package in first session
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS
v number := 5;
procedure p;
END PKG;
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS
PROCEDURE P IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('v = ' || v);
v := 10;
dbms_output.put_line('v = ' || v);
END P;
END PKG;
Connect to second session, run the following code.
BEGIN
pkg.p;
END;
The above code wil work.
Go back to first session and recreate the package using
create.
Then connect to second session and run the following code
again.
BEGIN
pkg.p;
END;
This above code will not work because of the following.
• The anonymous block depends on pkg. This is
compile time dependency.
• There is also a runtime dependency on the packaged
variables, since each session has its own copy of
packaged variables.
• Thus when pkg is recompiled the runtime dependency
is followed, which invalidates the block and raises the
oracle error.
• Runtime dependencies exist only on package state.
This includes variables and cursors declared in a
package.
• If the package had no global variables, the second
execution of the anonymous block would have
succeeded.
PURITY LEVELS
In general, calls to subprograms are procedural, they
cannot be called from SQL statements.
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However, if a stand-alone or packaged function meets
certain restrictions, it can be called during execution of a
SQL statement.
User-defined functions are called the same way as built-in
functions but it must meet different restrictions.
These restrictions are defined in terms of purity levels.
There are four types of purity levels.
WNDS -- Writes No Database State
RNDS -- Reads No Database State
WNPS -- Writes No Package State
RNPS -- Reads No Package State
In addition to the preceding restrictions, a user-defined
function must also meet the following requirements to be
called from a SQL statement.
• The function has to be stored in the database, either
stand-alone or as part of a package.
• The function can take only in parametes.
• The formal parameters must use only database types,
not PL/SQL types such as boolean or record.
• The return type of the function must also be a
database type.
• The function must not end the current transaction with
commit or rollback, or rollback to a savepoint prior to
the function execution.
• It also must not issue any alter session or alter system
commands.
RESTRICT_REFERENCES
For packaged functions, however, the
RESTRICT_REFERENCES pragma is required to specify
the purity level of a given function.
Syntax:
PRAGMA
RESTRICT_REFERENCES(subprogram_name or
package_name, WNDS [,WNPS] [,RNDS] [,RNPS]);
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS
function fun1 return varchar;
pragma restrict_references(fun1,wnds);
function fun2 return varchar;
pragma restrict_references(fun2,wnds);
END PKG;
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS
FUNCTION FUN1 return varchar IS
BEGIN
update dept set deptno = 11;
return 'hello';
END FUN1;
FUNCTION FUN2 return varchar IS
BEGIN
update dept set dname ='aa';
return 'hello';
END FUN2;
END PKG;
The above package body will not created, it will give the
following erros.
PLS-00452: Subprogram 'FUN1' violates its associated
pragma
PLS-00452: Subprogram 'FUN2' violates its associated
pragma
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CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS
FUNCTION FUN1 return varchar IS
BEGIN
return 'hello';
END FUN1;
FUNCTION FUN2 return varchar IS
BEGIN
return 'hello';
END FUN2;
END PKG;
Now the package body will be created.
DEFAULT
• If there is no RESTRICT_REFERENCES pragma
associated with a given packaged function, it will not
have any purity level asserted.
• However, you can change the default purity level for a
package.
• The DEFAULT keyword is used instead of the
subprogram name in the pragma.
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS
pragma restrict_references(default,wnds);
function fun1 return varchar;
function fun2 return varchar;
END PKG;
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS
FUNCTION FUN1 return varchar IS
BEGIN
update dept set deptno = 11;
return 'hello';
END FUN1;
FUNCTION FUN2 return varchar IS
BEGIN
update dept set dname ='aa';
return 'hello';
END FUN2;
END PKG;
The above package body will not created, it will give the
following erros because the pragma will apply to all the
functions.
PLS-00452: Subprogram 'FUN1' violates its associated
pragma
PLS-00452: Subprogram 'FUN2' violates its associated
pragma
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS
FUNCTION FUN1 return varchar IS
BEGIN
return 'hello';
END FUN1;
FUNCTION FUN2 return varchar IS
BEGIN
return 'hello';
END FUN2;
END PKG;
Now the package body will be created.
TRUST
If the TRUST keyword is present, the restrictions listed in
the pragma are not enforced.
Rather, they are trusted to be true.
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS
function fun1 return varchar;
pragma restrict_references(fun1,wnds,trust);
function fun2 return varchar;
pragma restrict_references(fun2,wnds,trust);
END PKG;
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY PKG IS
FUNCTION FUN1 return varchar IS
BEGIN
update dept set deptno = 11;
return 'hello';
END FUN1;
FUNCTION FUN2 return varchar IS
BEGIN
update dept set dname ='aa';
return 'hello';
END FUN2;
END PKG;
The above package will be created successfully.
IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT
RESTRICT_REFERENCES
• This pragma can appear anywhere in the package
specification, after the function declaration.
• It can apply to only one function definition.
• For overload functions, the pragma applies to the
nearest definition prior to the pragma.
• This pragma is required only for packages functions
not for stand-alone functions.
• The Pragma can be declared only inside the package
specification.
• The pragma is checked at compile time, not runtime.
• It is possible to specify without any purity levels
when trust or combination of default and trust
keywords are present.
PINNING IN THE SHARED POOL
The shared pool is the portion of the SGS that contains,
among other things, the p-code of compiled subprograms
as they are run.
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The first time a stored a store subprogram is called, the p-
code is loaded from disk into the shared pool.
Once the object is no longer referenced, it is free to be
aged out.
Objects are aged out of the shared pool using
an LRU(Least Recently Used) algorithm.
The DBMS_SHARED_POOL package allows you to pin
objects in the shared pool.
When an object is pinned, it will never be aged out until
you request it, no matter how full the pool gets or how
often the object is accessed.
This can improve performance, as it takes time to reload a
package from disk.
DBMS_SHARED_POOL has four procedures
• KEEP
• UNKEEP
• SIZES
• ABORTED_REQUEST_THRESHOLD
KEEP
The DBMS_SHARED_POOL.KEEP procedure is used to
pin objects in the pool.
Syntax:
PROCEDURE KEEP(object_name varchar2,flag char
default 'P');
Here the flag represents different types of flag values for
different types of objects.
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P -- Package, function or procedure
Q -- Sequence
R -- Trigger
C -- SQL Cursor
T -- Object type
JS -- Java source
JC -- Java class
JR -- Java resource
JD -- Java shared data
UNKEEP
UNKEEP is the only way to remove a kept object from the
shared pool, without restarting the database. Kept objects
are never aged out automatically.
Syntax:
PROCEDURE UNKEEP(object_name varchar2, flag
char default 'P');
SIZES
SIZES will echo the contents of the shared pool to the
screen.
Syntax:
PROCEDURE SIZES(minsize number);
Objects with greater than the minsize will be returned.
SIZES uses DBMS_OUTPUT to return the data.
ABORTED_REQUEST_THRESHOLD
When the database determines that there is not enough
memory in the shared pool to satisfy a given request, it
will begin aging objects out until there is enough memory.
It enough objects are aged out, this can have a performance
impact on other database sessions. The
ABORTED_REQUEST_THRESHOLD can be used to
remedy this.
Syntax:
PROCEDURE
ABORTED_REQUEST_THRESHOLD(threshold_size
number);
Once this procedure is called, oracle will not start aging
objects from the pool unless at least threshold_size bytes is
needed.
DATA MODEL FOR SUBPROGRAMS AND
PACKAGES
• USER_OBJECTS
• USER_SOURCE
• USER_ERRORS
• DBA_OBJECTS
• DBA_SOURCE
• DBA_ERRORS
• ALL_OBJECTS
• ALL_SOURCE
• ALL_ERRORS
CURSORS
Cursor is a pointer to memory location which is called as
context area which contains the information necessary for
processing, including the number of rows processed by the
statement, a pointer to the parsed representation of the
statement, and the active set which is the set of rows
returned by the query. Cursor contains two parts
• Header
• Body
Header includes cursor name, any parameters and the type
of data being loaded.
Body includes the select statement.
Ex:
Cursor c(dno in number) return dept%rowtype is
select *from dept;
In the above
Header - cursor c(dno in number) return dept%rowtype
Body - select *from dept
CURSOR TYPES
• Implicit (SQL)
• Explicit
o Parameterized cursors
o REF cursors
CURSOR STAGES
• Open
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• Fetch
• Close
CURSOR ATTRIBUTES
• %found
• %notfound
• %rowcount
• %isopen
• %bulk_rowcount
• %bulk_exceptions
CURSOR DECLERATION
Syntax:
Cursor <cursor_name> is select statement;
Ex:
Cursor c is select *from dept;
CURSOR LOOPS
• Simple loop
• While loop
• For loop
SIMPLE LOOP
Syntax:
Loop
Fetch <cursor_name> into
<record_variable>;
Exit when <cursor_name> % notfound;
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<statements>;
End loop;
Ex:
DECLARE
cursor c is select * from student;
v_stud student%rowtype;
BEGIN
open c;
loop
fetch c into v_stud;
exit when c%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Name = ' ||
v_stud.name);
end loop;
close c;
END;
Output:
Name = saketh
Name = srinu
Name = satish
Name = sudha
WHILE LOOP
Syntax:
While <cursor_name> % found loop
Fetch <cursor_name> nto
<record_variable>;
<statements>;
End loop;
Ex:
DECLARE
cursor c is select * from student;
v_stud student%rowtype;
BEGIN
open c;
fetch c into v_stud;
while c%found loop
fetch c into v_stud;
dbms_output.put_line('Name = ' ||
v_stud.name);
end loop;
close c;
END;
Output:
Name = saketh
Name = srinu
Name = satish
Name = sudha
FOR LOOP
Syntax:
for <record_variable> in <cursor_name> loop
<statements>;
End loop;
Ex:
DECLARE
cursor c is select * from student;
BEGIN
for v_stud in c loop
dbms_output.put_line('Name = ' ||
v_stud.name);
end loop;
END;
Output:
Name = saketh
Name = srinu
Name = satish
Name = sudha
PARAMETARIZED CURSORS
• This was used when you are going to use the cursor in
more than one place with different values for the same
where clause.
• Cursor parameters must be in mode.
• Cursor parameters may have default values.
• The scope of cursor parameter is within the select
statement.
Ex:
DECLARE
cursor c(dno in number) is select * from
dept where deptno = dno;
v_dept dept%rowtype;
BEGIN
open c(20);
loop
fetch c into v_dept;
exit when c%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = ' ||
v_dept.dname ||
' Loc = ' ||
v_dept.loc);
end loop;
close c;
END;
Output:
Dname = RESEARCH Loc = DALLAS
PACKAGED CURSORS WITH HEADER IN SPEC
AND BODY IN PACKAGE BODY
• cursors declared in packages will not close
automatically.
• In packaged cursors you can modify the select
statement without making any changes to the cursor
header in the package specification.
• Packaged cursors with must be defined in the package
body itself, and then use it as global for the package.
• You can not define the packaged cursor in any
subprograms.
• Cursor declaration in package with out body needs the
return clause.
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE PKG IS
cursor c return dept%rowtype is select * from
dept;
procedure proc is
END PKG;
CREATE OR REPLACE PAKCAGE BODY PKG IS
cursor c return dept%rowtype is select *
from dept;
PROCEDURE PROC IS
BEGIN
for v in c loop
dbms_output.put_line('Deptno = ' || v.deptno
|| ' Dname = ' ||
v.dname || 'Loc = '
|| v.loc);
end loop;
END PROC;
END PKG;
Output:
SQL> exec pkg.proc
Deptno = 10 Dname = ACCOUNTING Loc = NEW
YORK
Deptno = 20 Dname = RESEARCH Loc =
DALLAS
Deptno = 30 Dname = SALES Loc =
CHICAGO
Deptno = 40 Dname = OPERATIONS Loc =
BOSTON
CREATE OR REPLACE PAKCAGE BODY PKG IS
cursor c return dept%rowtype is select * from
dept where deptno > 20;
PROCEDURE PROC IS
BEGIN
for v in c loop
dbms_output.put_line('Deptno = ' || v.deptno
|| ' Dname = ' ||
v.dname || ' Loc = '
|| v.loc);
end loop;
END PROC;
END PKG;
Output:
SQL> exec pkg.proc
Deptno = 30 Dname = SALES Loc = CHICAGO
Deptno = 40 Dname = OPERATIONS
Loc = BOSTON
REF CURSORS AND CURSOR VARIABLES
• This is unconstrained cursor which will return
different types depends upon the user input.
• Ref cursors can not be closed implicitly.
• Ref cursor with return type is called strong cursor.
• Ref cursor with out return type is called weak cursor.
• You can declare ref cursor type in package spec as
well as body.
• You can declare ref cursor types in local subprograms
or anonymous blocks.
• Cursor variables can be assigned from one to another.
• You can declare a cursor variable in one scope and
assign another cursor variable with different scope,
then you can use the cursor variable even though the
assigned cursor variable goes out of scope.
• Cursor variables can be passed as a parameters to the
subprograms.
• Cursor variables modes are in or out or in out.
• Cursor variables can not be declared in package spec
and package body (excluding subprograms).
• You can not user remote procedure calls to pass
cursor variables from one server to another.
• Cursor variables can not use for update clause.
• You can not assign nulls to cursor variables.
• You can not compare cursor variables for equality,
inequality and nullity.
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE REF_CURSOR(TABLE_NAME
IN VARCHAR) IS
type t is ref cursor;
c t;
v_dept dept%rowtype;
type r is record(ename emp.ename%type,job
emp.job%type,
sal emp.sal%type);
v_emp r;
v_stud student.name%type;
BEGIN
if table_name = 'DEPT' then
open c for select * from dept;
elsif table_name = 'EMP' then
open c for select ename,job,sal from
emp;
elsif table_name = 'STUDENT' then
open c for select name from student;
end if;
loop
if table_name = 'DEPT' then
fetch c into v_dept;
exit when c%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Deptno = ' ||
v_dept.deptno ||
' Dname = ' || v_dept.dname || ' Loc = '
|| v_dept.loc);
elsif table_name = 'EMP' then
fetch c into v_emp;
exit when c%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Ename = ' ||
v_emp.ename ||
' Job = ' || v_emp.job || '
Sal = ' || v_emp.sal);
elsif table_name = 'STUDENT' then
fetch c into v_stud;
exit when c%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Name = ' ||
v_stud);
end if;
end loop;
close c;
END;
Output:
SQL> exec ref_cursor('DEPT')
Deptno = 10 Dname = ACCOUNTING Loc = NEW YORK
Deptno = 20 Dname = RESEARCH Loc = DALLAS
Deptno = 30 Dname = SALES Loc = CHICAGO
Deptno = 40 Dname = OPERATIONS Loc = BOSTON
SQL> exec ref_cursor('EMP')
Ename = SMITH Job = CLERK Sal = 800
Ename = ALLEN Job = SALESMAN Sal = 1600
Ename = WARD Job = SALESMAN Sal = 1250
Ename = JONES Job = MANAGER Sal = 2975
Ename = MARTIN Job = SALESMAN Sal = 1250
Ename = BLAKE Job = MANAGER Sal = 2850
Ename = CLARK Job = MANAGER Sal = 2450
Ename = SCOTT Job = ANALYST Sal = 3000
Ename = KING Job = PRESIDENT Sal = 5000
Ename = TURNER Job = SALESMAN Sal = 1500
Ename = ADAMS Job = CLERK Sal = 1100
Ename = JAMES Job = CLERK Sal = 950
Ename = FORD Job = ANALYST Sal = 3000
Ename = MILLER Job = CLERK Sal = 1300
SQL> exec ref_cursor('STUDENT')
Name = saketh
Name = srinu
Name = satish
Name = sudha
CURSOR EXPRESSIONS
• You can use cursor expressions in explicit cursors.
• You can use cursor expressions in dynamic SQL.
• You can use cursor expressions in REF cursor
declarations and variables.
• You can not use cursor expressions in implicit
cursors.
• Oracle opens the nested cursor defined by a cursor
expression implicitly as soon as it fetches the data
containing the cursor expression from the parent or
outer cursor.
• Nested cursor closes if you close explicitly.
• Nested cursor closes whenever the outer or parent
cursor is executed again or closed or canceled.
• Nested cursor closes whenever an exception is raised
while fetching data from a parent cursor.
• Cursor expressions can not be used when declaring a
view.
• Cursor expressions can be used as an argument to
table function.
• You can not perform bind and execute operations on
cursor expressions when using the cursor expressions
in dynamic SQL.
USING NESTED CURSORS OR CURSOR
EXPRESSIONS
Ex:
DECLARE
cursor c is select ename,cursor(select dname from
dept d
where e.empno =
d.deptno) from emp e;
type t is ref cursor;
c1 t;
c2 t;
v1 emp.ename%type;
v2 dept.dname%type;
BEGIN
open c;
loop
fetch c1 into v1;
exit when c1%notfound;
fetch c2 into v2;
exit when c2%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Ename = ' || v1 ||
' Dname = ' || v2);
end loop;
end loop;
close c;
END;
CURSOR CLAUSES
• Return
• For update
• Where current of
• Bulk collect
RETURN
Cursor c return dept%rowtype is select *from dept;
Or
Cursor c1 is select *from dept;
Cursor c return c1%rowtype is select *from dept;
Or
Type t is record(deptno dept.deptno%type, dname
dept.dname%type);
Cursor c return t is select deptno, dname from dept;
FOR UPDATE AND WHERE CURRENT OF
Normally, a select operation will not take any locks on the
rows being accessed.
This will allow other sessions connected to the database to
change the data being selected.
The result set is still consistent. At open time, when the
active set is determined, oracle takes a snapshot of the
table. Any changes that have been committed prior to this
point are reflected in the active set.
Any changes made after this point, even if they are
committed, are not reflected unless the cursor is reopened,
which will evaluate the active set again.
However, if the FOR UPDATE caluse is pesent, exclusive
row locks are taken on the rows in the active set before the
open returns.
These locks prevent other sessions from changing the rows
in the active set until the transaction is committed or rolled
back.
If another session already has locks on the rows in the
active set, then SELECT ... FOR UPDATE operation will
wait for these locks to be released by the other session.
There is no time-out for this waiting period. The
SELECT...FOR UPDATE will hang until the other session
releases the lock. To handle this situation, the NOWAIT
clause is available.
Syntax:
Select ...from ... for update of column_name [wait n];
If the cursor is declared with the FOR UPDATE clause,
the WHERE CURRENT OF clause can be used in an
update or delete statement.
Syntax:
Where current of cursor;
Ex:
DECLARE
cursor c is select * from dept for update
of dname;
BEGIN
for v in c loop
update dept set dname = 'aa' where
current of c;
commit;
end loop;
END;
BULK COLLECT
• This is used for array fetches
• With this you can retrieve multiple rows of data with
a single roundtrip.
• This reduces the number of context switches between
the pl/sql and sql engines.
• Reduces the overhead of retrieving data.
• You can use bulk collect in both dynamic and static
sql.
• You can use bulk collect in select, fetch into and
returning into clauses.
• SQL engine automatically initializes and extends the
collections you reference in the bulk collect clause.
• Bulk collect operation empties the collection
referenced in the into clause before executing the
query.
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• You can use the limit clause of bulk collect to restrict
the no of rows retrieved.
• You can fetch into multible collections with one
column each.
• Using the returning clause we can return data to the
another collection.
BULK COLLECT IN FETCH
Ex:
DECLARE
Type t is table of dept%rowtype;
nt t;
Cursor c is select *from dept;
BEGIN
Open c;
Fetch c bulk collect into nt;
Close c;
For i in nt.first..nt.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = ' ||
nt(i).dname || ' Loc = ' || nt(i).loc);
end loop;
END;
Output:
Dname = ACCOUNTING Loc = NEW YORK
Dname = RESEARCH Loc = DALLAS
Dname = SALES Loc = CHICAGO
Dname = OPERATIONS Loc = BOSTON
BULK COLLECT IN SELECT
Ex:
DECLARE
Type t is table of dept%rowtype;
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Nt t;
BEGIN
Select * bulk collect into nt from dept;
for i in nt.first..nt.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = ' ||
nt(i).dname || ' Loc = ' || nt(i).loc);
end loop;
END;
Output:
Dname = ACCOUNTING Loc = NEW YORK
Dname = RESEARCH Loc = DALLAS
Dname = SALES Loc = CHICAGO
Dname = OPERATIONS Loc = BOSTON
LIMIT IN BULK COLLECT
You can use this to limit the number of rows to be
fetched.
Ex:
DECLARE
Type t is table of dept%rowtype;
nt t;
Cursor c is select *from dept;
BEGIN
Open c;
Fetch c bulk collect into nt limit 2;
Close c;
For i in nt.first..nt.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = ' ||
nt(i).dname || ' Loc = ' || nt(i).loc);
end loop;
END;
Output:
Dname = ACCOUNTING Loc = NEW YORK
Dname = RESEARCH Loc = DALLAS
MULTIPLE FETCHES IN INTO CLAUSE
Ex1:
DECLARE
Type t is table of dept.dname%type;
nt t;
Type t1 is table of dept.loc%type;
nt1 t;
Cursor c is select dname,loc from dept;
BEGIN
Open c;
Fetch c bulk collect into nt,nt1;
Close c;
For i in nt.first..nt.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = '
|| nt(i));
end loop;
For i in nt1.first..nt1.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Loc = ' ||
nt1(i));
end loop;
END;
Output:
Dname = ACCOUNTING
Dname = RESEARCH
Dname = SALES
Dname = OPERATIONS
Loc = NEW YORK
Loc = DALLAS
Loc = CHICAGO
Loc = BOSTON
Ex2:
DECLARE
type t is table of dept.dname%type;
type t1 is table of dept.loc%type;
nt t;
nt1 t1;
BEGIN
Select dname,loc bulk collect into nt,nt1
from dept;
for i in nt.first..nt.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = ' ||
nt(i));
end loop;
for i in nt1.first..nt1.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Loc = ' ||
nt1(i));
end loop;
END;
Output:
Dname = ACCOUNTING
Dname = RESEARCH
Dname = SALES
Dname = OPERATIONS
Loc = NEW YORK
Loc = DALLAS
Loc = CHICAGO
Loc = BOSTON
RETURNING CLAUSE IN BULK COLLECT
You can use this to return the processed data to the ouput
variables or typed variables.
Ex:
DECLARE
type t is table of number(2);
nt t := t(1,2,3,4);
type t1 is table of varchar(2);
nt1 t1;
type t2 is table of student%rowtype;
nt2 t2;
BEGIN
select name bulk collect into nt1 from
student;
forall v in nt1.first..nt1.last
update student set no = nt(v) where name
= nt1(v) returning
no,name,marks
bulk collect into nt2;
for v in nt2.first..nt2.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('Marks = ' ||
nt2(v));
end loop;
END;
Output:
Marks = 100
Marks = 200
Marks = 300
Marks = 400
POINTS TO REMEMBER
• Cursor name can be up to 30 characters in length.
• Cursors declared in anonymous blocks or
subprograms closes automatically when that block
terminates execution.
• %bulk_rowcount and %bulk_exceptions can be used
only with forall construct.
• Cursor declarations may have expressions with
column aliases.
• These expressions are called virtual columns or
calculated columns.
SQL IN PL/SQL
The only statements allowed directly in pl/sql are DML
and TCL.
BINDING
Binding a variable is the process of identifying the storage
location associated with an identifier in the program.
Types of binding
• Early binding
• Late binding
• Binding during the compiled phase is early binding.
• Binding during the runtime phase is late binding.
• In early binding compile phase will take longer
because of binding work but the execution is faster.
• In late binding it will shorten the compile phase but
lengthens the execution time.
• PL/SQL by default uses early binding.
• Binding also involves checking the database for
permissions to access the object Referenced.
DYNAMIC SQL
• If you use DDL in pl/sql it validates the permissions
and existence if requires during compile time which
makes invalid.
• We can avoid this by using Dynamic SQL.
• Dynamic SQL allows you to create a SQL statement
dynamically at runtime.
Two techniques are available for Dynamic SQL.
• Native Dynamic SQL
• DBMS_SQL package
USING NATIVE DYNAMIC SQL
USING EXECUTE IMMEDIATE
Ex:
BEGIN
Execute immediate 'create table student(no
number(2),name varchar(10))';
or
Execute immediate ('create table student(no
number(2),name varchar(10))');
END;
USING EXECUTE IMMEDIATE WITH PL/SQL
VARIABLES
Ex:
DECLARE
v varchar(100);
BEGIN
v := 'create table student(no number(2),name
varchar(10))';
execute immediate v;
END;
USING EXECUTE IMMEDIATE WITH BIND
VARIABLES AND USING CLAUSE
Ex:
DECLARE
v varchar(100);
BEGIN
v := 'insert into student
values(:v1,:v2,:v3)';
execute immediate v using 6,'f',600;
END;
EXECUTING QUERIES WITH OPEN FOR AND
USING CLAUSE
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P(smarks in number) IS
s varchar(100) := 'select *from student
where marks > :m';
type t is ref cursor;
c t;
v student%rowtype;
BEGIN
open c for s using smarks;
loop
fetch c into v;
exit when c%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Student Marks = '
|| v.marks);
end loop;
close c;
END;
Output:
SQL> exec p(100)
Student Marks = 200
Student Marks = 300
Student Marks = 400
QUERIES WITH EXECUTE IMMEDIATE
Ex:
DECLARE
d_name dept.dname%type;
lc dept.loc%type;
v varchar(100);
BEGIN
v := 'select dname from dept where deptno
= 10';
execute immediate v into d_name;
dbms_output.put_line('Dname = '|| d_name);
v := 'select loc from dept where dname =
:dn';
execute immediate v into lc using d_name;
dbms_output.put_line('Loc = ' || lc);
END;
Output:
Dname = ACCOUNTING
Loc = NEW YORK
VARIABLE NAMES
Ex:
DECLARE
Marks number(3) := 100;
BEGIN
Delete student where marks = marks; --
this will delete all the rows
in the student table
END;
This can be avoided by using the labeled blocks.
<<my_block>>
DECLARE
Marks number(3) := 100;
BEGIN
Delete student where marks = my_block.marks;
-- delete rows which has a
marks of 100
END;
GETTING DATA INTO PL/SQL VARIABLES
Ex:
DECLARE
V1 number;
V2 varchar(2);
BEGIN
Select no,name into v1,v2 from student where
marks = 100;
END;
DML AND RECORDS
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P(srow in
student%rowtype) IS
BEGIN
insert into student values srow;
END P;
DECLARE
s student%rowtype;
BEGIN
s.no := 11;
s.name := 'aa';
s.marks := 100;
p(s);
END;
RECORD BASED INSERTS
Ex:
DECLARE
srow student%rowtype;
BEGIN
srow.no := 7;
srow.name := 'cc';
srow.marks := 500;
insert into student values srow;
END;
RECORD BASED UPDATES
Ex:
DECLARE
srow student%rowtype;
BEGIN
srow.no := 6;
srow.name := 'cc';
srow.marks := 500;
update student set row=srow where no =
srow.no;
END;
USING RECORDS WITH RETURNING CLAUSE
Ex:
DECLARE
srow student%rowtype;
sreturn student%rowtype;
BEGIN
srow.no := 8;
srow.name := 'dd';
srow.marks := 500;
insert into student values srow returning
no,name,marks into sreturn;
dbms_output.put_line('No = ' || sreturn.no);
dbms_output.put_line('No = ' ||
sreturn.name);
dbms_output.put_line('No = ' ||
sreturn.marks);
END;
Output:
No = 8
No = dd
No = 500
FORALL STATEMENT
This can be used to get the data from the database at once
by reducting the number of context switches which is a
transfer of control between PL/SQL and SQL engine.
Syntax:
Forall index_var in
[ Lower_bound..upper_bound |
Indices of indexing_collection |
Values of indexing_collection ]
SQL statement;
FORALL WITH NON-SEQUENTIAL ARRAYS
Ex:
DECLARE
type t is table of student.no%type index by
binary_integer;
ibt t;
BEGIN
ibt(1) := 1;
ibt(10) := 2;
forall i in ibt.first..ibt.last
update student set marks = 900 where
no = ibt(i);
END;
The above program will give error like 'element at index
[2] does not exists. You can rectify it in one of the two
following ways.
USGAGE OF INDICES OF TO AVOID THE ABOVE
BEHAVIOUR
Ex:
DECLARE
type t is table of student.no%type index by
binary_integer;
ibt t;
type t1 is table of boolean index by
binary_integer;
ibt1 t1;
BEGIN
ibt(1) := 1;
ibt(10) := 2;
ibt(100) := 3;
ibt1(1) := true;
ibt1(10) := true;
ibt1(100) := true;
forall i in indices of ibt1
update student set marks = 900
where no = ibt(i);
END;
USGAGE OF INDICES OF TO AVOID THE ABOVE
BEHAVIOUR
Ex:
DECLARE
type t is table of student.no%type index by
binary_integer;
ibt t;
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type t1 is table of pls_integer index by
binary_integer;
ibt1 t1;
BEGIN
ibt(1) := 1;
ibt(10) := 2;
ibt(100) := 3;
ibt1(11) := 1;
ibt1(15) := 10;
ibt1(18) := 100;
forall i in values of ibt1
update student set marks = 567
where no = ibt(i);
END;
POINTS ABOUT BULK BINDS
• Passing the entire PL/SQL table to the SQL engine in
one step is known as bulk bind.
• Bulk binds are done using the forall statement.
• If there is an error processing one of the rows in bulk
DML operation, only that row is rolled back.
POINTS ABOUT RETURING CLAUSE
• This will be used only with DML statements to return
data into PL/SQL variables.
• This will be useful in situations like , when
performing insert or update or delete if you want to
know the data of the table which has been effected by
the DML.
• With out going for another SELECT using
RETURNING clause we will get the data which will
avoid a call to RDBMS kernel.
COLLECTIONS
• Collections are also composite types, in that they
allow you to treat several variables as a unit.
• A collection combines variables of the same type.
TYPES
• Varrays
• Nested tables
• Index - by tables (Associate arrays)
VARRAYS
• A varray is datatype very similar to an array.
• A varray has a fixed limit on its size, specified as part
of the declaration.
• Elements are inserted into varray starting at index 1,
up to maximum lenth declared in the varray type.
• The maximum size of the varray is 2 giga bytes.
Syntax:
Type <TYPE_NAME> is varray | varying array
(<LIMIT>) of <ELEMENT_TYPE>;
Ex1:
DECLARE
type t is varray(10) of varchar(2);
va t := t('a','b','c','d');
flag boolean;
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Limit = ' ||
va.limit);
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' ||
va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('First Index = ' ||
va.first);
dbms_output.put_line('Last Index = ' ||
va.last);
dbms_output.put_line('Next Index = ' ||
va.next(2));
dbms_output.put_line('Previous Index = ' ||
va.prior(3));
dbms_output.put_line('VARRAY ELEMENTS');
for i in va.first..va.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || ']
= ' || va(i));
end loop;
flag := va.exists(3);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 3 exists
with an element ' || va(3));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 3 does not
exists');
end if;
va.extend;
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of one
index, Count = ' || va.count);
flag := va.exists(5);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 5 exists
with an element ' || va(5));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 5 does not
exists');
end if;
flag := va.exists(6);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 6 exists
with an element ' || va(6));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 6 does not
exists');
end if;
va.extend(2);
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dbms_output.put_line('After extend of two
indexes, Count = ' || va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('VARRAY ELEMENTS');
for i in va.first..va.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || ']
= ' || va(i));
end loop;
va(5) := 'e';
va(6) := 'f';
va(7) := 'g';
dbms_output.put_line('AFTER ASSINGNING
VALUES TO EXTENDED ELEMENTS,
VARRAY ELEMENTS');
for i in va.first..va.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || ']
= ' || va(i));
end loop;
va.extend(3,2);
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of three
indexes,
Count = ' || va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('VARRAY ELEMENTS');
for i in va.first..va.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || ']
= ' || va(i));
end loop;
va.trim;
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of one
index, Count = ' || va.count);
va.trim(3);
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of three
indexs, Count = ' || va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('AFTER TRIM, VARRAY
ELEMENTS');
for i in va.first..va.last loop
dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || ']
= ' || va(i));
end loop;
va.delete;
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dbms_output.put_line('After delete of entire
varray,
Count = ' ||
va.count);
END;
Output:
Limit = 10
Count = 4
First Index = 1
Last Index = 4
Next Index = 3
Previous Index = 2
VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1] = a
va[2] = b
va[3] = c
va[4] = d
Index 3 exists with an element c
After extend of one index, Count = 5
Index 5 exists with an element
Index 6 does not exists
After extend of two indexes, Count = 7
VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1] = a
va[2] = b
va[3] = c
va[4] = d
va[5] =
va[6] =
va[7] =
AFTER ASSINGNING VALUES TO EXTENDED ELEMENTS,
VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1] = a
va[2] = b
va[3] = c
va[4] = d
va[5] = e
va[6] = f
va[7] = g
After extend of three indexes, Count = 10
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VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1] = a
va[2] = b
va[3] = c
va[4] = d
va[5] = e
va[6] = f
va[7] = g
va[8] = b
va[9] = b
va[10] = b
After trim of one index, Count = 9
After trim of three indexs, Count = 6
AFTER TRIM, VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1] = a
va[2] = b
va[3] = c
va[4] = d
va[5] = e
va[6] = f
After delete of entire varray, Count = 0
Ex2:
DECLARE
type t is varray(4) of student%rowtype;
va t := t(null,null,null,null);
BEGIN
for i in 1..va.count loop
select * into va(i) from student where sno
= i;
dbms_output.put_line('Sno = ' || va(i).sno
|| ' Sname = ' || va(i).sname);
end loop;
END;
Output:
Sno = 1 Sname = saketh
Sno = 2 Sname = srinu
Sno = 3 Sname = divya
Sno = 4 Sname = manogni
Ex3:
DECLARE
type t is varray(4) of student.smarks%type;
va t := t(null,null,null,null);
BEGIN
for i in 1..va.count loop
select smarks into va(i) from student
where sno = i;
dbms_output.put_line('Smarks = ' ||
va(i));
end loop;
END;
Output:
Smarks = 100
Smarks = 200
Smarks = 300
Smarks = 400
Ex4:
DECLARE
type r is record(c1 student.sname%type,c2
student.smarks%type);
type t is varray(4) of r;
va t := t(null,null,null,null);
BEGIN
for i in 1..va.count loop
select sname,smarks into va(i) from
student where sno = i;
dbms_output.put_line('Sname = ' ||
va(i).c1 || ' Smarks = '
|| va(i).c2);
end loop;
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END;
Output:
Sname = saketh Smarks = 100
Sname = srinu Smarks = 200
Sname = divya Smarks = 300
Sname = manogni Smarks = 400
Ex5:
DECLARE
type t is varray(1) of addr;
va t := t(null);
cursor c is select * from employ;
i number := 1;
BEGIN
for v in c loop
select address into va(i) from employ
where ename = v.ename;
dbms_output.put_line('Hno = ' ||
va(i).hno || ' City = '
|| va(i).city);
end loop;
END;
Output:
Hno = 11 City = hyd
Hno = 22 City = bang
Hno = 33 City = kochi
Ex6:
DECLARE
type t is varray(5) of varchar(2);
va1 t;
va2 t := t();
BEGIN
if va1 is null then
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dbms_output.put_line('va1 is null');
else
dbms_output.put_line('va1 is not null');
end if;
if va2 is null then
dbms_output.put_line('va2 is null');
else
dbms_output.put_line('va2 is not null');
end if;
END;
Output:
va1 is null
va2 is not null
NESTED TABLES
• A nested table is thought of a database table which
has no limit on its size.
• Elements are inserted into nested table starting at
index 1.
• The maximum size of the varray is 2 giga bytes.
Syntax:
Type <TYPE_NAME> is table of <TABLE_TYPE>;
Ex1:
DECLARE
type t is table of varchar(2);
nt t := t('a','b','c','d');
flag boolean;
BEGIN
if nt.limit is null then
dbms_output.put_line('No limit to
Nested Tables');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Limit = ' ||
nt.limit);
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' ||
nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('First Index = ' ||
nt.first);
dbms_output.put_line('Last Index = ' ||
nt.last);
dbms_output.put_line('Next Index = ' ||
nt.next(2));
dbms_output.put_line('Previous Index = ' ||
nt.prior(3));
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE
ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || ']
= ' || nt(i));
end loop;
flag := nt.exists(3);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 3 exists
with an element ' || nt(3));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 3 does not
exists');
end if;
nt.extend;
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of one
index, Count = ' || nt.count);
flag := nt.exists(5);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 5 exists
with an element ' || nt(5));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 5 does not
exists');
end if;
flag := nt.exists(6);
if flag = true then
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dbms_output.put_line('Index 6 exists
with an element ' || nt(6));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 6 does not
exists');
end if;
nt.extend(2);
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of two
indexes, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE
ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || ']
= ' || nt(i));
end loop;
nt(5) := 'e';
nt(6) := 'f';
nt(7) := 'g';
dbms_output.put_line('AFTER ASSINGNING
VALUES TO EXTENDED ELEMENTS,
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i ||
'] = ' || nt(i));
end loop;
nt.extend(5,2);
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of five
indexes, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE
ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || ']
= ' || nt(i));
end loop;
nt.trim;
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of one
index, Count = ' || nt.count);
nt.trim(3);
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of three
indexs, Count = ' || nt.count);
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dbms_output.put_line('AFTER TRIM, NESTED
TABLE ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i ||
'] = ' || nt(i));
end loop;
nt.delete(1);
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of first
index, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE
ELEMENTS');
for i in 2..nt.count+1 loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || ']
= ' || nt(i));
end loop;
nt.delete(4);
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of
fourth index, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE
ELEMENTS');
for i in 2..3 loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || ']
= ' || nt(i));
end loop;
for i in 5..nt.count+2 loop
dbms_output.put_line('nt[' || i || ']
= ' || nt(i));
end loop;
nt.delete;
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of
entire nested table,
Count =
' || nt.count);
END;
Output:
No limit to Nested Tables
Count = 4
First Index = 1
Last Index = 4
Next Index = 3
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Previous Index = 2
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1] = a
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[4] = d
Index 3 exists with an element c
After extend of one index, Count = 5
Index 5 exists with an element
Index 6 does not exists
After extend of two indexes, Count = 7
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1] = a
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[4] = d
nt[5] =
nt[6] =
nt[7] =
AFTER ASSINGNING VALUES TO EXTENDED ELEMENTS,
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1] = a
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[4] = d
nt[5] = e
nt[6] = f
nt[7] = g
After extend of five indexes, Count = 12
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1] = a
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[4] = d
nt[5] = e
nt[6] = f
nt[7] = g
nt[8] = b
nt[9] = b
nt[10] = b
nt[11] = b
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nt[12] = b
After trim of one index, Count = 11
After trim of three indexs, Count = 8
AFTER TRIM, NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1] = a
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[4] = d
nt[5] = e
nt[6] = f
nt[7] = g
nt[8] = b
After delete of first index, Count = 7
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[4] = d
nt[5] = e
nt[6] = f
nt[7] = g
nt[8] = b
After delete of fourth index, Count = 6
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[2] = b
nt[3] = c
nt[5] = e
nt[6] = f
nt[7] = g
nt[8] = b
After delete of entire nested table, Count = 0
Ex2:
DECLARE
type t is table of student%rowtype;
nt t := t(null,null,null,null);
BEGIN
for i in 1..nt.count loop
select * into nt(i) from student where sno
= i;
dbms_output.put_line('Sno = ' || nt(i).sno
|| ' Sname = ' || nt(i).sname);
end loop;
END;
Output:
Sno = 1 Sname = saketh
Sno = 2 Sname = srinu
Sno = 3 Sname = divya
Sno = 4 Sname = manogni
Ex3:
DECLARE
type t is table of student.smarks%type;
nt t := t(null,null,null,null);
BEGIN
for i in 1..nt.count loop
select smarks into nt(i) from student
where sno = i;
dbms_output.put_line('Smarks = ' ||
nt(i));
end loop;
END;
Output:
Smarks = 100
Smarks = 200
Smarks = 300
Smarks = 400
Ex4:
DECLARE
type r is record(c1 student.sname%type,c2
student.smarks%type);
type t is table of r;
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nt t := t(null,null,null,null);
BEGIN
for i in 1..nt.count loop
select sname,smarks into nt(i) from
student where sno = i;
dbms_output.put_line('Sname = ' ||
nt(i).c1 || ' Smarks = ' || nt(i).c2);
end loop;
END;
Output:
Sname = saketh Smarks = 100
Sname = srinu Smarks = 200
Sname = divya Smarks = 300
Sname = manogni Smarks = 400
Ex5:
DECLARE
type t is table of addr;
nt t := t(null);
cursor c is select * from employ;
i number := 1;
BEGIN
for v in c loop
select address into nt(i) from employ
where ename = v.ename;
dbms_output.put_line('Hno = ' ||
nt(i).hno || ' City = ' || nt(i).city);
end loop;
END;
Output:
Hno = 11 City = hyd
Hno = 22 City = bang
Hno = 33 City = kochi
Ex6:
DECLARE
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type t is varray(5) of varchar(2);
nt1 t;
nt2 t := t();
BEGIN
if nt1 is null then
dbms_output.put_line('nt1 is null');
else
dbms_output.put_line('nt1 is not null');
end if;
if nt2 is null then
dbms_output.put_line('nt2 is null');
else
dbms_output.put_line('nt2 is not null');
end if;
END;
Output:
nt1 is null
nt2 is not null
INDEX-BY TABLES
• An index-by table has no limit on its size.
• Elements are inserted into index-by table whose index
may start non-sequentially including negative
integers.
Syntax:
Type <TYPE_NAME> is table of <TABLE_TYPE>
index by binary_integer;
Ex:
DECLARE
type t is table of varchar(2) index by
binary_integer;
ibt t;
flag boolean;
BEGIN
ibt(1) := 'a';
ibt(-20) := 'b';
ibt(30) := 'c';
ibt(100) := 'd';
if ibt.limit is null then
dbms_output.put_line('No limit to Index
by Tables');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Limit = ' ||
ibt.limit);
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' ||
ibt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('First Index = ' ||
ibt.first);
dbms_output.put_line('Last Index = ' ||
ibt.last);
dbms_output.put_line('Next Index = ' ||
ibt.next(2));
dbms_output.put_line('Previous Index = ' ||
ibt.prior(3));
dbms_output.put_line('INDEX BY TABLE
ELEMENTS');
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[-20] = ' || ibt(-
20));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[1] = ' ||
ibt(1));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[30] = ' ||
ibt(30));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[100] = ' ||
ibt(100));
flag := ibt.exists(30);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 30 exists
with an element ' || ibt(30));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 30 does not
exists');
end if;
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flag := ibt.exists(50);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 50 exists
with an element ' || ibt(30));
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 50 does not
exists');
end if;
ibt.delete(1);
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of first
index, Count = ' || ibt.count);
ibt.delete(30);
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of index
thirty, Count = ' || ibt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('INDEX BY TABLE
ELEMENTS');
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[-20] = ' || ibt(-
20));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[100] = ' ||
ibt(100));
ibt.delete;
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of
entire
index-by table,
Count = ' || ibt.count);
END;
Output:
No limit to Index by Tables
Count = 4
First Index = -20
Last Index = 100
Next Index = 30
Previous Index = 1
INDEX BY TABLE ELEMENTS
ibt[-20] = b
ibt[1] = a
ibt[30] = c
ibt[100] = d
Index 30 exists with an element c
Index 50 does not exists
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After delete of first index, Count = 3
After delete of index thirty, Count = 2
INDEX BY TABLE ELEMENTS
ibt[-20] = b
ibt[100] = d
After delete of entire index-by table, Count = 0
DIFFERENCES AMONG COLLECTIONS
• Varrays has limit, nested tables and index-by tables
has no limit.
• Varrays and nested tables must be initialized before
assignment of elements, in index-by tables we can
directly assign elements.
• Varrays and nested tables stored in database, but
index-by tables can not.
• Nested tables and index-by tables are PL/SQL tables,
but varrays can not.
• Keys must be positive in case of nested tables and
varrays, in case of index-by tables keys can be
positive or negative.
• Referencing nonexistent elements raises
SUBSCRIPT_BEYOND_COUNT in both nested
tables and varrays, but in case of index-by tables
NO_DATA_FOUND raises.
• Keys are sequential in both nested tables and varrays,
non-sequential in index-by tables.
• Individual indexes can be deleted in both nested tables
and index-by tables, but in varrays can not.
• Individual indexes can be trimmed in both nested
tables and varrays, but in index-by tables can not.
• Individual indexes can be extended in both nested
tables and varrays, but in index-by tables can not.
MULTILEVEL COLLECTIONS
Collections of more than one dimension which is a
collection of collections, known as multilevel collections.
Syntax:
Type <TYPE_NAME1> is table of <TABLE_TYPE>
index by binary_integer; Type <TYPE_NAME2> is
varray(<LIMIT>) | table | of <TYPE_NAME1> | index
by binary_integer;
Ex1:
DECLARE
type t1 is table of varchar(2) index by
binary_integer;
type t2 is varray(5) of t1;
va t2 := t2();
c number := 97;
flag boolean;
BEGIN
va.extend(4);
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' ||
va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('Limit = ' ||
va.limit);
for i in 1..va.count loop
for j in 1..va.count loop
va(i)(j) := chr(c);
c := c + 1;
end loop;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('VARRAY ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..va.count loop
for j in 1..va.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i || ']['
|| j || '] = ' || va(i)(j));
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end loop;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('First index = ' ||
va.first);
dbms_output.put_line('Last index = ' ||
va.last);
dbms_output.put_line('Next index = ' ||
va.next(2));
dbms_output.put_line('Previous index = '
|| va.prior(3));
flag := va.exists(2);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 2
exists');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 2
exists');
end if;
va.extend;
va(1)(5) := 'q';
va(2)(5) := 'r';
va(3)(5) := 's';
va(4)(5) := 't';
va(5)(1) := 'u';
va(5)(2) := 'v';
va(5)(3) := 'w';
va(5)(4) := 'x';
va(5)(5) := 'y';
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of one
index, Count = ' || va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('VARRAY ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..va.count loop
for j in 1..va.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i ||
'][' || j || '] = ' || va(i)(j));
end loop;
end loop;
va.trim;
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of one
index, Count = ' || va.count);
va.trim(2);
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dbms_output.put_line('After trim of two
indexes, Count = ' || va.count);
dbms_output.put_line('VARRAY ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..va.count loop
for j in 1..va.count loop
dbms_output.put_line('va[' || i ||
'][' || j || '] = ' || va(i)(j));
end loop;
end loop;
va.delete;
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of
entire varray, Count = ' || va.count);
END;
Output:
Count = 4
Limit = 5
VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1][1] = a
va[1][2] = b
va[1][3] = c
va[1][4] = d
va[2][1] = e
va[2][2] = f
va[2][3] = g
va[2][4] = h
va[3][1] = i
va[3][2] = j
va[3][3] = k
va[3][4] = l
va[4][1] = m
va[4][2] = n
va[4][3] = o
va[4][4] = p
First index = 1
Last index = 4
Next index = 3
Previous index = 2
Index 2 exists
After extend of one index, Count = 5
VARRAY ELEMENTS
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va[1][1] = a
va[1][2] = b
va[1][3] = c
va[1][4] = d
va[1][5] = q
va[2][1] = e
va[2][2] = f
va[2][3] = g
va[2][4] = h
va[2][5] = r
va[3][1] = i
va[3][2] = j
va[3][3] = k
va[3][4] = l
va[3][5] = s
va[4][1] = m
va[4][2] = n
va[4][3] = o
va[4][4] = p
va[4][5] = t
va[5][1] = u
va[5][2] = v
va[5][3] = w
va[5][4] = x
va[5][5] = y
After trim of one index, Count = 4
After trim of two indexes, Count = 2
VARRAY ELEMENTS
va[1][1] = a
va[1][2] = b
va[2][1] = e
va[2][2] = f
After delete of entire varray, Count = 0
Ex2:
DECLARE
type t1 is table of varchar(2) index by
binary_integer;
type t2 is table of t1;
nt t2 := t2();
c number := 65;
v number := 1;
flag boolean;
BEGIN
nt.extend(4);
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' ||
nt.count);
if nt.limit is null then
dbms_output.put_line('No limit to
Nested Tables');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Limit = ' ||
nt.limit);
end if;
for i in 1..nt.count loop
for j in 1..nt.count loop
nt(i)(j) := chr(c);
c := c + 1;
if c = 91 then
c := 97;
end if;
end loop;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE
ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
for j in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line(
'nt[' || i || '][' || j
|| '] = ' || nt(i)(j));
end loop;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('First index = ' ||
nt.first);
dbms_output.put_line('Last index = ' ||
nt.last);
dbms_output.put_line('Next index = ' ||
nt.next(2));
dbms_output.put_line('Previous index = '
|| nt.prior(3));
flag := nt.exists(2);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 2
exists');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 2
exists');
end if;
nt.extend(2);
nt(1)(5) := 'Q';
nt(1)(6) := 'R';
nt(2)(5) := 'S';
nt(2)(6) := 'T';
nt(3)(5) := 'U';
nt(3)(6) := 'V';
nt(4)(5) := 'W';
nt(4)(6) := 'X';
nt(5)(1) := 'Y';
nt(5)(2) := 'Z';
nt(5)(3) := 'a';
nt(5)(4) := 'b';
nt(5)(5) := 'c';
nt(5)(6) := 'd';
nt(6)(1) := 'e';
nt(6)(2) := 'f';
nt(6)(3) := 'g';
nt(6)(4) := 'h';
nt(6)(5) := 'i';
nt(6)(6) := 'j';
dbms_output.put_line('After extend of one
index, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE
ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
for j in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line(
'nt[' || i || '][' || j ||
'] = ' || nt(i)(j));
end loop;
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end loop;
nt.trim;
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of one
indexe, Count = ' || nt.count);
nt.trim(2);
dbms_output.put_line('After trim of two
indexes, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE
ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
for j in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line(
'nt[' || i || '][' || j
|| '] = ' || nt(i)(j));
end loop;
end loop;
nt.delete(2);
dbms_output.put_line(
'After delete of second
index, Count = ' || nt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE
ELEMENTS');
loop
exit when v = 4;
for j in 1..nt.count+1 loop
dbms_output.put_line(
'nt[' || v || '][' || j
|| '] = ' || nt(v)(j));
end loop;
v := v + 1;
if v= 2 then
v := 3;
end if;
end loop;
nt.delete;
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of
entire nested table,
Count = ' || nt.count);
END;
Output:
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Count = 4
No limit to Nested Tables
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1][1] = A
nt[1][2] = B
nt[1][3] = C
nt[1][4] = D
nt[2][1] = E
nt[2][2] = F
nt[2][3] = G
nt[2][4] = H
nt[3][1] = I
nt[3][2] = J
nt[3][3] = K
nt[3][4] = L
nt[4][1] = M
nt[4][2] = N
nt[4][3] = O
nt[4][4] = P
First index = 1
Last index = 4
Next index = 3
Previous index = 2
Index 2 exists
After extend of one index, Count = 6
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1][1] = A
nt[1][2] = B
nt[1][3] = C
nt[1][4] = D
nt[1][5] = Q
nt[1][6] = R
nt[2][1] = E
nt[2][2] = F
nt[2][3] = G
nt[2][4] = H
nt[2][5] = S
nt[2][6] = T
nt[3][1] = I
nt[3][2] = J
nt[3][3] = K
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nt[3][4] = L
nt[3][5] = U
nt[3][6] = V
nt[4][1] = M
nt[4][2] = N
nt[4][3] = O
nt[4][4] = P
nt[4][5] = W
nt[4][6] = X
nt[5][1] = Y
nt[5][2] = Z
nt[5][3] = a
nt[5][4] = b
nt[5][5] = c
nt[5][6] = d
nt[6][1] = e
nt[6][2] = f
nt[6][3] = g
nt[6][4] = h
nt[6][5] = i
nt[6][6] = j
After trim of one indexe, Count = 5
After trim of two indexes, Count = 3
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1][1] = A
nt[1][2] = B
nt[1][3] = C
nt[2][1] = E
nt[2][2] = F
nt[2][3] = G
nt[3][1] = I
nt[3][2] = J
nt[3][3] = K
After delete of second index, Count = 2
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1][1] = A
nt[1][2] = B
nt[1][3] = C
nt[3][1] = I
nt[3][2] = J
nt[3][3] = K
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After delete of entire nested table, Count = 0
Ex3:
DECLARE
type t1 is table of varchar(2) index by
binary_integer;
type t2 is table of t1 index by
binary_integer;
ibt t2;
flag boolean;
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' ||
ibt.count);
if ibt.limit is null then
dbms_output.put_line('No limit to
Index-by Tables');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Limit = ' ||
ibt.limit);
end if;
ibt(1)(1) := 'a';
ibt(4)(5) := 'b';
ibt(5)(1) := 'c';
ibt(6)(2) := 'd';
ibt(8)(3) := 'e';
ibt(3)(4) := 'f';
dbms_output.put_line('INDEX-BY TABLE
ELEMENTS');
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([1][1] = ' ||
ibt(1)(1));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([4][5] = ' ||
ibt(4)(5));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([5][1] = ' ||
ibt(5)(1));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([6][2] = ' ||
ibt(6)(2));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([8][3] = ' ||
ibt(8)(3));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([3][4] = ' ||
ibt(3)(4));
dbms_output.put_line('First Index = ' ||
ibt.first);
dbms_output.put_line('Last Index = ' ||
ibt.last);
dbms_output.put_line('Next Index = ' ||
ibt.next(3));
dbms_output.put_line('Prior Index = ' ||
ibt.prior(8));
ibt(1)(2) := 'g';
ibt(1)(3) := 'h';
ibt(1)(4) := 'i';
ibt(1)(5) := 'k';
ibt(1)(6) := 'l';
ibt(1)(7) := 'm';
ibt(1)(8) := 'n';
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' ||
ibt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('INDEX-BY TABLE
ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..8 loop
dbms_output.put_line('ibt[1][' || i
|| '] = ' || ibt(1)(i));
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([4][5] = ' ||
ibt(4)(5));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([5][1] = ' ||
ibt(5)(1));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([6][2] = ' ||
ibt(6)(2));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([8][3] = ' ||
ibt(8)(3));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([3][4] = ' ||
ibt(3)(4));
flag := ibt.exists(3);
if flag = true then
dbms_output.put_line('Index 3 exists');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Index 3 exists');
end if;
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ibt.delete(1);
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of first
index, Count = ' || ibt.count);
ibt.delete(4);
dbms_output.put_line('After delete of
fourth index, Count = ' || ibt.count);
dbms_output.put_line('INDEX-BY TABLE
ELEMENTS');
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([5][1] = ' ||
ibt(5)(1));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([6][2] = ' ||
ibt(6)(2));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([8][3] = ' ||
ibt(8)(3));
dbms_output.put_line('ibt([3][4] = ' ||
ibt(3)(4));
ibt.delete;
dbms_output.put_line('After delete
of entire index-by table, Count =
' || ibt.count);
END;
Output:
Count = 0
No limit to Index-by Tables
INDEX-BY TABLE ELEMENTS
ibt([1][1] = a
ibt([4][5] = b
ibt([5][1] = c
ibt([6][2] = d
ibt([8][3] = e
ibt([3][4] = f
First Index = 1
Last Index = 8
Next Index = 4
Prior Index = 6
Count = 6
INDEX-BY TABLE ELEMENTS
ibt[1][1] = a
ibt[1][2] = g
ibt[1][3] = h
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ibt[1][4] = i
ibt[1][5] = k
ibt[1][6] = l
ibt[1][7] = m
ibt[1][8] = n
ibt([4][5] = b
ibt([5][1] = c
ibt([6][2] = d
ibt([8][3] = e
ibt([3][4] = f
Index 3 exists
After delete of first index, Count = 5
After delete of fourth index, Count = 4
INDEX-BY TABLE ELEMENTS
ibt([5][1] = c
ibt([6][2] = d
ibt([8][3] = e
ibt([3][4] = f
After delete of entire index-by table, Count = 0
Ex4:
DECLARE
type t1 is table of varchar(2) index by
binary_integer;
type t2 is table of t1 index by
binary_integer;
type t3 is table of t2;
nt t3 := t3();
c number := 65;
BEGIN
nt.extend(2);
dbms_output.put_line('Count = ' ||
nt.count);
for i in 1..nt.count loop
for j in 1..nt.count loop
for k in 1..nt.count loop
nt(i)(j)(k) := chr(c);
c := c + 1;
end loop;
end loop;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('NESTED TABLE
ELEMENTS');
for i in 1..nt.count loop
for j in 1..nt.count loop
for k in 1..nt.count loop
dbms_output.put_line(
'nt[' || i || '][' || j ||
'][' || k || '] = ' ||nt(i)(j)(k));
end loop;
end loop;
end loop;
END;
Output:
Count = 2
NESTED TABLE ELEMENTS
nt[1][1][1] = A
nt[1][1][2] = B
nt[1][2][1] = C
nt[1][2][2] = D
nt[2][1][1] = E
nt[2][1][2] = F
nt[2][2][1] = G
nt[2][2][2] = H
OBJECTS USED IN THE EXAMPLES
SQL> select * from student;
SNO SNAME SMARKS
---------- -------------- ----------
1 saketh 100
2 srinu 200
3 divya 300
4 manogni 400
SQL> create or replace type addr as object(hno
number(2),city varchar(10));/
SQL> select * from employ;
ENAME JOB ADDRESS(HNO, CITY)
---------- ---------- ----------------------------
-
Ranjit clerk ADDR(11, 'hyd')
Satish manager ADDR(22, 'bang')
Srinu engineer ADDR(33, 'kochi')
ERROR HANDLING
• PL/SQL implements error handling with exceptions
and exception handlers.
• Exceptions can be associated with oracle errors or
with your own user-defined errors.
• By using exceptions and exception handlers, you can
make your PL/SQL programs robust and able to deal
with both unexpected and expected errors during
execution.
ERROR TYPES
• Compile-time errors
• Runtime errors
• Errors that occur during the compilation phase are
detected by the PL/SQL engine and reported back to
the user, we have to correct them.
• Runtime errors are detected by the PL/SQL runtime
engine which can programmatically raise and caught
by exception handlers.
• Exceptions are designed for run-time error handling,
rather than compile-time error handling.
HANDLING EXCEPTIONS
• When exception is raised, control passes to the
exception section of the block.
• The exception section consists of handlers for some or
all of the exceptions.
• An exception handler contains the code that is
executed when the error associated with the exception
occurs, and the exception is raised.
Syntax:
EXCEPTION
When exception_name then
Sequence_of_statements;
When exception_name then
Sequence_of_statements;
When others then
Sequence_of_statements;
END;
EXCEPTION TYPES
• Predefined exceptions
• User-defined exceptions
PREDEFINED EXCEPTIONS
• Oracle has predefined several exceptions that
corresponds to the most common oracle errors.
• Like the predefined types, the identifiers of these
exceptions are defined in the STANDARD package.
• Because of this, they are already available to the
program, it is not necessary to declare them in the
declarative secion.
Ex1:
DECLARE
a number;
b varchar(2);
v_marks number;
cursor c is select * from student;
type t is varray(3) of varchar(2);
va t := t('a','b');
va1 t;
BEGIN
-- NO_DATA_FOUND
BEGIN
select smarks into v_marks from
student where sno = 50;
EXCEPTION
when no_data_found then
dbms_output.put_line('Invalid
student number');
END;
-- CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN
BEGIN
open c;
open c;
EXCEPTION
when cursor_already_open then
dbms_output.put_line('Cursor is
already opened');
END;
-- INVALID_CURSOR
BEGIN
close c;
open c;
close c;
close c;
EXCEPTION
when invalid_cursor then
dbms_output.put_line('Cursor is
already closed');
END;
-- TOO_MANY_ROWS
BEGIN
select smarks into v_marks from
student where sno > 1;
EXCEPTION
when too_many_rows then
dbms_output.put_line('Too many values
are coming to marks variable');
END;
-- ZERO_DIVIDE
BEGIN
a := 5/0;
EXCEPTION
when zero_divide then
dbms_output.put_line('Divided by zero
- invalid operation');
END;
-- VALUE_ERROR
BEGIN
b := 'saketh';
EXCEPTION
when value_error then
dbms_output.put_line('Invalid string
length');
END;
-- INVALID_NUMBER
BEGIN
insert into student
values('a','srinu',100);
EXCEPTION
when invalid_number then
dbms_output.put_line('Invalid
number');
END;
-- SUBSCRIPT_OUTSIDE_LIMIT
BEGIN
va(4) := 'c';
EXCEPTION
when subscript_outside_limit then
dbms_output.put_line('Index is
greater than the limit');
END;
-- SUBSCRIPT_BEYOND_COUNT
BEGIN
va(3) := 'c';
EXCEPTION
when subscript_beyond_count then
dbms_output.put_line('Index is
greater than the count');
END;
-- COLLECTION_IS_NULL
BEGIN
va1(1) := 'a';
EXCEPTION
when collection_is_null then
dbms_output.put_line('Collection is
empty');
END;
--
END;
Output:
Invalid student number
Cursor is already opened
Cursor is already closed
Too many values are coming to marks variable
Divided by zero - invalid operation
Invalid string length
371
[email protected]
Invalid number
Index is greater than the limit
Index is greater than the count
Collection is empty
Ex2:
DECLARE
c number;
BEGIN
c := 5/0;
EXCEPTION
when zero_divide then
dbms_output.put_line('Invalid
Operation');
when others then
dbms_output.put_line('From OTHERS
handler: Invalid Operation');
END;
Output:
Invalid Operation
USER-DEFINED EXCEPTIONS
• A user-defined exception is an error that is defined by
the programmer.
• User-defined exceptions are declared in the
declarative secion of a PL/SQL block.
• Just like variables, exeptions have a type
EXCEPTION and scope.
• RAISING EXCEPTIONS User-defined exceptions
are raised explicitly via the RAISE statement.
Ex:
DECLARE
372
[email protected]
e exception;
BEGIN
raise e;
EXCEPTION
when e then
dbms_output.put_line('e is
raised');
END;
Output:
e is raised
BULIT-IN ERROR FUNCTIONS
SQLCODE AND SQLERRM
• SQLCODE returns the current error code, and
SQLERRM returns the current error message text;
• For user-defined exception SQLCODE returns 1 and
SQLERRM returns "user-deifned exception".
• SQLERRM wiil take only negative value except 100.
If any positive value other than 100 returns non-oracle
exception.
Ex1:
DECLARE
e exception;
v_dname varchar(10);
BEGIN
-- USER-DEFINED EXCEPTION
BEGIN
raise e;
EXCEPTION
when e then
dbms_output.put_line(SQLCODE || ' ' || SQLERRM);
END;
-- PREDEFINED EXCEPTION
BEGIN
select dname into v_dname from dept
where deptno = 50;
EXCEPTION
when no_data_found then
dbms_output.put_line(SQLCODE || ' ' || SQLERRM);
END;
END;
Output:
1 User-Defined Exception
100 ORA-01403: no data found
Ex2:
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(100));
dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(0));
dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(1));
dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(-100));
dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(-500));
dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(200));
dbms_output.put_line(SQLERRM(-900));
END;
Output:
ORA-01403: no data found
ORA-0000: normal, successful completion
User-Defined Exception
ORA-00100: no data found
ORA-00500: Message 500 not found; product=RDBMS;
facility=ORA
-200: non-ORACLE exception
ORA-00900: invalid SQL statement
DBMS_UTILITY.FORMAT_ERROR_STACK
The built-in function, like SQLERRM, returns the message
associated with the current error.
It differs from SQLERRM in two ways:
Its length is not restricted; it will return the full error
message string.
You can not pass an error code number to this function; it
cannot be used to return the message for a random error
code.
Ex:
DECLARE
v number := 'ab';
BEGIN
null;
EXCEPTION
when others then
dbms_output.put_line(dbms_utility.format_error_sta
ck);
END;
Output:
declare
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-06502: PL/SQL: numeric or value error:
character to number conversion error
ORA-06512: at line 2
DBMS_UTILITY.FORMAT_CALL_STACK
• This function returns a formatted string showing the
execution call stack inside your PL/SQL application.
375
[email protected]
• Its usefulness is not restricted to error management;
• you will also find its handy for tracing the exectution
of your code.
• You may not use this function in exception block.
Ex:
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line(dbms_utility.format_call_stac
k);
END;
Output:
----- PL/SQL Call Stack -----
Object_handle line_number
object_name
69760478 2
anonymous block
DBMS_UTILITY.FORMAT_ERROR_BACKTRACE
• It displays the execution stack at the point where an
exception was raised.
• Thus , you can call this function with an exception
section at the top level of your stack and still find out
where the error was raised deep within the call stack.
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P1 IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('from procedure 1');
raise value_error;
END P1;
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P2 IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('from procedure 2');
p1;
END P2;
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE P3 IS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('from procedure 3');
p2;
EXCEPTION
when others then
dbms_output.put_line(dbms_utility.format_error_bac
ktrace);
END P3;
Output:
SQL> exec p3
from procedure 3
from procedure 2
from procedure 1
ORA-06512: at "SAKETH.P1", line 4
ORA-06512: at "SAKETH.P2", line 4
ORA-06512: at "SAKETH.P3", line 4
EXCEPTION_INIT PRAGMA
• Using this you can associate a named exception with a
particular oracle error.
• This gives you the ability to trap this error
specifically, rather than via an OTHERS handler.
Syntax:
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(exception_name,
oracle_error_number);
Ex:
DECLARE
e exception;
pragma exception_init(e,-1476);
c number;
BEGIN
c := 5/0;
EXCEPTION
when e then
dbms_output.put_line('Invalid
Operation');
END;
Output:
Invalid Operation
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR
You can use this built-in function to create your own error
messages, which can be more descriptive than named
exceptions.
Syntax:
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(error_number,
error_message,, [keep_errors_flag]);
• The Boolean parameter keep_errors_flag is optional.
• If it is TRUE, the new error is added to the list of
errors already raised.
• If it is FALSE, which is default, the new error will
replace the current list of errors.
Ex:
DECLARE
c number;
BEGIN
c := 5/0;
EXCEPTION
when zero_divide then
raise_application_error(-
20222,'Invalid Operation');
END;
Output:
DECLARE
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20222: Invalid Operation
ORA-06512: at line 7
EXCEPTION PROPAGATION
Exceptions can occur in the declarative, the executable, or
the exception section of a PL/SQL block.
EXCEPTION RAISED IN THE EXECUATABLE
SECTION
Exceptions raised in execuatable section can be handled in
current block or outer block.
Ex1:
DECLARE
e exception;
BEGIN
BEGIN
raise e;
END;
EXCEPTION
when e then
dbms_output.put_line('e is raised');
END;
Output:
e is raised
Ex2:
DECLARE
e exception;
BEGIN
BEGIN
raise e;
END;
END;
Output:
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-06510: PL/SQL: unhandled user-defined
exception
ORA-06512: at line 5
EXCEPTION RAISED IN THE DECLARATIVE
SECTION
Exceptions raised in the declarative secion must be
handled in the outer block.
Ex1:
DECLARE
c number(3) := 'abcd';
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Hello');
EXCEPTION
when others then
dbms_output.put_line('Invalid string
length');
END;
Output:
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-06502: PL/SQL: numeric or value error:
character to number conversion error
ORA-06512: at line 2
Ex2:
BEGIN
DECLARE
c number(3) := 'abcd';
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Hello');
EXCEPTION
when others then
dbms_output.put_line('Invalid
string length');
END;
EXCEPTION
when others then
dbms_output.put_line('From outer block:
Invalid string length');
END;
Output:
From outer block: Invalid string length
EXCEPTION RAISED IN THE EXCEPTION
SECTION
Exceptions raised in the declarative secion must be
handled in the outer block.
Ex1:
DECLARE
e1 exception;
e2 exception;
BEGIN
raise e1;
EXCEPTION
when e1 then
dbms_output.put_line('e1 is
raised');
raise e2;
when e2 then
dbms_output.put_line('e2 is
raised');
END;
Output:
e1 is raised
DECLARE
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-06510: PL/SQL: unhandled user-defined
exception
ORA-06512: at line 9
ORA-06510: PL/SQL: unhandled user-defined
exception
Ex2:
DECLARE
e1 exception;
e2 exception;
BEGIN
BEGIN
raise e1;
EXCEPTION
when e1 then
dbms_output.put_line('e1 is
raised');
raise e2;
when e2 then
dbms_output.put_line('e2 is
raised');
END;
EXCEPTION
when e2 then
dbms_output.put_line('From outer block:
e2 is raised');
END;
Output:
e1 is raised
From outer block: e2 is raised
Ex3:
DECLARE
e exception;
BEGIN
raise e;
EXCEPTION
when e then
dbms_output.put_line('e is
raised');
raise e;
END;
Output:
e is raised
DECLARE
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-06510: PL/SQL: unhandled user-defined
exception
ORA-06512: at line 8
ORA-06510: PL/SQL: unhandled user-defined
exception
RESTRICTIONS
You can not pass exception as an argument to a
subprogram.
DATABASE TRIGGERS
• Triggers are similar to procedures or functions in that
they are named PL/SQL blocks with declarative,
executable, and exception handling sections.
• A trigger is executed implicitly whenever the
triggering event happens.
• The act of executing a trigger is known as firing the
trigger.
RESTRICTIONS ON TRIGGERES
• Like packages, triggers must be stored as stand-alone
objects in the database and cannot be local to a block
or package.
• A trigger does not accept arguments.
USE OF TRIGGERS
• Maintaining complex integrity constraints not
possible through declarative constraints enable at
table creation.
• Auditing information in a table by recording the
changes made and who made them.
• Automatically signaling other programs that action
needs to take place when chages are made to a table.
• Perform validation on changes being made to tables.
• Automate maintenance of the database.
TYPES OF TRIGGERS
• DML Triggers
• Instead of Triggers
• DDL Triggers
• System Triggers
• Suspend Triggers
CATEGORIES
Timing -- Before or After
Level -- Row or Statement
• Row level trigger fires once for each row affected by
the triggering statement.
• Row level trigger is identified by the FOR EACH
ROW clause.
• Statement level trigger fires once either before or after
the statement.
DML TRIGGER SYNTAX
Create or replace trigger <trigger_name>
Before | after on insert or update or delete
[For each row]
Begin
-- trigger body
End <trigger_name>;
DML TRIGGERS
• A DML trigger is fired on an INSERT, UPDATE, or
DELETE operation on a database table.
• It can be fired either before or after the statement
executes, and can be fired once per affected row, or
once per statement.
• The combination of these factors determines the types
of the triggers.
• These are a total of 12 possible types (3 statements * 2
timing * 2 levels).
ORDER OF DML TRIGGER FIRING
• Before statement level
• Before row level
• After row level
• After statement level
Ex:
Suppose we have a follwing table.
SQL> select * from student;
NO NAME MARKS
----- ------- ----------
1 a 100
2 b 200
3 c 300
4 d 400
Also we have triggering_firing_order table with
firing_order as the field.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER TRIGGER1
before insert on student
BEGIN
insert into trigger_firing_order
values('Before Statement Level');
END TRIGGER1;
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER TRIGGER2
before insert on student
for each row
BEGIN
insert into trigger_firing_order
values('Before Row Level');
END TRIGGER2;
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER TRIGGER3
after insert on student
BEGIN
insert into trigger_firing_order values('After
Statement Level');
END TRIGGER3;
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER TRIGGER4
after insert on student
for each row
BEGIN
insert into trigger_firing_order values('After
Row Level');
END TRIGGER4;
Output:
SQL> select * from trigger_firing_order;
no rows selected
SQL> insert into student values(5,'e',500);
1 row created.
SQL> select * from trigger_firing_order;
FIRING_ORDER
--------------------------------------------------
Before Statement Level
Before Row Level
After Row Level
387
[email protected]
After Statement Level
SQL> select * from student;
NO NAME MARKS
---- -------- ----------
1 a 100
2 b 200
3 c 300
4 d 400
5 e 500
CORRELATION IDENTIFIERS IN ROW-LEVEL
TRIGGERS
• Inside the trigger, you can access the data in the row
that is currently being processed.
• This is accomplished through two correlation
identifiers - :old and :new.
• A correlation identifier is a special kind of PL/SQL
bind variable.
• The colon in front of each indicates that they are bind
variables, in the sense of host variables used in
embedded PL/SQL, and indicates that they are not
regular PL/SQL variables.
• The PL/SQL compiler will treat them as records of
type Triggering_table%ROWTYPE.
• Although syntactically they are treated as records, in
reality they are not. :old and :new are also known as
pseudorecords, for this reason.
TRIGGERING STATEMENT :OLD :NEW
-------------------- ---------------------- --
------------------------
INSERT all fields are NULL.
values that will be inserted
When
the statement is completed.
UPDATE original values for new
values that will be updated
the row before the when
the statement is completed.
update.
DELETE original values before
all fields are NULL.
the row is deleted.
Ex:
Suppose we have a table called marks with fields no,
old_marks, new_marks.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER OLD_NEW
before insert or update or delete on student
for each row
BEGIN
insert into marks
values(:old.no,:old.marks,:new.marks);
END OLD_NEW;
Output:
SQL> select * from student;
NO NAME MARKS
---- ------- -------
1 a 100
2 b 200
3 c 300
4 d 400
5 e 500
SQL> select * from marks;
no rows selected
SQL> insert into student values(6,'f',600);
389
[email protected]
1 row created.
SQL> select * from student;
NO NAME MARKS
---- ------ -------
1 a 100
2 b 200
3 c 300
4 d 400
5 e 500
6 f 600
SQL> select * from marks;
NO OLD_MARKS NEW_MARKS
---- -------- ---------
600
SQL> update student set marks=555 where no=5;
1 row updated.
SQL> select * from student;
NO NAME MARKS
----- ------- -------
1 a 100
2 b 200
3 c 300
4 d 400
5 e 555
6 f 600
SQL> select * from marks;
NO OLD_MARKS NEW_MARKS
---- ---------- -----------
600
5 500 555
SQL> delete student where no = 2;
1 row deleted.
SQL> select * from student;
NO NAME MARKS
---- ------ ----------
1 a 100
3 c 300
4 d 400
5 e 555
6 f 600
SQL> select * from marks;
NO OLD_MARKS NEW_MARKS
---- ---------- ----------------
600
5 500 555
2 200
REFERENCING CLAUSE
If desired, you can use the REFERENCING clause to
specify a different name for :old ane :new.
This clause is found after the triggering event, before the
WHEN clause.
Syntax:
REFERENCING [old as old_name] [new as
new_name]
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER REFERENCE_TRIGGER
before insert or update or delete on student
referencing old as old_student new as
new_student
for each row
BEGIN
insert into marks
values(:old_student.no,:old_student.marks,:new_stu
dent.marks);
END REFERENCE_TRIGGER;
WHEN CLAUSE
WHEN clause is valid for row-level triggers only.
If present, the trigger body will be executed only for those
rows that meet the condition specified by the WHEN
clause.
Syntax:
WHEN trigger_condition;
Where trigger_condition is a Boolean expression.
It will be evaluated for each row. The :new and :old
records can be referenced inside trigger_condition as well,
but like REFERENCING, the colon is not used there.
The colon is only valid in the trigger body.
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER WHEN_TRIGGER
before insert or update or delete on student
referencing old as old_student new as
new_student
for each row
when (new_student.marks > 500)
BEGIN
insert into marks
values(:old_student.no,:old_student.marks,:new_stu
dent.marks);
END WHEN_TRIGGER;
TRIGGER PREDICATES
There are three Boolean functions that you can use to
determine what the operation is.
The predicates are
• INSERTING
• UPDATING
• DELETING
Ex:
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER PREDICATE_TRIGGER
before insert or update or delete on
student
BEGIN
if inserting then
insert into predicates values('I');
elsif updating then
insert into predicates values('U');
elsif deleting then
insert into predicates values('D');
end if;
END PREDICATE_TRIGGER;
Output:
SQL> delete student where no=1;
1 row deleted.
SQL> select * from predicates;
MSG
---------------
D
SQL> insert into student values(7,'g',700);
1 row created.
SQL> select * from predicates;
MSG
---------------
D
I
SQL> update student set marks = 777 where no=7;
1 row updated.
SQL> select * from predicates;
MSG
---------------
D
I
U
INSTEAD-OF TRIGGERS
Instead-of triggers fire instead of a DML operation.
Also, instead-of triggers can be defined only on views.
Instead-of triggers are used in two cases:
• To allow a view that would otherwise not be
modifiable to be modified.
• To modify the columns of a nested table column in a
view.
394
[email protected]
395
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