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 Essentials of Psychology
Concepts and Applications

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 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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 THIRD EDITION

Essentials of Psychology
Concepts and Applications

Jeffrey S. Nevid
St. John’s University

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

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 Essentials of Psychology: Concepts and © 2012, 2009 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
Applications, Third Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be
Jeffrey S. Nevid
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 This text is dedicated to the thousands of psychology instructors
who share their excitement and enthusiasm for the field of
psychology with their students and seek to help them better
understand the many contributions of psychology to our daily
lives and to our understanding of ourselves and others. I consider
myself fortunate to have the opportunity to be one of them.

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 About the Author

Dr. Jeffrey Nevid is Professor of Psychology at St. John’s University in New York. He received his
doctorate from the State University of New York at Albany and completed a post-doctoral fellow-
ship in evaluation research at Northwestern University.
Dr. Nevid has conducted research in many areas of psychology, including health psychology,
clinical and community psychology, social psychology, gender and human sexuality, adolescent
development, and teaching of psychology. His research publications have appeared in such journals
as Health Psychology, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Journal of Community Psychology,
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Behavior Therapy, Psychology & Marketing, Professional Psychology,
Teaching of Psychology, Sex Roles, and Journal of Social Psychology, among others. Dr. Nevid also
served as Editorial Consultant for the journals Health Psychology and Psychology and Marketing and
as Associate Editor for Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. He is presently actively involved
in conducting research on pedagogical advances to help students succeed in their courses.
Dr. Nevid has authored or coauthored a number of other college-level texts, including Abnormal
Psychology in a Changing World, published by Pearson Education, Human Sexuality in a World of
Diversity, also published by Pearson Education, Psychology and the Challenges of Life: Adjustment
and Growth, published by John Wiley & Sons, and A Student’s Guide to AIDS and Other Sexually
Transmitted Diseases, published by Allyn & Bacon. He lives in New York with his wife Judy and
their two children, Michael and Daniella.

vi

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Brief Contents

About the Author vi

Contents ix
Preface xvi
Acknowledgments xxi
A Message to Students xxxii

1 The Science of Psychology 3

2 Biological Foundations of Behavior 37
3 Sensation and Perception 81
4 Consciousness 125
5 Learning 163
6 Memory 197
7 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 227
8 Motivation and Emotion 261
9 Human Development 301
10 Psychology and Health 351
11 Personality 383
12 Psychological Disorders 419
13 Methods of Therapy 455
14 Social Psychology 487

APPENDIX A: Sample Answers to Thinking Critically About Psychology Questions A-1

APPENDIX B: Answers to Recall It Questions A-4
APPENDIX C: Statistics in Psychology A-6
References R-1
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1
Glossary G-1

vii

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 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Contents

About the Author vi

Preface xvi
Acknowledgments xxi
A Message to Students xxxii

Chapter 1
The Science of Psychology 3
MODULE 1.1 Foundations of Modern Psychology 4 Research Methods: How We Learn What We Know 22
Origins of Psychology 4 The Experimental Method 25
Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology 8 Anatomy of a Research Study: Do Warm Hands
Module 1.1 Review 13 Make a Warm Heart? 26
Ethical Principles in Psychological Research 28
MODULE 1.2 Psychologists: Who They Are and
Module 1.3 Review 30
What They Do 14
Specialty Areas of Psychology 14 MODULE 1.4 Application: Becoming a Critical Thinker 31
Professional Psychology: Becoming More Diverse 18 Features of Critical Thinking 31
Module 1.2 Review 19 Thinking Critically About Online Information 32
MODULE 1.3 Research Methods in Psychology 20
The Scientific Method: How We Know What We Know 20

Chapter 2
Biological Foundations of Behavior 37
MODULE 2.1 Neurons: The Body’s Wiring 38 The Forebrain 52
The Structure of the Neuron 38 The Cerebral Cortex: The Brain’s Thinking, Calculating,
How Neurons Communicate 40 Organizing, and Creative Center 53
Neurotransmitters: The Nervous System’s Chemical Module 2.3 Review 57
Messengers 41
MODULE 2.4 Methods of Studying the Brain 58
Module 2.1 Review 44
Recording and Imaging Techniques 58
MODULE 2.2 The Nervous System: Your Body’s Information Experimental Methods 60
Superhighway 46 Module 2.4 Review 61
The Central Nervous System: Your Body’s Master Control
MODULE 2.5 The Divided Brain: Specialization of
Unit 47
The Peripheral Nervous System: Your Body’s Link to the Function 62
Outside World 49 The Brain at Work: Lateralization and Integration 62
Module 2.2 Review 50
Handedness: Why Are People Not More Even-Handed? 64
Split-Brain Research: Can the Hemispheres Go It Alone? 64
MODULE 2.3 The Brain: Your Crowning Glory 51 Brain Damage and Psychological Functioning 65
The Hindbrain 51 Module 2.5 Review 67
The Midbrain 51
ix

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x | C ON T E N T S

MODULE 2.6 The Endocrine System: The Body’s Other Genetic Influences on Behavior 73
Communication System 68 Kinship Studies: Untangling the Roles of Heredity and
Endocrine Glands: The Body’s Pumping Stations 69 Environment 73
Hormones and Behavior 71 Module 2.7 Review 76
Module 2.6 Review 71
MODULE 2.8 Application: Biofeedback Training: Learning by
MODULE 2.7 Genes and Behavior: A Case of Nature and Listening to the Body 76
Nurture 72

Chapter 3
Sensation and Perception 81
MODULE 3.1 Sensing Our World: Basic Concepts of The Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses: Of Grace and
Sensation 82 Balance 103
Absolute and Difference Thresholds: Is Something There? Module 3.4 Review 104
Is Something Else There? 82
MODULE 3.5 Perceiving Our World: Principles of
Signal Detection: More Than a Matter of Energy 84
Sensory Adaptation: Turning the Volume Down 84 Perception 105
Module 3.1 Review 85
Attention: Did You Notice That? 106
Perceptual Set: Seeing What You Expect to See 106
MODULE 3.2 Vision: Seeing the Light 86 Modes of Visual Processing: Bottom-Up vs.
Light: The Energy of Vision 86 Top-Down 107
The Eye: The Visionary Sensory Organ 87 Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization 107
Feature Detectors: Getting Down to Basics 89 Gestalt Laws of Grouping 109
Color Vision: Sensing a Colorful World 89 Perceptual Constancies 109
Module 3.2 Review 92 Cues to Depth Perception 110
Motion Perception 111
MODULE 3.3 Hearing: The Music of Sound 93 Visual Illusions: Do Your Eyes Deceive You? 112
Sound: Sensing Waves of Vibration 93 Controversies in Perception: Subliminal Perception and
The Ear: A Sound Machine 94 Extrasensory Perception 115
Perception of Pitch: Perceiving the Highs and Lows 95 Module 3.5 Review 118
Hearing Loss: Are You Protecting Your Hearing? 96
Module 3.3 Review 97 MODULE 3.6 Application: Psychology and Pain
Management 119
MODULE 3.4 Our Other Senses: Chemical, Skin,
Distraction 119
and Body Senses 98 Creating a Bottleneck at the “Gate” 119
Olfaction: What Your Nose Knows 99 Changing Thoughts and Attitudes 120
Taste: The Flavorful Sense 100 Obtaining Accurate Information 120
The Skin Senses: Your Largest Sensory Organ 102 Meditation and Biofeedback 120

Chapter 4
Consciousness 125
MODULE 4.1 States of Consciousness 126 MODULE 4.2 Sleeping and Dreaming 130
Focused Awareness 126 Sleep and Wakefulness: A Circadian Rhythm 130
Drifting Consciousness 126 The Stages of Sleep 131
Divided Consciousness 127 Why Do We Sleep? 132
Module 4.1 Review 129 Dreams and Dreaming 133

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 C ON T E N T S | xi

Sleep Deprivation: Getting By on Less 136 MODULE 4.4 Altering Consciousness Through Drugs 142
Sleep Disorders: When Normal Sleep Eludes Us 136 Drug Abuse: When Drug Use Causes Harm 143
Module 4.2 Review 138 Drug Dependence: When the Drug Takes Control 143
Depressants 144
MODULE 4.3 Altering Consciousness Through Meditation and Stimulants 149
Hypnosis 139 Hallucinogens 152
Meditation: Achieving a Peaceful State by Focusing Your Understanding Drug Abuse 153
Attention 139 Drug Treatment 156
Hypnosis: “You Are Now Getting Sleepier” 140 Module 4.4 Review 156
Module 4.3 Review 142
MODULE 4.5 Application: Getting Your Zs 158

Chapter 5
Learning 163
MODULE 5.1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Punishment 181
Association 164 Why It Matters: Applications of Operant Conditioning 183
Principles of Classical Conditioning 164 Module 5.2 Review 185
A Cognitive Perspective on Classical Conditioning 168
MODULE 5.3 Cognitive Learning 187
Why It Matters: Examples of Classical Conditioning 169
Insight Learning 187
Conditioning the Immune System 172
Latent Learning 188
Module 5.1 Review 172
Observational Learning 189
MODULE 5.2 Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Module 5.3 Review 191
Consequences 174
MODULE 5.4 Application: Putting Reinforcement into
Thorndike and the Law of Effect 174
Practice 191
B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning 175
Applying Reinforcement 192
Principles of Operant Conditioning 176
Giving Praise 192
Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning 181

Chapter 6
Memory 197
MODULE 6.1 Remembering 198 Amnesia: Of Memories Lost or Never Gained 215
Human Memory as an Information Processing System 198 Module 6.2 Review 216
Memory Stages 199
The Reliability of Long-Term Memory: Can We Trust Our MODULE 6.3 The Biology of Memory 217
Memories? 205 Brain Structures in Memory: Where
Module 6.1 Review 209
Do Memories Reside? 217
Strengthening Connections Between
MODULE 6.2 Forgetting 210 Neurons: The Key to Forming Memories 218
Decay Theory: Fading Impressions 210 Genetic Bases of Memory 219
Interference Theory: When Learning More Leads to Module 6.3 Review 220
Remembering Less 211
MODULE 6.4 Application: Powering Up Your Memory 221
Retrieval Theory: Forgetting as a Breakdown in Retrieval 213
Motivated Forgetting: Memories Hidden from Using Mnemonics to Improve Memory 221
Awareness 214 General Suggestions for Improving Memory 222
Measuring Memory: How It Is Measured May Determine How
Much Is Recalled 214

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xii | C ON T E N T S

Chapter 7
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 227
MODULE 7.1 Thinking 228 How Is Intelligence Measured? 243
Mental Images: In Your Mind’s Eye 228 What Are the Characteristics of a Good Test of
Concepts: What Makes a Bird a Bird? 229 Intelligence? 244
Problem Solving: Applying Mental Strategies to Solving Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities 246
Problems 230 Extremes of Intelligence: Mental Retardation and
Creativity: Not Just for the Few 234 Giftedness 247
Module 7.1 Review 236 Theories of Intelligence 248
Intelligence and the Nature-Nurture Question 251
MODULE 7.2 Language 237
Module 7.3 Review 254
Components of Language 237
Language Development 238 MODULE 7.4 Application: Becoming a Creative Problem
Culture and Language: Does the Language We Use Solver 255
Determine How We Think? 239 Adopt a Questioning Attitude 255
Is Language Unique to Humans? 240 Gather Information 255
Module 7.2 Review 241 Avoid Getting Stuck in Mental Sets 255
Generate Alternatives 256
MODULE 7.3 Intelligence 242 Sleep On It 257
What Is Intelligence? 242 Test It Out 257

Chapter 8
Motivation and Emotion 261
MODULE 8.1 Motivation: The “Whys” of Behavior 262 Sexual Dysfunctions 280
Biological Sources of Motivation 262 Module 8.3 Review 282
Psychological Sources of Motivation 264
The Hierarchy of Needs: Ordering Needs from the MODULE 8.4 Emotions 283
Basement to the Attic of Human Experience 266 What Are Emotions? 283
Module 8.1 Review 268
Emotional Expression: Read Any Good Faces Lately? 284
Happiness: What Makes You Happy? 286
MODULE 8.2 Hunger and Eating 269 How Your Brain Does Emotions 288
What Makes Us Hungry? 269 Theories of Emotion: Which Comes First: Feelings or Bodily
Obesity: A National Epidemic 270 Responses? 289
Eating Disorders 272 Emotional Intelligence: How Well Do You Manage
Module 8.2 Review 275 Your Emotions? 293
The Polygraph: Does it Work? 293
MODULE 8.3 Sexual Motivation 276
Module 8.4 Review 294
The Sexual Response Cycle: How Your Body Gets
Turned On 277 MODULE 8.5 Application: Managing Anger 295
Sexual Orientation 277

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 C ON T E N T S | xiii

Chapter 9
Human Development 301
MODULE 9.1 Prenatal Development: A Case of Cognitive Development 328
Nature and Nurture 302 Psychosocial Development 332
Stages of Prenatal Development 303 Module 9.4 Review 335
Threats to Prenatal Development 304
Module 9.1 Review 306
MODULE 9.5 Early and Middle Adulthood 336
Physical and Cognitive Development 336
MODULE 9.2 Infant Development 306 Psychosocial Development 337
Reflexes 307 Module 9.5 Review 338
Sensory, Perceptual, and Learning Abilities in Infancy 307
Motor Development 308 MODULE 9.6 Late Adulthood 339
Module 9.2 Review 310
Physical and Cognitive Development 340
Psychosocial Development 341
MODULE 9.3 Years of Discovery: Emotional, Social, and The Last Chapter: On Death and Dying 343
Cognitive Development in Childhood 311 Module 9.6 Review 344
Temperament: The “How” of Behavior 311
MODULE 9.7 Application: Living Longer, Healthier
Attachment: Binding Ties 312
Child-Rearing Influences 314 Lives 345
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development 317 Developing Healthy Exercise and Nutrition Habits 345
Cognitive Development 319 Staying Involved and Helping Others 346
Module 9.3 Review 324
Managing Stress 346
Exercising the Mind 346
MODULE 9.4 Adolescence 326 Do Healthy Habits Pay Off ? 346
Physical Development 326

Chapter 10
Psychology and Health 351
MODULE 10.1 Stress: What It Is and What It Does to the MODULE 10.3 Application: Taking the Distress
Body 352 Out of Stress 375
Sources of Stress 352 Maintain Stress at a Tolerable Level 376
The Body’s Response to Stress 359 Learn Relaxation Skills 376
Stress and the Immune System 363 Take Care of Your Body 376
Psychological Moderators of Stress 364 Gather Information 377
Module 10.1 Review 366 Expand Your Social Network 377
Take in a Comedy Tonight 377
MODULE 10.2 Psychological Factors in Physical Illness 367 Prevent Burnout 377
Coronary Heart Disease 368 Replace Stress-Inducing Thoughts with Stress-Busting
Cancer 369 Thoughts 377
Sexual Behavior and STDs: Are You Putting Yourself Don’t Keep Upsetting Feelings Bottled Up 378
at Risk? 371 Control Type A Behavior 378
Module 10.2 Review 375

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xiv | C ON T E N T S

Chapter 11
Personality 383
MODULE 11.1 The Psychodynamic Perspective 384 Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective 401
Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory 384 Module 11.3 Review 402
Levels of Consciousness: The Conscious, the
Preconscious, and the Unconscious 384 MODULE 11.4 The Humanistic Perspective 403
Other Psychodynamic Approaches 388 Carl Rogers: The Importance of Self 403
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspective 390 Abraham Maslow: Scaling the Heights of Self-
Module 11.1 Review 392
Actualization 404
Culture and Self-Identity 405
MODULE 11.2 The Trait Perspective 393 Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective 405
Gordon Allport: A Hierarchy of Traits 393 Module 11.4 Review 407
Raymond Cattell: Mapping the Personality 394
Hans Eysenck: A Simpler Trait Model 394 MODULE 11.5 Personality Tests 408
The Five-Factor Model of Personality: The “Big Five” 395 Self-Report Personality Inventories 408
The Genetic Basis of Traits: Moving Beyond the Projective Tests 410
Module 11.5 Review 412
Nature-Nurture Debate 397
Evaluating the Trait Perspective 397 MODULE 11.6 Application: Building Self-Esteem 413
Module 11.2 Review 398 Acquire Competencies: Become Good at Something 413
MODULE 11.3 The Social-Cognitive Perspective 399
Set Realistic, Achievable Goals 413
Julian Rotter: The Locus of Control 399 Enhance Self-Efficacy Expectations 414
Albert Bandura: Reciprocal Determinism and the Role of Create a Sense of Meaningfulness in Your Life 414
Expectancies 400 Challenge Perfectionistic Expectations 414
Walter Mischel: Situation versus Person Variables 401 Challenge the Need for Constant Approval 414

Chapter 12
Psychological Disorders 419
MODULE 12.1 What Is Abnormal Behavior? 420 MODULE 12.4 Mood Disorders 435
Charting the Boundaries Between Normal and Types of Mood Disorders 436
Abnormal Behavior 420 Causes of Mood Disorders 437
Models of Abnormal Behavior 422 Suicide 440
What Are Psychological Disorders? 424 Module 12.4 Review 442
Module 12.1 Review 426
MODULE 12.5 Schizophrenia 443
MODULE 12.2 Anxiety Disorders 427 Symptoms of Schizophrenia 443
Types of Anxiety Disorders 427 Types of Schizophrenia 444
Causes of Anxiety Disorders 428 Causes of Schizophrenia 444
Module 12.2 Review 430 Module 12.5 Review 446

MODULE 12.3 Dissociative and Somatoform Disorders 431 MODULE 12.6 Personality Disorders 447
Dissociative Disorders 431 Antisocial Personality Disorder 447
Causes of Dissociative Disorders 432 Borderline Personality Disorder 448
Somatoform Disorders 433 Module 12.6 Review 449
Causes of Somatoform Disorders 434
Module 12.3 Review 435
MODULE 12.7 Application: Suicide Prevention 450
Facing the Threat 450

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 C ON T E N T S | xv

Chapter 13
Methods of Therapy 455
MODULE 13.1 Types of Psychotherapy 456 MODULE 13.2 Biomedical Therapies 474
Psychodynamic Therapy 456 Drug Therapy 474
Humanistic Therapy 459 Electroconvulsive Therapy 476
Behavior Therapy 461 Psychosurgery 477
Cognitive Therapy 463 The Movement Toward Community-Based Care 477
Eclectic Therapy 467 Module 13.2 Review 480
Group, Family, and Couple Therapy 467
Is Psychotherapy Effective? 468 MODULE 13.3 Application: Getting Help 481
Multicultural Issues in Treatment 470
Module 13.1 Review 472

Chapter 14
Social Psychology 487
MODULE 14.1 Perceiving Others 488 Human Aggression: Behavior That Harms 505
Impression Formation: Why First Impressions Module 14.2 Review 508
Count So Much 488
Attributions: Why the Pizza Guy Is Late 490 MODULE 14.3 Group Influences on Individual Behavior 509
Attitudes: How Do You Feel About . . . ? 491 Our Social Selves: “Who Are We?” 510
Persuasion: The Fine Art of Changing People’s Minds 493 Conformity: Bending the “I” to Fit the “We” 510
Module 14.1 Review 495
Obedience to Authority: When Does It Go Too Far? 512
Social Facilitation and Social Loafing: When Are You Most
MODULE 14.2 Relating to Others 496 Likely to Do Your Best? 514
Attraction: Getting to Like (or Love) You 496 Module 14.3 Review 516
Love: The Deepest Emotion 498
Helping Behavior: Lending a Hand to Others in Need 499 MODULE 14.4 Application: Compliance: Doing What Others
Prejudice: Attitudes That Harm 501 Want You to Do 517

APPENDIX A: Sample Answers to Thinking Critically About

Psychology Questions A-1
APPENDIX B: Answers to Recall It Questions A-4
APPENDIX C: Statistics in Psychology A-6

References R-1
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1
Glossary G-1

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 Preface

Welcome to the third edition of Essentials of Psychology: Concepts NEW! The IDEA Model™ of Course Assessment:
and Applications. I set out to accomplish three major purposes in Mapping Skills to Learning Goals
writing this text: In August 2006, the APA Council of Representatives approved
1. To make the study of psychology accessible and engaging to a set of guidelines for the undergraduate psychology major. The
the beginning student in psychology APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major com-
2. To provide students with a solid grounding in the knowledge prise 10 major goals and suggested learning outcomes organized
base in psychology within the major categories of knowledge, skills, and values con-
sistent with (1) the science and application of psychology and
3. To help students succeed in the course
(2) the liberal education context of a psychology major.
The IDEA Model™ of course assessment maps specific learn-
A Learning-Centric Approach ing goals to measurable skills students acquire in their first expo-
sure to psychology. Unique to this text, each chapter begins with
To accomplish these objectives, I adopted a learning-centric a listing of learning objectives expressed in the form of action
approach designed to help students encode and retain key con- verbs tied to measurable learning outcomes. The action verbs
cepts in psychology. The keystones of this approach include the parallel those used in applying the widely used Bloom taxonomy
following pedagogical tools: for learning objectives. For example, the action verbs “iden-
tify” and “define or describe” represent basic cognitive skills in
■ Concept Signaling Key concepts, not just key terms, are
Bloom’s taxonomy (knowledge and comprehension), whereas
identified and highlighted in the margins to help students
“apply” questions measure an intermediate level of skills devel-
encode and retain core concepts.
opment needed to apply knowledge to situations and examples,
■ Concept Charts These built-in study charts offer “see-at-a- and “explain or evaluate” learning objectives assess more com-
glance” capsulized summaries of key concepts to reinforce plex skills involved in analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
new knowledge. The action verbs are based on the simple acronym IDEA:
■ Concept Links This feature highlights connections between
key concepts across chapters. Concept Links are integrated Identify . . . key figures in the history of psychology, parts of
with the key concepts in the margins, so students can see how nervous system, and so on.
basic concepts are applied across different areas of psychology. D efine or Describe . . . key concepts and key features of
■ Concept Maps for Psychology This unique visual learning major psychological theories.
tool helps students visualize connections between key con-
cepts in the text. Concept maps are available on Psychology
E valuate or Explain . . . underlying processes and mecha-
nisms of behavior and mental processes.
CourseMate. These maps are schematic diagrams compris-
ing key concepts, represented in boxed shapes called nodes, A pply . . . psychological concepts to real-world examples.
that are connected by links, which generally take the form The IDEA Model™ is integrated with the test-item file
of verbs or conjunctions. Unlike other study charts, concept so instructors can select items measuring these particular
maps can be read either across or down the page to express outcomes—to Identify, Define or Describe, Evaluate or Explain,
a coherent thought structure. To encourage active learning, and Apply knowledge.
concept maps are presented in an incomplete (fill-in-the-
blanks) form to engage students in the process of completing UPDATED Research Throughout
these knowledge structures. The answers are also available Importantly, the text has been thoroughly updated from start to
on Psychology Coursemate. finish. The field of psychology stands still for no author! New
research developments are reported daily in our professional
journals and circulated widely in the popular media. As you
What’s New? thumb through the pages of this edition, you will find hundreds
The third edition of Essentials of Psychology features many new of new citations to research findings and theoretical develop-
features and updates, including the following: ments appearing in the scientific literature in just the past few
xvi

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 PREFACE | xvii

years. Here is but a small sampling of new research included in ■ New research findings on acculturative stress (Chapter 10)
this new edition: ■ New research on effects of perceived discrimination on psy-
chological and physical health (Chapter 10)
■ Anatomy of a research study that showed how physical
warmth promotes interpersonal warmth (Chapter 1) ■ New research findings on outcomes associated with Big Five
personality factors (Chapter 11)
■ New research using a reinforcement technique to train fish to
■ New research findings on changes in personality through the
tap a particular target shape (Chapter 1)
lifespan (Chapter 11)
■ Gender difference in handedness (Chapter 2)
■ New research findings on role of amygdala in anxiety disor-
■ New research on functions of glial cells (Chapter 2)
ders (Chapter 12)
■ New research on role of oxytocin in maternal bonding to
■ New research on role of neurotransmitters in depression
infants and development of trust in other people (Chapter 2)
(Chapter 12)
■ New findings on percentages of men and women with color
■ New research on genetic underpinnings of mood disorders
blindness (Chapter 3)
and schizophrenia (Chapter 12)
■ New research on possible human pheromones (Chapter 3)
■ New research on psychotherapy effectiveness (Chapter 13)
■ New research on top-down and bottom-up types of
■ New research on relative effectiveness of antidepressants
processing for sounds (Chapter 3)
and placebos in cases of mild to moderate depression
■ New research on implicit use of geometry to catch a fly ball (Chapter 13)
(Chapter 4)
■ New research findings on stereotype threat with respect to
■ New findings on distracted driving (Chapter 4) “girls can’t do math” stereotype (Chapter 14)
■ New important findings on length of sleep in relation to risk ■ New biographical study of Milgram and findings from a par-
of catching a cold after exposure to a cold virus (Chapter 4) tial replication of Milgram’s experiment (Chapter 14)
■ New investigation of the identity of “Little Albert” (Chapter 5)
■ New discussion of insight learning, with famous quote from
Louis Pasteur (Chapter 5) NEW! The Brain Loves a Puzzle
■ New research on working memory (Chapter 6) Posing puzzles engages student interest and encourages criti-
■ New research on role of sleep in memory consolidation cal thinking. These questions challenge students to think more
(Chapter 6) deeply about information in the text needed to solve these puz-
■ New research on role of hippocampus in memory formation zles. Examples include the following:
(Chapter 6) ■ How could something so unpleasant as pain be a good thing?
■ Biographical data on Henry Goddard’s role as football coach (Chapter 3)
at USC (Chapter 7) ■ Recent evidence suggests that obesity may be catching. How
■ New research on genetic contributions to intelligence is that possible? (Chapter 8)
(Chapter 7) ■ How might your personality traits contribute to living a lon-
■ New research on gesturing as a form of human pre-speech ger and healthier life? (Chapter 11)
(Chapter 7)
■ New research on role of brain chemicals in regulating hunger
NEW! Visual Overviews
(Chapter 8)
■ New research on role of media exposure to muscular models These new chapter-ending features replace narrative sum-
on self-image of young boys (Chapter 8) maries with a visually appealing learning tool to help students
■ New research suggesting that facial expressions of emotion strengthen new learning by visualizing connections among key
are hardwired into the brain rather than learned as the result concepts in summary form.
of visual experience (Chapter 8)
■ New research on adjustment of children of lesbian and gay REVISED Organization
parents (Chapter 9) Previous users of the text will notice a change in the ordering of
■ New research on adjustment of later-maturing boys and girls chapters in this edition. I moved the chapter on Psychology and
(Chapter 9) Health to an earlier position in the lineup (Chapter 10), where it
■ New data on life expectancy and the aging of America now precedes chapters on personality, psychological disorders,
(Chapter 9) and treatment methods. Many instructors commented that they
■ New research findings on link between hostility and CHD prefer having students learn about the applications of psychology
(Chapter 10) to physical health before they touch upon abnormal behavior.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xviii | PREFACE

Targeting Effective Learning (EL): Engaging

The Four E’s of Effective Learning Interest

“Did You Know
That?" Chapter
Openers
The learning system adopted in this text is based on the Four E’s “Try This Out”
of Effective Learning: (1) engaging interest; (2) encoding impor- Personal Vignettes

tant information; (3) elaborating meaning; and (4) evaluat-

ing progress. This pedagogical framework is grounded in basic
research on learning and memory and supplemented by peda-
gogical research, including research I have conducted with my Evaluating Effective Encoding
students.1 The pedagogical framework was then tested in class- Progress Learning: Information
Module Reviews The Four Concept Signaling
rooms throughout the country. “Tying It Together” “E’s” Running Glossary

The four key elements of effective learning, the “Four E’s,”

are as follows:
■ Engaging Student Interest
Elaborating
■ Encoding Information Meaning
Concept Charts
■ Elaborating Meaning Concept Links
Application Modules
■ Evaluating Progress “Try This Out”
Thinking Critically
about Psychology

Engaging Student Interest

The Four E’s of Effective Learning (EL)
Learning begins with focused attention. A textbook can be
an effective learning tool only if it engages and retains student
interest. Without focused attention, information is not likely to historical features or bring recent research developments into
be encoded or retained. sharper focus. Accompanying page numbers are provided for
Essentials of Psychology: Concepts and Applications is designed easy cross-referencing to the chapter sections in which the infor-
to generate interest as well as involve students directly in the mation is discussed. A small sample follows:
material they read. Personal vignettes are used to draw the
reader into the material and illustrate how concepts discussed Did You Know That…
in the chapter relate to their personal experiences. In addition,
■ A major school of psychology was inspired by the view from
“Did You Know That . . .” chapter-opening features are designed
a train? (Chapter 1)
to grab student attention and encourage further reading. These
■ Roy G. Biv is one of the most famous names learned by psy-
chapter-opening questions whet the student’s appetite for mate-
rial presented in the chapter. Some questions debunk common chology students, but he is not a real person? (Chapter 3)
■ Albert Einstein used mental imagery in developing his the-
myths and misconceptions, whereas others highlight interesting
ory of relativity? (Chapter 7)
1
Nevid, J. S., & Carmony, T. M. (2002). Traditional versus modular format “Try This Out” Hands-On Exercises These active learning
in presenting textual material in introductory psychology. Teaching of exercises encourage students to apply psychological concepts
Psychology, 29, 237–238.
to their own experiences. Whether the topic involves trying to
Nevid, J. S., & Lampmann, J. L. (2003). Effects on content acquisition of signal-
ing key concepts in text material. Teaching of Psychology, 30, 227–229. read a magazine sideways, breaking through the “Magic 7” bar-
Nevid, J. S. (2004, January). Graphing psychology: The effective use of graphs rier, reading emotions in facial expressions, or putting multitask-
and figures in teaching introductory psychology. Invited address presented ing to the test, students can work through problems, generate
at the 26th Annual National Institute on the Teaching of Psychology, St. solutions, and test out beliefs. Some Try This Out activities offer
Petersburg, FL. suggestions for service learning through participation in research
Nevid, J. S., & Forlenza, N. (2005). Graphing psychology: An analysis of
the most commonly used graphs in introductory psychology textbooks.
and volunteer experiences, whereas others involve self-scoring
Teaching of Psychology, 32, 253–256. questionnaires that allow students to evaluate their own behav-
Nevid, J. S. (2006, February). In pursuit of the “perfect lecture.” American ior and attitudes about specific issues (e.g., Are You an Optimist
Psychological Society Observer, 19(2), 35–36, 42. or a Pessimist?).
Nevid, J. S. (2009, March). Using signaling techniques to help students encode key
concepts. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Encoding Information
Association, Pittsburgh, PA.
Nevid, J. S., & Mahon, K. (2009). Mastery quizzing as a signaling device to cue Learning and retaining key concepts in text material requires
attention to lecture material. Teaching of Psychology, 36, 1–4. that information is first encoded in memory. The pedagogical

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 PREFACE | xix

technique of signaling or cuing can help people encode impor- to build more enduring memories generally requires elabora-
tant information. Textbook authors have long used certain forms tive rehearsal in which the person reflects on the meaning of the
of signaling, such as headings and highlighted key terms. This material and relates it to life experiences. This text provides
text also includes two other types of signaling, the running glos- several pedagogical features designed to facilitate elaborative
sary and concept signaling. rehearsal:
Running Glossary Key terms are highlighted in the text and Concept Charts These study charts summarize key concepts in
defined in the margins. Students do not need to interrupt their tabular form. Concept charts reinforce knowledge of major con-
reading to thumb through a glossary at the end of the text when- cepts and help students make relational connections between
ever they encounter an unfamiliar term. (A full glossary is pre- concepts.
sented at the end of the text as well.)
Application Modules The final module in each chapter is an
Concept Signaling Concept signaling is a unique pedagogical application module. These modules illustrate how psychologists
feature designed to help students encode and retain key concepts apply the knowledge they have gained from their research stud-
by extracting and highlighting them in the margins of the text. ies to real-life problems. Students also see how they can apply
Cued concepts are signposts to help students gauge that they are the concepts in the chapter to their own lives. Examples of these
getting the key points as they make their way through the chap- application modules include Psychology and Pain Management
ter. Although some students can easily extract key concepts from (Chapter 3), Putting Reinforcement into Practice (Chapter 5),
text material, others struggle with the process of encoding key Becoming a Creative Problem Solver (Chapter 7), and Taking the
points. They may come away knowing a few isolated facts, but Distress Out of Stress (Chapter 10).
miss many of the major concepts that form the basic building
“Try This Out” These exercises not only engage student inter-
blocks of knowledge in the field. Or they may feel “lost” in the
est, but also encourage students to apply concepts they learn in
middle of a chapter and become frustrated.
the text to their own experiences.
To evaluate the learning benefits of concept signaling, we
conducted a controlled study in which students read two dif- Strengthening Learning through Repeated Rehearsal
ferent text passages—one with key concepts highlighted in the Concepts are repeated in several forms to reinforce new
margins and one without cued concepts. Our results showed that learning—in the narrative itself, in Concept Charts, in marginal
signaling key concepts by extracting them and highlighting them inserts of cued concepts, and in schematic diagrams. The use of
in the margins significantly improved quiz performance overall different contexts for presenting information strengthens new
as well as on a subset of items that directly measured knowledge learning.
of key concepts (Nevid & Lampmann, 2003).
Not surprisingly, we found that signaling key concepts had Evaluating Progress
no effects on learning surrounding material that was not signaled. The text contains a number of study aids to help students evalu-
This finding only reinforces what instructors have known for ate their progress:
years—that students should not use pedagogical aids (whether
they be summaries, interim quizzes, or cued concepts) as sub- Module Review Sections At the end of each module is a
stitutes for reading the text in its entirety. Importantly, though, Module Review consisting of three sections, a “Review It” sec-
our results suggest that students may be better able to learn key tion, a “Recall It” section, and a “Think About It” section.
concepts when they are signaled or highlighted in the text. The “Review It” section is structured in a question-and-answer
We also polled students in our study on which format they (Q & A) format to encourage active learning. The questions cor-
preferred—the one with signaled concepts or the one without. respond to the survey questions that introduce each module. This
More than three-fourths preferred concept signaling and found type of summary fits the SQ3R model of encouraging recitation
that it was easier to understand and more clearly presented than of answers to survey questions better than a traditional narrative
the standard (nonsignaled) format. (This was interesting in light summary. Students can recite their answers to the questions and
of the fact that the content in the text passages was exactly the compare them to sample answers presented in the text.
same in both formats.) The “Recall It” section allows students to test their knowl-
edge by taking a short quiz on several key concepts. The answers
are given in Appendix B at the end of the text.
Elaborating Meaning
The “Think About It” section encourages critical thinking by
Though information must first be encoded to be learned, new posing thought-provoking questions to stimulate students to
learning needs to be strengthened to ensure long-term retention. think further about the concepts presented in the text.
Retention of newly acquired information can be strengthened
through rote memorization, such as by rehearsal of particular Visual Overviews In addition, the new Visual Overviews provide
words or phrases. But the types of deeper processing needed a visual learning tool to help students review and strengthen their

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xx | PREFACE

knowledge of new concepts and see the relationships among learning objectives and to encourage students to use ques-
them in summary form. tions as advance organizers for studying.
■ Read The writing style has been carefully developed for read-
Modular Approach ing level, content, and style. Students are often addressed
directly to engage them in the material and encourage them to
The text is organized in a modular format that breaks down each examine how the information relates to their life experiences.
chapter into smaller instructional units called modules. Each ■ Recite and Review Each module ends with a Module Review
module is a cohesive study unit organized around a set of key section that helps students review their knowledge of key
concepts in a particular area of study. The modular approach concepts. Students can recite their answers to the survey
helps busy students better organize their study efforts by allow- questions and compare their answers to sample answers
ing them to focus on one module at a time rather than trying to given in the “Recite It” section of the Module Review. Students
tackle a whole chapter at once. can then test their knowledge by completing a short quiz pre-
In our research, we found the majority of students preferred sented in the “Recall It” section. These quizzes consist of fill-
the modular format over the traditional format (57.3 percent ins, multiple choice, matching, and short answers. Concept
vs. 38.5 percent, with 4.2 percent expressing no preference) Charts provide further opportunities for students to review
(Nevid & Carmony, 2002). In addition, students who preferred the knowledge they have acquired.
the modular format performed significantly better when mate- ■ Think About It The text goes beyond review and recitation
rial was presented in this format than in the traditional format. by posing thought-provoking questions in the Module Review
It stands to reason that when students prefer a particular format, that encourage reflection, critical thought, and self-explora-
they will become more engaged in reading texts based on that tion. These questions foster critical thinking (e.g., “Do you
format—an outcome that may translate into improved perfor- believe that conventional intelligence tests are culturally
mance in classroom situations. biased? Why or why not?”) and encourage students to reflect
on how the text material relates to their personal experiences
Targeting Critical Thinking Skills (e.g., “Are you a self-actualizer? Upon what evidence do you
base your judgment? What steps could you take to become a
The text encourages students to challenge their preconceived self-actualizer?”).
assumptions about human behavior and to think critically about
information they hear or read about in the media in the light of Integrating Diversity
scientific evidence. The Thinking Critically About Psychology sec-
tions at the end of each chapter provide students with oppor- One primary objective of this text is to raise students’ awareness
tunities to sharpen their critical thinking skills. Students can of the importance of issues relating to diversity. Discussion of
practice these skills by answering questions that require them cultural and gender issues is therefore integrated within the main
to analyze problems and evaluate claims in relation to informa- body of the text rather than relegated to boxed features. A prolif-
tion presented in the chapter. Students may then compare their eration of boxes tends to break the flow of the text and to intro-
answers to sample responses presented in the Appendix of the duce unnecessary clutter that many students find distracting; it
text. The Think About It section in each Module Review further might even inadvertently convey the impression that material
reinforces critical thinking skills. relating to diversity is less important than other material because
it is boxed off. For a reference guide to the integrated coverage of
gender and sociocultural issues in the text, see the complete list-
Built-In Study Method: SQ3R+ ings available in the Instructor’s Manual to accompany Essentials
The Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review (SQ3R) study method of Psychology: Concepts and Applications.
is a widely used technique for enhancing learning and encour-
aging students to adopt a more active role in the learning pro- Ancillaries
cess. The SQ3R method is directly built into the text. The text
not only incorporates the traditional elements of SQ3R but adds Even the most comprehensive text is incomplete without ancil-
another element, the Think About It feature, to foster critical laries. The ones accompanying Essentials of Psychology: Concepts
thinking skills. and Applications help make it a complete teaching package.

■ Survey and Question Students can survey each chapter by Teacher Ancillaries
reviewing the numbered listing of modules at the start of the Instructor’s Resource Manual The Instructor’s Resource
chapter and by reading the introductory section in which Manual (IRM) contains a variety of resources to aid instructors
material to be covered in the chapter is described. In addition, in preparing and presenting text material in a manner that meets
survey questions begin each module to highlight important their personal preferences and course needs. The IRM begins

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 PREFACE | xxi

with a comprehensive preface, which covers preparation, pitfalls, Thanks to their efforts, the field of psychology has had an enor-
planning, execution, resources, and best practices for both new mous impact in broadening our understanding of ourselves and
and seasoned instructors. Each chapter provides a preview and enhancing the quality of our lives. On a more personal level, I
a goals and activity planner to help organize classes. In addition, owe a debt of gratitude to the many colleagues and publishing
each chapter of the IRM contains a detailed outline, lecture sug- professionals who helped shape this manuscript into its present
gestions, topics for discussion, classroom and individual activi- form. Let me begin by thanking the professional colleagues who
ties with handouts, and writing assignment ideas. reviewed the manuscript and helped me refine it through several
stages of development:
Test Bank The test bank contains 2,400 items specifically
developed for Essentials of Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Fred Nesbit, Sauk Valley Community College
Multiple-choice questions as well as essay questions with answers Anne Duran, California State University, Bakersfield
are written at both the chapter and the module level to provide
Fred Leavitt, California State University, Eastbay
flexibility to the instructor. These questions are labeled by type
(factual, conceptual, applied), learning objective, module refer- Chitra Rangathan, Framingham State College
ence number, and page reference for easier use in creating exams. Robert Stennett, Gainesville State College
John Lovell, California State University, Eastbay
PowerLecture with JoinIn and ExamView This one-stop lec-
ture and class preparation tool contains ready-to-use Microsoft® Shane Gomes, California State University, Los Angeles
PowerPoint® slides, and allows you to assemble, edit, publish, Chrisanne Christensen, Southern Arkansas University
and present custom lectures for your course. PowerLecture
Second, I would like to thank the countless instructors and stu-
lets you bring together text-specific lecture outlines along with
dents who participated in our extensive market research con-
videos or your own materials—culminating in a powerful, per-
ducted in the early stages of the text’s development—including
sonalized, media-enhanced presentation. The CD-ROM also
the instructors and students at Valencia Community College and
includes JoinIn®, an interactive tool that lets you pose book-spe-
the University of Central Florida, who provided us with great
cific questions and display students’ answers seamlessly within
insight into their introductory psychology courses; the instruc-
the PowerPoint slides of your own lecture, in conjunction with
tors who participated in the teleconference sessions and raised
the “clicker” hardware of your choice, as well as the ExamView®
many important issues that impacted the day-to-day challenges
assessment and tutorial system, which guides you step by step
of this course; and the 700-plus respondents who participated
through the process of creating tests.
in our national survey on introductory psychology and this text.
CourseMate Psychology CourseMate includes an integrated The overwhelming response we received from these profession-
eBook, interactive teaching and learning tools including quizzes, als proved to be a rich resource throughout the development of
flashcards, videos, and more, and Engagement Tracker, a first- the text.
of-its-kind tool that monitors student engagement in the course. This is the first edition of the text that was developed at
CengageNOW CengageNOW is an online teaching and learn- its new publishing home, Cengage Learning. The people at
ing resource that gives you more control in less time and delivers Cengage are consummate publishing professionals and I am very
better outcomes—NOW. It includes a Cengage Learning eBook thankful for the supportive way in which they have welcomed
and access to InfoTrac and the Psychology Resource Center. me and worked so closely with me to update and strengthen the
text to make it an ever more effective learning platform designed
Student Ancillaries to engage students in the study of psychology and help them
Study Guide The study guide focuses on providing students with succeed in the course. In particular I would like to thank my
resources aimed at improving study skills and comprehension of new editor, Timothy Matray, for his guidance and support; my
the text material. For each chapter, this guide provides a one-page developmental editor, Tangelique Williams, for her many (too
detailed outline, a list of objectives, chapter overview, key terms many to count) helpful comments and suggestions throughout
and concepts, and self-testing exercises and activities that highlight the text; and my marketing manager Elisabeth Rhoden for her
key concepts from the main text. In addition, students are provided strong commitment to the text and her many creative ideas to
an integrated set of media resources to further improve and expand bring the message of the book to instructors and students.
their understanding of the main concepts of the course. Jeff Nevid
New York, New York
Acknowledgments [email protected]
First, I am indebted to the thousands of psychologists and other
scientists whose work has informed the writing of this text.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
The IDEA Model™ of Course Assessment: Mapping Skills Acquired to Learning Goals

GOAL 1 Knowledge Base of Psychology

Demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends
in psychology.

Specific goals in “APA Guidelines Related Content in Text IDEA Model™ of Course Assessment:
for the Undergraduate Psychology Major” and Ancillaries Skills Acquired
Identify. . . Define or Describe. . . Evaluate or Explain. . . Apply

1.1 Characterize the nature of psychology as a Module 1.1 Define psychology.

discipline. Explain why psychology is a science.

1.2 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding 1.2.a

representing appropriate breadth and depth in i. Learning and Cognition
selected content areas of psychology, including Module 5.1 Define learning in psychological terms.
the following: Define classical conditioning and explain how conditioned responses are acquired.
(a) theory and research representing general Identify the key figure in the development of the principles of classical conditioning and
domains: describe this person’s contributions.
(i) learning and cognition Explain how conditioned responses can be strengthened.
(ii) individual differences, psychometrics, Apply a cognitive perspective to classical conditioning.
personality, and social processes, including Apply principles of classical conditioning to real-life examples.
those related to sociocultural and international
dimensions Module 5.2 Identify the major figures in the development of operant conditioning and describe their
(iii) biological bases of behavior and mental contributions.
processes Explain the differences between the types of reinforcement and schedules of reinforcement
(iv) developmental processes and between reinforcement and punishment.
Explain differences between escape learning and avoidance learning.
Apply principles of operant conditioning to real-life examples.

Module 5.3 Define cognitive learning.

Describe several forms of cognitive learning.
Apply principles of cognitive learning to real-life examples.
Apply principles of reinforcement to daily life.

Module 6.1 Describe the basic processes and stages of memory.

Describe the different types of long-term memory.
Explain the roles of the semantic network model and levels-of-processing theory in memory.
Explain the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal.
Apply constructionist theory to explain memory distortions.
Evaluate the reliability of eyewitness testimony.
Explain why the concept of recovered memory is controversial.

Module 6.2 Describe the major theories and factors in forgetting.

Identify different methods of measuring memory.
Describe the features of two major types of amnesia.

Module 7.1 Define thinking.

Describe the roles of mental imagery, concept formation, problem solving, and creativity in
thinking.
Explain the difference between logical and natural concepts.
Describe mental strategies we can use to solve problems more effectively.
Describe mental roadblocks that impede problem solving and decision making.
Describe the basic processes of creative thought and the difference between divergent and
convergent thinking.

Module 7.2 Identify the basic components of language and the milestones in language development.
Explain the factors involved in language development.
Evaluate whether language is unique to humans.
Evaluate the linguistic relativity hypothesis in light of evidence.

Module 7.3 Define intelligence.

Identify different tests of intelligence and evaluate the characteristics of a good test of
intelligence.
Describe the characteristics of the two extremes of intelligence.
Describe the major theories of intelligence.
Evaluate the roles of heredity and environment in intelligence.
Apply skills of problem solving to become a creative problem solver.
Continued on following page

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 1 Knowledge Base of Psychology, continued

Demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends
in psychology.

Specific goals in “APA Guidelines Related Content in Text IDEA Model™ of Course Assessment:
for the Undergraduate Psychology Major” and Ancillaries Skills Acquired
Identify. . . Define or Describe. . . Evaluate or Explain. . . Apply

ii. Individual differences

and social processes:
Module 11.1 Define the concept of personality.
Identify and describe the three levels of consciousness and three mental structures or
entities in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.
Identify the stages of psychosexual development in Freud’s theory and describe the features
of each stage.
Describe the personality theories of Jung, Adler, and Horney.

Module 11.2 Describe the trait theories of Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, and the Big Five model.
Evaluate the genetic basis of personality traits.

Module 11.3 Describe the social-cognitive theories of Rotter, Bandura, and Mischel.

Module 11.4 Describe the humanistic theories of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
Explain the roles of collectivism and individualism in self-identity.

Module 11.5 Identify different types of personality tests and describe their features.
Evaluate self-report (MMPI) and projective personality tests (Rorschach, TAT).

Module 14.1 Identify the major influences on first impressions and explain why first impressions often
become lasting impressions.
Identify two major types of causal attributions and explain how causal attributions are
affected by cognitive biases.
Define cognitive dissonance and explain how it can be reduced.
Describe the components and sources of attitudes.
Evaluate pathways and factors involved in persuasion.

Module 14.2 Identify and describe factors that influence attraction.

Describe the components of love within the triangular model of love.
Apply factors linked to helping behavior to the case of Kitty Genovese.
Explain how prejudice develops and how it can be reduced.
Identify and describe factors that contribute to human aggression.

Module 14.3 Explain differences between social identity and personal identity.
Describe the classic Asch study and identify factors that influence conformity.
Evaluate the findings and significance of Milgram’s experiments.
Define social facilitation and social loafing and explain how they affect performance.
Define groupthink and explain how it can lead to wrong decisions.
Apply your knowledge of compliance to ways of resisting persuasive sales techniques.
iii. Biological bases of
behavior and mental
processes:
Module 2.1 Identify the parts of the neuron and explain how neurons communicate with each other.
Identify key neurotransmitters and describe their functions.
Explain how an action potential is generated.
Explain the difference between agonists and antagonists.

Module 2.2 Describe how the nervous system is organized.

Describe the functions of the central nervous system and the divisions of the peripheral
nervous system.

Module 2.3 Describe how the brain is organized and the roles that particular brain structures play in
behavior.

Module 2.4 Describe how scientists study the workings of the brain.

Module 2.5 Explain how the two halves of the brain differ in their functions.

Module 2.6 Describe how the endocrine system is organized and the roles that hormones play in
behavior.

Module 2.7 Describe how psychologists study the roles of genes and environment in behavior.
Evaluate how genetics influence personality and behavior.
Continued on following page

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 1 Knowledge Base of Psychology, continued

Demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends
in psychology.

Specific goals in “APA Guidelines Related Content in Text IDEA Model™ of Course Assessment:
for the Undergraduate Psychology Major” and Ancillaries Skills Acquired
Identify. . . Define or Describe. . . Evaluate or Explain. . . Apply

Module 2.8 Apply knowledge of biofeedback techniques to how they are used in practice.

Module 6.3 Identify the key brain structures involved in memory and explain the roles of neuronal
networks and long-term potentiation.
Describe the genetic bases of memory.
iv. Developmental
processes:
Module 9.1 Identify and describe the stages of prenatal development.
Identify the major threats to prenatal development.

Module 9.2 Identify reflexes present at birth.

Describe how the infant’s motor skills change through the first year of life.
Describe the infant’s sensory, perceptual, and learning abilities.

Module 9.3 Identify and describe the major types of temperament and attachment styles.
Identify and describe the major styles of parenting and outcomes associated with these
types.
Apply Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development to the challenges we face through the
lifespan.
Describe the characteristics of each stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and
evaluate his legacy.
Describe Vygotsky’s psychosocial theory of cognitive development.

Describe and evaluate Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning.

Modules 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7 Describe changes that occur in physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development from
adolescence through late adulthood.
Explain the difference between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.
Apply research findings to living longer and healthier lives.

(b) history of psychology 1.2b History of

psychology:
Module 1.1 Identify early schools of psychology and the important contributors to these schools.
Describe the major concepts associated with each school.
(c) relevant levels of analysis 1.2c Relevant levels Cellular: See Module 2.1 above.
of analysis: cellular, Individual: See Modules 11.1 to 11.5 above.
individual, group/ Group/Systems: See Module 14.3 above.
systems, society/ Society/Culture: See Modules 11.4, 14.1, 14.2, 14.3 above.
culture
(d) overarching themes, persistent questions, or 1.2d Overarching themes: Describe how psychologists study the roles of genes and environment in behavior.
enduring conflicts in psychology The interaction of Evaluate how genetics influence personality and behavior.
heredity and environment:
Module 2.7

Free will versus Describe the social-cognitive theories of Rotter, Bandura, and Mischel.
determinism: Describe the humanistic theories of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
Modules 11.3, 11.4

Interaction of mind and Define stress in psychological terms.

body: Describe the effects of stress on the body.
Modules 10.1, 10.2 Identify and describe the major sources of stress.
Identify and describe different types of psychological conflicts.
Identify the stages of the general adaptation syndrome and describe the changes that occur
in the body during each stage.
Identify and describe psychological factors that buffer the effects of stress.
Identify psychological factors linked to coronary heart disease.
Evaluate the relationship between emotions and the heart.
Identify psychological factors linked to cancer.
Identify different types of sexually transmitted diseases and describe their means of
transmission, symptoms, and treatments.
Apply knowledge of the transmission of sexually transmitted disease to steps we can take to
protect ourselves from these diseases.
Apply stress management techniques to daily life.
Continued on following page

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 1 Knowledge Base of Psychology, continued

Demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends
in psychology.

Specific goals in “APA Guidelines Related Content in Text IDEA Model™ of Course Assessment:
for the Undergraduate Psychology Major” and Ancillaries Skills Acquired
Identify. . . Define or Describe. . . Evaluate or Explain. . . Apply

(e) relevant ethical issues 1.2e Relevant ethical

issues:

Module 1.3 Describe the ethical standards that govern research in psychology.

Module 14.3 Evaluate the findings and significance of Milgram’s experiments.

1.3 Use the concepts, language, and major theories Early schools of See Module 1.1 above.
of the discipline to account for psychological psychology and
phenomena. contemporary
perspectives

Theories of sleep, Describe the functions of sleep.

dreaming, and hypnosis: Describe the major theories of dreaming.
Modules 4.2, 4.3 Describe the major theories of hypnosis.

Learning theories See Modules 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3 above.

Theories of intelligence: Describe the major theories of intelligence.

Module 7.3

Theories of motivation: Describe biological and psychological sources of motivation.

Module 8.1 Identify the levels of needs in Maslow’s need hierarchy.

Theories of emotion: Describe the major theories of emotions.

Module 8.4

Theories of cognitive Apply Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development to the challenges we face through the
and psychosocial lifespan.
development: Describe the characteristics of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and evaluate his
Modules 9.3, 9.4 legacy.
Describe Vygotsky’s psychosocial theory of cognitive development.
Describe and evaluate Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning.

Theories of personality See Modules 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4 above.

1.4 Explain major perspectives of psychology (e.g., Early schools of Module 1.1
behavioral, biological, cognitive, evolutionary, psychology and
humanistic, psychodynamic, and sociocultural). contemporary
perspectives in
psychology

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 2 Research Methods in Psychology

Understand and apply basic research methods in psychology, including research design, data analysis, and interpretation

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

2.1 Describe the basic characteristics of the science of psychology. Modules 1.1, 1.3
Module 1.3: The Scientific Method
2.2 Explain different research methods used by psychologists.
Module 1.3, Research Methods
Module 1.3, Anatomy of a Research Study
Module 5.1: Classic Study in Psychology (Little Albert)
Module 5.3: Classic Study in Psychology (Bandura’s Bobo doll study)
Module 6.1: Classic Study in Psychology (Loftus’s study on the misinformation effect)
Module 14.3: Classic Study in Psychology (Asch’s study on obedience to authority)
Module 14.3: Classic Study in Psychology (Milgram’s study on obedience to authority)
2.3 Evaluate the appropriateness of conclusions derived from psychological research. Module 1.3: Anatomy of a Research Study
Statistics Appendix
2.4 Design and conduct basic studies to address psychological questions using Module 1.3
appropriate research methods.
2.5 Follow the APA Ethics Code in the treatment of human and nonhuman Module 1.3
participants in the design, data collection, interpretation, and reporting of
psychological research.
2.6 Generalize research conclusions appropriately based on the parameters of Module 1.3
particular research methods.

GOAL 3 Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology

Respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems related to behavior and mental processes.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

3.1 Use critical thinking effectively. Module 1.4: Exposes students to the features of critical thinking to help them develop critical
thinking skills to evaluate claims made by others and online information
“Thinking Critically about Psychology” sections challenge students to apply critical
thinking skills to evaluate claims
“Think About It” features in each Module Review encourage critical thinking about issues
raised in the text
Interactive Concept Maps (online supplement) engage students in an active learning exercise
in which they complete concept maps showing relational connections between key concepts
3.2 Engage in creative thinking. “The Brain Loves a Puzzle” features throughout the text (one per chapter) encourage
students to use critical thinking skills to extract information from the chapter to solve puzzles
Module 7.1 discusses processes involved in creative thinking
Interactive Concept Maps (see above)

3.3 Use reasoning to recognize, develop, defend, and criticize arguments and other Module 1.4 (see above)
persuasive appeals. “Thinking Critically about Psychology” (see above)

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 4 Application of Psychology

Understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

4.1 Describe major applied areas (e.g., clinical, counseling, Module 1.2
industrial/organizational, school, etc.) and emerging applied areas
(e.g., health, forensics, media, military, etc.) of psychology.

4.2 Identify appropriate applications of psychology in solving problems, including Module 2.8
the following: Module 3.6
a. The pursuit and effect of healthy lifestyles Module 4.5
b. Origin and treatment of abnormal behavior Module 7.3
c. Psychological tests and measurements Module 9.7
d. Psychology-based interventions in clinical, counseling, educational, Module 10.3
industrial/organizational, community, and other settings and their empirical Modules 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, 12.7
evaluation Module 13.1, 13.3
e. The resolution of interpersonal and intercultural conflicts Module 14.3
4.3 Articulate how psychological principles can be used to explain social issues Module 14.3
and inform public policy.

4.4 Apply psychological concepts, theories, and research findings as these relate to Application Modules
everyday life. Module 1.4: Becoming a Critical Thinker
Module 2.8: Biofeedback Training: Learning by Listening to the Body
Module 3.6: Psychology and Pain Management
Module 4.5: Getting Your Zs
Module 5.4: Putting Reinforcement into Practice
Module 6.4: Powering Up Your Memory
Module 7.4: Becoming a Creative Problem Solver
Module 8.5: Managing Anger
Module 9.7: Living Longer, Healthier Lives
Module 10.3: Taking the Distress Out of Stress
Module 11.6: Building Self-Esteem
Module 12.7: Suicide Prevention
Module 13.3: Getting Help
Module 14.4: Compliance: Doing What Others Want You to Do

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 5 Values in Psychology

Value empirical evidence, tolerate ambiguity, act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a science.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

5.1 Recognize the necessity of ethical behavior in all aspects of the Module 1.3
science and practice of psychology.

5.2 Demonstrate reasonable skepticism and intellectual curiosity by Module 1.4: Becoming a Critical Thinker
asking questions about causes of behavior. “Thinking Critically About Psychology” feature in each chapter
“Think About It” feature in each Module Review

5.3 Seek and evaluate scientific evidence for psychological claims. Evidence-based evaluation of psychological claims integrated throughout text
Module 1.3: Anatomy of a Research Study
Module 1.4: Becoming a Critical Thinker
“Thinking Critically About Psychology” feature in each chapter
“Think About It” feature in each Module Review
5.4 Tolerate ambiguity and realize that psychological explanations are Modules 4.2, 4.4, 6.1, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6 (e.g., functions of sleep
often complex and tentative. and dreaming, nature of intelligence, causes of substance use and abuse,
repressed memories, causes of psychological disorders)

5.5 Recognize and respect human diversity. Integrated throughout text

5.6 Assess and justify their engagement with respect to civic, social,
and global responsibilities.
5.7 Understand the limitations of their psychological knowledge “Thinking Critically About Psychology” feature in each chapter
and skills. “Think About It” feature in each Module Review

GOAL 6 Information and Technological Literacy

Demonstrate information competence and the ability to use computers and other technology for many purposes.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

6.1 Demonstrate information competence. Module 1.3: Introduction to parts of a scientific study in formal research papers (Anatomy of
a Research Study)
Module 1.4: Thinking Critically about Online Information (sourcing appropriate material)
Study Guide (supplement)

6.2 Use appropriate software to produce understandable reports of the Module 1.3: Citing References (Introduction to APA reference style)
psychological literature, methods, and statistical and qualitative analyses in APA or Statistics Appendix
other appropriate style, including graphic representations of data.

6.3 Use information and technology ethically and responsibly. Module 1.4: Thinking Critically about Online Information

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 7 Communication Skills

Communicate effectively in a variety of formats.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

7.1 Demonstrate effective writing skills in various formats (e.g., essays, Module 1.3: Introduction to parts of a research study
correspondence, technical papers, note taking) and for various purposes Study Skills (Preface)
(e.g., informing, defending, explaining, persuading, arguing, teaching).

7.2 Demonstrate effective oral communication skills in various formats (e.g., Instructor’s manual: Suggestions for group discussion
group discussion, debate, lecture) and for various purposes (e.g., informing,
defending, explaining, persuading, arguing, teaching).

7.3 Exhibit quantitative literacy. Statistics Appendix

Graphs used to illustrate research findings throughout

7.4 Demonstrate effective interpersonal communication skills (e.g., attending to Module 8.4: Cultural differences and gender differences in emotional expression
nonverbal behaviors, adapting communication to diverse ethnic and cultural Module 8.4: Reading emotions in facial expressions
partners). Module 14.1: Cultural differences in self-disclosure
Module 14.1: Stereotyping in interpreting nonverbal behavior

GOAL 8 Sociocultural and International Awareness

Recognize, understand, and respect the complexity of sociocultural and international diversity.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

8.1 Interact effectively and sensitively with people of diverse abilities, backgrounds, Module 2.5: Learning through volunteering
and cultural perspectives. Module 8.3: Cultural differences in emotional expression
Module 14.1: Cultural differences in impression formation

8.2 Examine the sociocultural and international contexts that influence individual Modules 11.4, 14.1: Collectivistic versus individualistic cultures
differences. Module 10.1: Acculturative stress faced by immigrant groups
Module 13.1: Multicultural factors in psychotherapy
Module 14.2: Sociocultural factors in aggression
Module 14.3: Social identity
Module 14.3: Sociocultural factors in conformity

8.3 Explain how individual differences influence beliefs, values, and interactions Module 11.4: Culture and self-identity
with others and vice versa. Module 14.1: Cultural differences in self-serving bias
Modules 14.1, 14.2: Effects of stereotyping
Module 14.2: Individual differences in prejudice

8.4 Understand how privilege, power, and oppression may affect prejudice, Module 14.2: Racism, prejudice, and discrimination
discrimination, and inequity. Module 11.4: Classic study by the Clarks on self-esteem of African American children
Module 14.2: Effects of stereotyping on stereotyped groups

8.5 Recognize prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behaviors that might exist in Module 14.2: Roots of prejudice and discrimination
themselves and in others. Module 14.2: Methods of reducing prejudice
Module 14.2: Examining prejudice

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 9 Personal Development

Develop insight into their own and others’ behavior and mental processes and apply effective strategies for self-management and self-improvement.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

9.1 Reflect on their experiences and find meaning in them. Module 4.1: Savoring Your Food
Module 8.4: Tracking Your Emotions
Module 8.1: Are You a Sensation Seeker?
Module 10.1: Are You Type A?
Module 10.1: Are You an Optimist or a Pessimist?
Module 10.1: How Stressful is Your Life?
Module 11.2: Sizing Up Your Personality
Module 12.4: Self-Screening for Depression
Module 11.5: What Should I Become?
Module 14.2: Examining Prejudice
9.2 Apply psychological principles to promote personal development. Module 5.4: Putting Reinforcement into Practice
Module 6.4: Powering Up Your Memory
Module 7.4: Becoming a Creative Problem Solver
Module 11.6: Building Self-Esteem
Module 13.1: Replacing Distorted Thoughts with Rational Alternatives
Module 14.4: Resisting Persuasive Sales Pitches
9.3 Enact self-management strategies that maximize healthy outcomes. Module 3.6: Psychology and Pain Management
Module 4.5: Getting Your Z’s
Module 8.5: Managing Anger
Module 9.7: Living Longer, Healthier Lives
Module 10.2: Suggestions for Quitting Smoking
Module 10.2: Preventing STDs
Module 10.3: Taking the Distress out of Stress
Module 12.7: Suicide Prevention
Module 13.3: Getting Help

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
GOAL 10 Career Planning and Development

Pursue realistic ideas about how to implement their psychological knowledge, skills, and values in occupational pursuits in a variety of settings that meet personal goals
and societal needs.

Related Content in Text and Ancillaries

10.1 Apply knowledge of psychology (e.g., decision strategies, life span processes, Module 1.2: Subfields in Psychology
psychological assessment, types of psychological careers) when formulating Module 2.5: Learning Through Volunteering
career choices. Module 7.4: Becoming a Creative Problem Solver
Module 8.1: Achievement motivation versus avoidance motivation
Module 8.4: Emotional intelligence
Module 9.4: Erickson’s concept of identity crisis

10.2 Identify the types of academic experience and performance in psychology and Module 1.2: Subfields in Psychology
the liberal arts that will facilitate entry into the workforce, postbaccalaureate Study Tips for Getting the Most from This Course
education, or both. (and your other courses) (Preface)

10.3 Describe preferred career paths based on accurate self-assessment of abilities, Module 8.1: Are You a Sensation Seeker? (self-assessment exercise)
achievement, motivation, and work habits. “Thinking Critically About Psychology,” Chapter 9: Applying Erikson’s concept of
ego identity status to occupational decision making (self-assessment exercise)
Module 10.1: Are You Type A? (self-assessment exercise)
Module 11.2: Sizing Up Your Personality
Module 11.5: What Should I Become?

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 A Message to Students

Study Tips for Getting the Most by linking them to real-life examples and using them to solve
problems. Your teachers and parents may have encouraged you
from this Course (and your other to demonstrate your understanding of new vocabulary words
courses) by using them in a sentence. When you learned formulas and
other math skills in class, your teachers may have asked you to
I often hear students say that they spend many hours reading their demonstrate this knowledge by using it to solve math problems
textbooks and attending classes, but their grades don’t reflect in your textbooks or workbooks. Apply this principle to learn-
the work that they do. I agree. Success is not a function of the ing psychology. For every concept you read about in this text or
time you put into your courses, but how well you use that time. learn in class, connect it to a real-life example or life experience.
Developing more effective study skills can help you become a Your textbook authors and instructors provide many examples
more effective learner and get the most from this course as well of concepts they use, but you can take this a step further by
as your other courses. Let’s begin by discussing four key steps connecting these concepts to your own life experiences.
toward becoming an effective learner, which I call the Four E’s:
(1) engaging interest; (2) encoding information; (3) elaborat- 4. Evaluating Progress Keep track of your progress in the
ing meaning; and (4) evaluating progress. course. Most texts, including this one, have quizzes you can
use to test yourself on the material you have just read. This
The Four E’s of Effective Learning text also offers online quizzes. Taking quizzes helps you gauge
how you are doing and which areas you need to review fur-
1. Engaging Interest Paying close attention is the first step ther to improve your performance. Other built-in study tools
toward becoming an effective learner. The brain does not pas- that help you evaluate your progress include review sections
sively soak up information like a sponge. When your attention and summaries. In this text, you’ll find a Module Review sec-
is divided, it is difficult to process new information at a level tion at the end of each module that provides sample answers
needed to understand the complex material required in college- to the set of survey questions that began the module. In the
level courses and to retain this newly acquired knowledge. If you “Recite It” section of the Module Review, recite the answers to
find your mind wandering during class or while studying, bring the survey questions to yourself before glancing at the sample
your attention back to the lecture or study material. Becoming answers in the text. Reciting answers gives you an opportunity
an active note-taker during class and when reading your text can to demonstrate that you understand the material, rather than
help you remain alert and focused and avoid spacing out. Keep a passively reading the sample answers. Then test your knowledge
notepad handy while reading the text and jot down key points as further by taking the brief quiz in the “Recall It” section of the
you read through the material. Module Review.
2. Encoding Information Encoding is the process of bringing
information into memory. To encode important information Tips for Succeeding in Class
from your classes or assigned readings, make it a practice to stop Read the Syllabus Think of the syllabus as a road map or a
and ask yourself, “What’s the main point or idea? What am I pathway you need to follow to succeed in the course. Take note
hearing or reading? What am I expected to know?” Jot down the of the course assignments, grading system, and other course
major concepts or ideas and review them later. Use the built-in requirements or expectations. Use your course syllabus as a
study tools in your textbook, such as highlighted key terms or guide to planning your semester, making entries in your calen-
concepts, along with summaries or module reviews, to identify dar for examination dates and required papers and other course
main points and themes you need to learn. assignments.
3. Elaborating Meaning New learning is a fragile thing. Prepare for Class by Completing the Assigned Reading
Rehearsing or repeating the information to yourself in the Instructors have good reasons for wanting you to read the
form of rote memorization may help reinforce newly acquired assigned chapter or readings before coming to class. They know
knowledge, but a more effective way of reinforcing new learn- that students are better prepared for lectures when they have
ing and building more enduring memories is to work with these some familiarity with the topics discussed in class. When stu-
new concepts and ideas by elaborating their meaning, such as dents have a working knowledge of the material before they
xxxii

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 A MESSAGE TO STUDENTS | xxxiii

come to class, instructors have more freedom to use class time to information about each point that is discussed in class. Become
explore topics in greater depth and breadth, rather than simply an active note-taker, not a copy machine. Listen attentively and
to review basic concepts. However, lectures may not make much write down the main concepts and ideas and any examples the
sense to students who lack basic knowledge about the material instructor may give.
because they haven’t kept up with their readings.
Rephrase and Review Your Notes An effective way of rein-
Attend Class One of the most important steps to succeeding in forcing new learning is typing your class notes into a computer
college is attending classes regularly. Missing classes can quickly file. But rather than typing them word for word, try rephrasing
lead to falling behind. If you do need to miss a class, notify your them in your own words. Reworking your notes in this way
instructor beforehand and ask for any assignments you may miss. encourages deeper processing of the material, which is a key fac-
Then ask a classmate for the notes you missed, but only approach tor in strengthening memory of newly learned information. The
someone whom you believe to be a good note-taker. more you think about the material, the more likely you’ll be to
Be Punctual There may be nothing more distracting to your remember it when exam time comes around.
instructor and classmates than students who come late to class.
Though your instructor may not say anything directly, coming Building Effective Study Skills
late to class creates a poor impression of yourself. It also makes Where to Study Select a quiet study space that is neat, clean,
it difficult to keep up with lecture material since it puts you in and free of distractions as possible.
the position of playing catch-up. You wouldn’t think of arriving
When to Study
at a movie theater in the middle of a movie, so why should you
■ Prevent procrastination. Schedule regular study times and
expect to be able to follow the lecture when you arrive after it
keep to your schedule.
starts? If you occasionally arrive late due to traffic congestion
■ Plan to study at times of the day you are most likely to be alert
or some other pressing demand, drop your instructor a note of
apology explaining the circumstances. All of us, including your and best able to concentrate. Don’t leave it until the very end of
instructors, occasionally face similar situations. However, if you the day when you are feeling tired or sleepy. Avoid studying
have trouble regularly arriving on time, talk to your instructor directly after a big meal. Give your body time to digest your
or advisor about arranging a schedule that works better for you, food. Likewise, avoid studying at a time of day when you’re
or consider taking online courses that don’t require regular class likely to be distracted by hunger pangs.
■ Avoid cramming for exams. Cramming causes mental fatigue
attendance.
that can interfere with learning and retention. Establish a
Ask Questions Don’t hesitate to ask questions in class. Failing weekly study schedule to ensure you are well prepared for
to ask your instructor to clarify a particular point you don’t exams. Plan to review or brush up on the required material
understand can lead you to feel lost or confused during class. the day or two before the exam.
Also, make sure to ask your instructor about which material will
be covered on an exam, as well as the format used for the exam, How to Study
such as essay, short-answer, or multiple-choice questions. ■ Plan study periods of about 45 or 50 minutes. Very few people

Become an Active Note-Taker Don’t try to write down can maintain concentration for longer than 45 minutes or so.
everything the instructor says or every word that pops up on Take a 5- or 10-minute break between study periods. Give
a PowerPoint slide or an overhead. Very few people can write your mind and body a break by getting up, stretching your
that fast. Besides, trying to copy everything verbatim can quickly legs, and moving around.
lead you to fall behind. Focusing your attention on writing down ■ Establish clear study goals for each study period. Goals can

everything also distracts you from thinking more deeply about include topics you want to cover, pages in the textbook you
material discussed in class. A better idea is to listen attentively want to read or review, questions you need to answer, prob-
and write down key points as clearly and concisely as you can as lems you need to solve, and so on.
well as the examples the instructor uses to illustrate these points. ■ Sit properly to maintain concentration. Sit upright and avoid

No one has perfect recall, so don’t expect to remember every reclining or lying down to prevent nodding off or losing focus.
important point or concept discussed during a lecture. Write If your mind begins to wander, bring your thoughts back to
them down to review later. Some instructors use PowerPoint your work. Or break the tendency to daydream by getting
slides as a guide to organizing the content of the lecture. Think of yourself out of your chair, gently stretch your muscles, take
PowerPoint slides as a table of contents for the lecture. The bul- a quick walk around the room, and then return to studying.
let points in the slides are merely starting points for the lecture.
Your instructor will likely expound upon each point. If you spend How Much to Study A convenient rule of thumb to use is
class time just copying bullet points, you may miss important to study two hours per week for each hour of class time. Like

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xxxiv | A MESSAGE TO STUDENTS

most rules of thumb, you may need to adjust it according to the Keep Notes as You Read Taking notes in your own words
amount of work you need to complete. strengthens deeper, more durable learning. Avoid underlining
or highlighting whole sections of text. Let your brain—not your
Read for Understanding Slow down the pace of your reading
fingers—do the work. Highlight only the important sections of
so that you can pay close attention to the material you are trying
text you want to review further.
to learn.
Use the Running Glossary to Learn Key Terms Key terms
■ Stop for a moment after every paragraph and pose questions
are highlighted (boldfaced) in the text and defined in the mar-
to yourself about what you have just read. Jot down your
gins for easy reference. To ensure you understand the meaning
answers to the questions you pose to yourself to reinforce
of these terms in context, see how they are used in the adjacent
this new learning.
paragraphs of the text.
■ After reading a section of text, take a brief break and then
review any concepts you don’t fully understand to make sure Review Your Progress Each module begins with a set of sur-
you get the main points before moving to the next section or vey or study questions. Jot down these questions in a notebook
chapter. Yes, active reading takes more time and effort than or computer file and try to answer them as you read along. Check
just skimming, but it will make the time you spend reading your answers against the sample answers in the “Recite It” sec-
more productive and meaningful. tions of the Module Review at the end of each module. Then test
yourself by taking the brief quizzes you’ll find in the “Recall It”
Reach Out for Help When you struggle to understand some- section of the Module Reviews. If you find you are struggling
thing, don’t give up out of frustration. Ask your instructor for help. with the quiz questions, review the corresponding sections of the
Form Study Groups Reach out to other students to form study text to strengthen your knowledge and then test yourself again.
groups. Studying as part of a group may induce you to hit the Use Additional Study Aids Use publisher-provided online
books more seriously. study tools, which include the student Study Guide and more.

Using This Textbook as a Study Tool Get the Study Edge with the SQ3R+
You are about to embark on a journey through the field of psy- Study Method
chology. As with any journey, it is helpful to have markers or This text includes a built-in study system called the SQ3R+ study
road signs to navigate your course. This text provides a number method, a system designed to help students develop more effec-
of convenient markers to help you know where you’ve been and tive study habits that expands upon the SQ3R method developed
where you’re headed. Take a moment to familiarize yourself with by psychologist Francis P. Robinson. SQ3R is an acronym that
the terrain you’ll encounter in your journey. It centers on the stands for five key study features: survey, question, read, recite, and
unique organizational framework of the text—the concept-based review. This text adds an additional feature, the “Think About It”
modular format. sections of the Module Reviews, which is the “+” in the SQ3R+
Use Concept-Based Modules to Organize Your Study Time study method. Here’s how the SQ3R+ study method works:
This text is organized in instructional units called modules to 1. Survey Preview each chapter before reading it.
help you structure your study time more efficiently. The mod-
2. Question At the start of each module, survey questions high-
ules in each chapter break down the chapter into these smaller
light key issues addressed in the module. To become a more
instructional units. Rather than try to digest an entire chapter
active learner, jot down these questions in a notebook or com-
at once, you can chew on one module at a time. Each module is
puter file so that you can answer them as you read along, and
organized around a set of key concepts. As you make your way
generate additional questions you can answer yourself.
through a module, you will be learning a set of basic concepts
and how they relate to the theoretical and research foundations 3. Read Read the module to answer the survey questions as well
of the field of psychology. as to grasp key concepts and related information. To strengthen
your understanding of text material, you may find it helpful to
Use Concept Signaling as at Tool to Learning Key Concepts
read each module a second or third time before an exam.
Key concepts in each module are highlighted or signaled in the
margins of the text to help ensure you learn the main points and 4. Recite When you reach the end of the module, gauge how well
ideas as you make your way through the text. Importantly, make you understand the material by using the Module Review sec-
sure to read all the surrounding material in the text, not just the tion to evaluate your progress. Remember to recite the answers
material highlighted in the concept boxes in the margins. Your to the survey questions before looking at the sample answers in
exams will likely test your knowledge of all the assigned material the text. Hearing yourself speak the answers enhances retention
in the text. of newly learned information.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 A MESSAGE TO STUDENTS | xxxv

5. Review Establish a study schedule for reviewing text mate- I hope this guide to college success will help you succeed not
rial on a regular basis. Test yourself each time you review or only in this course but in your other courses as well. I also hope
reread the material to boost long-term retention. Use the brief you enjoy your journey through psychology. I began my own
quiz in the “Recall It” section of the Module Review to test your journey through psychology in my freshman year in college and
knowledge. have continued along this path with a sense of wonder and joy
ever since.
6. Think About It The “Think About It” feature in the Module
Please e-mail your comments, questions, or suggestions to
Review poses thought-provoking questions that encourage you
me at [email protected].
to apply critical thinking skills and to reflect on how the mate-
Jeff Nevid
rial relates to your own experiences. Thinking more deeply
New York, NY
about these concepts and relating them to life experiences helps
strengthen new learning.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Essentials of Psychology
Concepts and Applications

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
➦
© Tyler Olson, 2009/Shutterstock.com.

DID YOU KNOW LEARNING OBJECTIVES

THAT . . . By reading this chapter you will be able to . . .
➤ One of the founders of modern
psychology was such a poor
1.1. DEFINE psychology. 1.8. IDENTIFY the steps in the IDENTIFY
DEFINE
1.2. EXPLAIN why psychology is a scientific method.
student he was actually left
science. 1.9. IDENTIFY and DESCRIBE the
back a grade in school? (p. 4)
1.3. IDENTIFY early schools of research methods psychologists
➤ A movement that once dominated psychology and the important use to study behavior and mental
psychology believed that contributors to these schools. processes.
psychologists should turn away EXPLAIN
1.4. DESCRIBE the major concepts 1.10. EVALUATE the strengths and
from the study of the mind? (p. 5) weaknesses of research methods
associated with each school.
➤ A major school of psychology in psychology.
1.5. IDENTIFY and DESCRIBE the
1.11. DESCRIBE the ethical standards
was inspired by the view from a
train? (p. 7)
major contemporary perspectives
in psychology.
DESCRIBE that govern research in
➤ The school of psychology originated
by Sigmund Freud holds that we
1.6. IDENTIFY the specialty areas or
subfields of psychology.
psychology.
1.12. APPLY critical thinking skills
APPLY
to evaluate claims made
are generally unaware of our true
motives? (p. 8)
1.7. DESCRIBE ethnic and gender
EVALUATE
characteristics of psychologists
by others as well as online
information.
➤ Multiracial Americans have become today and the changes that have
the nation’s fastest-growing population occurred over time.
group? (p. 11)
PREVIEW
➤ The popularity of women’s names
Module 1.1 Foundations of Module 1.3 Research Methods in
influences the judgments people
Modern Psychology Psychology
make about a woman’s physical
Module 1.2 Psychologists: Who Module 1.4 Application: Becoming
attractiveness? (p. 25)
They Are and What They Do a Critical Thinker
➤ You can obtain listings and abstracts
of articles from major psychology
journals by using your home
computer (and much of it is free of
charge)? (p. 33)

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 3

1
The Science
of Psychology
You. Me. Us. This may be your first course Psychologists don’t dismiss opinion, tradition, or even folk-
in psychology, but it is probably not your first encounter lore. Yet as scientists, they require that opinions, assump-
with many of the topics psychologists study. Your earli- tions, beliefs, and theories be tested and scrutinized in the
est exposure to the subject matter of psychology prob- light of the available evidence. Psychologists seek answers
ably began many years ago. Perhaps it came as you first to the questions they and others pose about human nature
wondered about why people do what they do or how their by using scientific methods of inquiry. Like other scientists,
personalities differ. Perhaps you wondered why your third- psychologists are professional skeptics. They have confi-
grade classmate just couldn’t seem to sit still and often dis- dence only in theories that can be tied to observable evi-
rupted the class. Or perhaps you were curious about how dence. As in all branches of science, investigators in the field
people relate to each other and how they influence each of psychology gather evidence to test their theories, beliefs,
other’s behavior. Or maybe you wondered mostly about and assumptions.
yourself, about who you are and why you do the things you Before we go further with our exploration of psychol-
do. Perhaps one of the reasons you are taking this course is ogy, let us define what we mean by the term psychology.
to learn more about yourself. Though many definitions of psychology have been pro-
Psychologists study behavior in all its forms. One way of posed, the one most widely used today defines psychol-
thinking about psychology is to understand that it involves ogy as the science of behavior and mental processes. But
the study of you (the behavior of other people), me (one’s what do these terms mean—behavior and mental processes?
own behavior), and us (how our behavior is affected by Broadly speaking, anything an organism does is a form of
groups and social influences). Psychologists are interested behavior. Sitting in a chair is a form of behavior. Reading,
in studying behavior in nonhuman species as well. Studies studying, and watching TV are forms of behavior. Mak-
of behavior of other animals can shed light on basic prin- ing yourself a sandwich and talking on the telephone are
ciples of behavior and may help inform our understanding forms of behavior. Smiling, dancing, and raising your arm
of our own behavior as well. are also behaviors. Even thinking and dreaming are forms
You may find answers to many of the questions you have of behavior.
about yourself and others in this introductory course in Mental processes are the private experiences that con-
psychology. But you will probably not find all the answers stitute our inner lives. These private experiences include
you are seeking. There is still so much we do not under- thoughts, feelings, dreams and daydreams, sensations, per-
stand, so much that remains to be explored. This text, like ceptions, and beliefs that others cannot directly observe
the field of psychology itself, is really about the process of or experience. Among the challenges psychologists face is
exploration—the quest for knowledge about behavior and finding ways of making such inner experiences available to
mental processes. scientific study.
Psychology is a scientific discipline, but what makes it Before we begin exploring how psychologists study
scientific? One answer is that being scientific means valuing behavior and mental processes, let us take the story of psy-
evidence over opinion and tradition—even honored tradi- chology back to its origins to see how it developed as a sci-
tion or the opinions of respected scholars and thinkers. entific discipline and where it stands today.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 4 | CHAPTER ONE THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

MOD U L E 1.1 Foundations of Modern

Psychology
➤ What is psychology?
➤ What are the origins of psychology?
➤ What were the major early schools of psychology?
➤ What are the major contemporary perspectives in psychology?

CONCEPT 1.1 This first module in the text sets the stage for our study of psychology. It describes the
Psychology is the scientific discipline that development of psychology as a scientific discipline. How did psychology develop? What
studies behavior and mental processes.
were the important influences that shaped its development as a scientific discipline? Here
we address those questions by recounting a brief history of psychology. Let us begin by
CONCEPT 1.2 noting that although psychology is still a young science, its origins can be traced back to
Although psychology is a relatively young
science, interest in understanding the ancient times.
nature of mind and behavior can be traced
back to ancient times.
Origins of Psychology
The story of psychology has no clear beginning. We cannot mark its birth on any
calendar. We can speculate that the story very likely began when early humans devel-
oped the capacity to reflect on human nature. Perhaps they were curious, as many
of us are today, about what makes people tick. But what they may have thought or
said about the nature of human beings remains unknown, as no record exists of their
musings.
The word psychology is derived from two Greek roots: psyche, meaning “mind,”
and logos, meaning “study” or “knowledge.” So it is not surprising that serious
inquiries into psychology can be traced back to ancient Greece, when philosophers
began to record their thoughts about the nature of mind and behavior. Psychology
remained largely an interest of philosophers, theologians, and writers for several
thousand years. It did not begin to emerge as a scientific discipline until the late
19th century.
The founding of psychology as an independent science is generally credited to a
German scientist, Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920). The credit is given to Wundt (pro-
© David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit

nounced Voont) because he established the first scientific laboratory dedicated to

the study of psychology (Stout, 2008). With the founding of Wundt’s laboratory in
Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, psychology made the transition from philosophy to sci-
ence (Benjamin, 2000).
Wundt was in some respects an unlikely candidate to found a new science. As a
boy, he was a poor student and was even required to repeat a grade. The problem
Psychologists study what we do and for young Wundt was that he tended to daydream in class. He would often be found
what we think, feel, dream, sense, and sitting with an open book in his hand, staring off into space rather than reading his
perceive. They use scientific methods assigned text (a practice this author hopes you don’t emulate too closely when you
to guide their investigations of behavior open your psychology text). But he persevered, eventually graduating from medi-
and mental processes. cal school and, from there, launching a successful research career as a physiologist.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 MODULE 1.1 | 5

Later, he would apply his scientific training to his true pas- 1860 • Gustav Fechner publishes Elements of Psychophysics
sion, the understanding of conscious experience. In estab-
lishing the first psychology laboratory, the man who had 1875 • William James gives first psychology lecture at Harvard
once been left back in school because he was so absorbed in 1878 • G. Stanley Hall receives first Ph.D. in psychology in the U.S.
his own thoughts became the first scientist of the mind.
Like any scientific discipline, the field of psychology is 1879 • Wilhelm Wundt establishes first psychology laboratory
an unfolding story of exploration and discovery. In this text, 1883 • First American psychology laboratory established at Johns
you will encounter many of the explorers and discoverers who Hopkins University by G. Stanley Hall
have shaped the continuing story of psychology. The bridge 1887 • G. Stanley Hall initiates the American Journal of Psychology
from ancient thought to the present starts with Wundt; there
we encounter his disciple Edward Titchener and structural- 1889 • James Mark Baldwin establishes first Canadian psychology
laboratory at University of Toronto
ism, the school of thought with which both men were asso-
ciated. (See ■ Figure 1.1 for a timeline of the early days of 1890 • James writes first psychology text, Principles of Psychology
psychology.) 1892 • American Psychological Association (APA) formed; G. Stanley
Hall first president

Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener, 1894 • Margaret Floy Washburn is first woman to receive a Ph.D. in
psychology
and Structuralism 1895 • Sigmund Freud publishes first work on psychology
Wilhelm Wundt was interested in studying mental experiences.
He used a method called introspection, or careful self-examina- 1896 • Lightner Witmer establishes the first psychology clinic in the U.S.
tion and reporting of one’s conscious experiences. For example, 1900 • Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams
he would present subjects with an object, such as piece of fruit, 1905
and ask them to describe their impressions or perceptions of the
• Two Frenchmen, Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon, announce
development of the first intelligence test, which they describe as
object in terms of its shape, color, or texture and how the object “a measuring scale of intelligence”
felt when touched. Or subjects might be asked to sniff a scent and • Mary Whiton Calkins becomes first woman president of APA
describe the sensations or feelings the scent evoked in them. In 1908 • Ivan Pavlov’s work on conditioning first appears in an American
this way, Wundt and his students sought to break down mental scientific journal
experiences into their component parts—sensations, percep-
tions, and feelings—and then find the rules determining how 1910 • psychology
Max Wertheimer and colleagues begin research on Gestalt
these elements come together to produce the full range of con-
scious experiences. 1913 • Watson publishes the behaviorist manifesto, Psychology as the
Edward Titchener (1867–1927), an Englishman who was a Behaviorist Views It
disciple of Wundt, brought Wundt’s teachings and methods of 1920 • Francis Sumner is first African American to receive a Ph.D. in
introspection to the United States and other English-speaking psychology in the U.S.
countries. The school of psychology identified with Wundt • Henry Alston is first African American to publish his research
findings in a major psychology journal in the U.S.
and Titchener became known as structuralism, an approach
that attempted to define the structure of the mind by breaking
down mental experiences into their component parts. Figure 1.1 Psychology, the Early Days:
The first American to work in Wundt’s experimental laboratory was the psychol- A Timeline
ogist G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) (D. F. Johnson, 2000). In 1892, Hall founded
the American Psychological Association (APA), now the largest organization of
psychologists in the United States, and he served as its first president (Pate, 2000).
Nine years earlier, in 1883, he had established the first psychology laboratory in the
United States, which was housed at Johns Hopkins University (Benjamin, 2000).
CONCEPT 1.3
Although Hall played a pivotal role in the early days of psychology in the United Structuralism, the early school of
States, Harvard psychologist William James is generally recognized as the father of psychology associated with Wundt and
American psychology. Titchener, used introspection as a method
of revealing the fundamental structures
of mental experience in the form of
sensations, perceptions, and feelings.
William James and Functionalism
William James (1842–1910) was trained as a medical doctor but made important con-
tributions to both psychology and philosophy (Pate, 2000). Although he used intro- structuralism The school of psychology that
spection, he shifted the focus to the functions of behavior. Unlike the structuralists, he attempts to understand the structure of the mind
did not believe that conscious experience could be parceled into discrete elements. by breaking it down into its component parts.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
6 | CHAPTER ONE THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

Rather, he believed that mental experience is best understood in terms of the functions
© Archives of the History of American Psychology – The University of Akron

or purposes it serves.
James founded functionalism, the school of psychology that focused on how behav-
ior helps individuals adapt to demands placed upon them in the environment. Whereas
structuralists were concerned with understanding the structure of the human mind, func-
tionalists were concerned with the functions of mental processes (Willingham, 2001).
Functionalists examined the roles or functions of mental processes—why we do what
we do. For example, James believed we develop habits, such as the characteristic ways
in which we use a fork or a spoon, because they enable us to perform more effectively in
meeting the many demands we face in daily life.

John Watson and Behaviorism

In the early 1900s, a new force in psychology gathered momentum. It was called
Wilhelm Wundt behaviorism, and its credo was that psychology should limit itself to the study of overt
behavior that observers could record and measure. The founder of behaviorism was
the American psychologist John Broadus Watson (1878–1958). Watson reasoned that
CONCEPT 1.4 since you can never observe another person’s mental processes, psychology would
William James, the founder of
functionalism, believed that psychology never advance as a science unless it eliminated mentalistic concepts like mind, con-
should focus on how our behavior and sciousness, thinking, and feeling. He rejected introspection as a method of scientific
mental processes help us adapt to the inquiry and proposed that psychology should become a science of behavior, not of
demands we face in the world. mental processes (Tweney & Budzynski, 2000). In this respect, he shared with the
ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle the belief that science should rely on observable
events. The problem with introspectionism is that there is no way to directly observe a
person’s mental experiences or know how one person’s feelings or sensations compare
CONCEPT 1.5 to another’s.
Behaviorism was based on the belief that Watson believed that the environment molds the behavior of humans and other ani-
psychology would advance as a science
only if it turned away from the study of mals. He even boasted that if he were given control over the lives of infants, he could
mental processes and limited itself to the determine the kinds of adults they would become:
study of observable behaviors that could
be recorded and measured. Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring
them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become
any type of specialist I might suggest—doctor, lawyer, merchant-chief and, yes, even
beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, voca-
tions, and the race of his ancestors. ( J. B. Watson, 1924, p. 82)
No one, of course, took up Watson’s challenge, so we never will know how “a
dozen healthy infants” would have fared under his direction. Psychologists today,
however, believe that human development is much more complex than Watson
thought. Few would believe that Watson could have succeeded in meeting the chal-
lenge he posed.
By the 1920s, behaviorism had become the main school of psychology in the United
States, and it remained the dominant force in American psychology for several genera-
tions. Its popularity owed a great deal to the work of the Harvard University psycholo-
gist B. F. Skinner (1904–1990). Skinner studied how behavior is shaped by rewards and
punishments, the environmental consequences that follow specific responses. Skinner
showed he could train animals to perform simple behaviors by rewarding particular
responses. A rat could learn to press a bar and a pigeon to peck a button if they were
rewarded for these responses by receiving pellets of food. Skinner also showed how more
complex behaviors could be learned and maintained by manipulation of rewards, which
functionalism The school of psychology that he called reinforcers. In some of his more colorful demonstrations of the use of reinforce-
focuses on the adaptive functions of behavior. ment, he trained a pigeon to play a tune on a toy piano and a pair of pigeons to play a
behaviorism The school of psychology that type of Ping-Pong in which the birds rolled a ball back and forth between them. These
holds that psychology should limit itself to the methods can even be used to teach a raccoon to shoot a basketball and to train fish to tap
study of overt, observable behavior. a particular target shape (Carroll, 2009).

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 MODULE 1.1 | 7

Although Skinner studied mainly pigeons

and rats, he believed that the same principles
of learning he observed in laboratory animals
could be applied to humans as well. He argued
that human behavior is as much a product of
environmental consequences as the behavior

© JP Laffont Sygma/Corbis
of other animals. Everything we do, from saying
“excuse me” when we sneeze, to attending class,
to making a sandwich, represents responses
learned through reinforcement, even though we
cannot expect to recall the many reinforcement
occasions involved in acquiring and maintaining By reinforcing specific responses, we can teach a raccoon to shoot a basketball
these behaviors. and a fish to peck at a particular shape. Still, the three-point shot might be beyond
the raccoon’s range. (top right photo) Source: Courtesy of Ulrike Siebeck, reproduced with
permission of the Journal of Experimental Biology. U. E. Siebeck, L. Litherland and G. M. Wallis, JEB 212,
Max Wertheimer and Gestalt 2113-2119 (2009). http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/212/13/2113.

Psychology
In 1910, at about the time Watson was appealing to psychologists to abandon the
study of the mind, another young psychologist, Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), was
traveling by train through central Germany on his way to a vacation in the Rhineland
(M. Hunt, 1993). What he saw from the train would lead him to found a new move-
ment in psychology. Called Gestalt psychology, it is the school of psychology that
studies the ways in which the brain organizes and structures our perceptions of the
world.
What had captured Wertheimer’s attention was the illusion that objects in the
distance—telegraph poles, houses, and hilltops—appeared to be moving along with
the train, even though they were obviously standing still. Countless other people had
observed the same phenomenon of apparent movement but had paid little if any atten-
tion to it. Wertheimer was intrigued to find out why the phenomenon occurred. He
had the idea that the illusion was not a trick of the eye but reflected higher-level pro-
cesses in the brain that created the perception of movement. He promptly canceled
his vacation and began experimental studies of the phenomenon. The experiments
he conducted with two assistants, Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) and Kurt Koffka Figure 1.2 What Is This?
(1886–1943), led to discoveries about the nature of perception—the processes by
which we organize our sense impressions and form meaningful representations of the
world around us. CONCEPT 1.6
The Gestalt psychologists rejected the structuralist belief that mental experience Gestalt psychology was based on the
could be understood by breaking it down into its component parts. The German word principle that the human brain organizes
gestalt can be roughly translated as “unitary form” or “pattern.” Gestalt psychologists our perceptions of the world, so that we
believe that the brain organizes how we see the world so that we perceive unified or perceive organized patterns or wholes,
not individual bits and pieces of sense
organized wholes, not individual bits and pieces of sense experiences added together. experiences added together.
The well-known Gestalt maxim that the “whole is greater than the sum of the parts”
expresses this core belief. You perceive the dots in ■ Figure 1.2 not as a formless array
of individual dots but as a representation of an arrow. When you see a large number of
➥ CONCEPT LINK
Although the influences of Gestalt
psychology extend to many areas of
black objects flying overhead, you instantly recognize them as a flock of birds flying in psychology, it is best known for its
formation. In other words, your brain interprets what your eyes see as organized patterns contributions to the study of perception.
or wholes. See Module 3.5.

Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis

gestalt psychology The school of psychology
Around the time that behaviorism and Gestalt psychology were establishing a foot- that holds that the brain structures our perceptions
hold in organized psychology, a very different model of psychology was emerging. It of the world in terms of meaningful patterns or
was based on the writings of an Austrian physician named Sigmund Freud (1856– wholes.
1939). Freud’s psychology focused not only on the mind, but also on a region of gestalt A German word meaning “unitary form”
the mind that lay beyond the reach of ordinary consciousness—a region he called or “pattern.”

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8 | CHAPTER ONE THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

the unconscious. Freud conceived of the unconscious as the repository of primi-

tive sexual and aggressive drives or instincts and of the wishes, impulses, and urges
that arise from those drives or instincts. He believed that the motives underlying our
behavior involve sexual and aggressive impulses that lie in the murky depths of the
unconscious, hidden away from our ordinary awareness of ourselves. In other words,
we may do or say things without understanding the true motives that prompted these
CONCEPT 1.7 behaviors.
According to Freud, much of our behavior Freud also believed that early childhood experiences play a determining role in shap-
is determined by unconscious forces ing our personalities and behavior, including abnormal behaviors like excessive fears or
and motives that lie beyond the reach of
ordinary awareness. phobias. He held that abnormal behavior patterns are rooted in unconscious conflicts

➥
originating in childhood. These conflicts involve a dynamic struggle within the uncon-
CONCEPT LINK scious mind between unacceptable sexual or aggressive impulses striving for expression
Freud’s model of therapy, called and opposing mental forces seeking to keep this threatening material out of conscious
psychoanalysis, is based on the belief that
therapeutic change comes from uncovering awareness. Thus, Freud’s view of psychology, and that of his followers, is often called the
and working through unconscious conflicts psychodynamic perspective.
within the personality. See Module 13.1. Unlike Wundt, James, and Watson, Freud was a therapist, and his main aim was to
help people overcome psychological problems. He developed a form of psychotherapy or
“talk therapy” that he called psychoanalysis (discussed in Chapter 13). Psychoanalysis is
a type of mental detective work. It incorporates methods, such as analysis of dreams and
of “slips of the tongue,” that Freud believed could be used to gain insight into the nature
of the underlying motives and conflicts of which his patients were unaware. Freud main-
tained that once these unconscious conflicts were brought into the light of conscious
awareness, they could be successfully resolved, or “worked through,” during the course
CONCEPT 1.8 of therapy.
Although some early schools of psychology
have essentially disappeared, contemporary
perspectives in the field, including the
behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, Contemporary Perspectives
physiological, cognitive, and sociocultural
perspectives, continue to evolve and to in Psychology
shape our understandings of behavior.
What do we find when we look over the landscape of psychology today? For one thing,
we find a discipline that owes a great debt to its founders but is constantly reinventing
itself to meet new challenges. Not all schools of thought have survived the test of time.
Structuralism, for one, has essentially disappeared from the landscape; others main-
tain small groups of devoted followers who remain true to the original precepts. But by
and large, the early schools of psychology—functionalism, behaviorism, Gestalt psy-
chology, psychoanalysis—have continued to evolve or have been consolidated within
broader perspectives. Today, the landscape of psychology can be divided into six major
unconscious In Freudian theory, the part of the
perspectives: the behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, physiological, cognitive, and
mind that lies outside the range of ordinary aware- sociocultural.
ness and that contains primitive drives and instincts.
psychodynamic perspective The view that The Behavioral Perspective
behavior is influenced by the struggle between The linchpin of the behavioral perspective, which focuses on observable behavior and
unconscious sexual or aggressive impulses and
the important role of learning in behavior, is, of course, behaviorism. However, many
opposing forces that try to keep this threatening
material out of consciousness.
psychologists believe that traditional behaviorism is too simplistic or limited to explain
complex human behavior. Though traditional behaviorism continues to influence mod-
psychoanalysis Freud’s method of psycho-
therapy; it focuses on uncovering and working
ern psychology, it is no longer the dominant force it was during its heyday in the early to
through unconscious conflicts he believed were mid-1900s.
at the root of psychological problems. Many psychologists today adopt a broader, learning-based perspective called social-
behavioral perspective An approach to the cognitive theory (formerly called social-learning theory). This perspective originated in
study of psychology that focuses on the role of the 1960s with a group of learning theorists who broke away from traditional behavior-
learning in explaining observable behavior. ism (see Chapter 11). They believed that behavior is shaped not only by environmental
social-cognitive theory A contemporary factors, such as rewards and punishments, but also by cognitive factors, such as the value
learning-based model that emphasizes the placed on different objects or goals (e.g., getting good grades) and expectancies about the
roles of cognitive and environmental factors outcomes of behavior. (“If I do X, then Y will follow.”) Social-cognitive theorists chal-
in determining behavior. lenged their fellow psychologists to find ways to study these mental processes rather than

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 MODULE 1.1 | 9

casting them aside as unscientific, as traditional behaviorists would. Traditional behav-

iorists may not deny that thinking occurs, but they do believe that mental processes lie
outside the range of scientific study. CONCEPT 1.9
The behavioral perspective led to the development of a major school of therapy, Many psychologists today subscribe to a
behavior therapy. Behavior therapy involves the systematic application of learning prin- broad learning-based perspective, called
social-cognitive theory, that emphasizes
ciples that are grounded in the behaviorist tradition of Watson and Skinner. Whereas the the environmental and cognitive influences
psychoanalyst is concerned with the workings of the unconscious mind, the behavior on behavior.

➥
therapist helps people acquire more adaptive behaviors to overcome psychological prob-
lems such as fears and social inhibitions. Today, many behavior therapists subscribe to CONCEPT LINK
Social-cognitive theorists believe that
a broader therapeutic approach, called cognitive-behavioral therapy, which incorporates personality comprises not only learned
techniques for changing maladaptive thoughts as well as overt behaviors (Dobson & behavior but also ways in which individuals
Dozois, 2001) (see Chapter 13). think about themselves and the world around
them. See Module 11.3.

The Psychodynamic Perspective CONCEPT 1.10

The psychodynamic perspective remains a vibrant force in psychology. Like other The psychodynamic perspective focuses
on the role of unconscious motivation
contemporary perspectives in psychology, it continues to evolve. As we’ll see in (inner wishes and impulses of which we are
Chapter 11, “neo-Freudians” (psychodynamic theorists who have followed in the unaware) and the importance of childhood
Freudian tradition) tend to place less emphasis on basic drives like sex and aggression experiences in shaping personality.
than Freud did and more emphasis on processes of self-awareness, self-direction, and
conscious choice.
The influence of psychodynamic theory extends well beyond the field of psychology.
Its focus on our inner lives—our fantasies, wishes, dreams, and hidden motives—has had
a profound impact on popular literature, art, and culture. Beliefs that psychological prob-
lems may be rooted in childhood and that people may not be consciously aware of their
deeper motives and wishes continue to be widely endorsed, even by people not formally
schooled in Freudian psychology.

The Humanistic Perspective: A “Third Force”

in Psychology
In the 1950s, another force began to achieve prominence in psychology. Known as human-
istic psychology, it was a response to behaviorism and Freudian psychology, which were
CONCEPT 1.11
the two dominant perspectives in the field at that time. For that reason, humanistic psy- Humanistic psychology emphasizes
chology was called the “third force” in psychology. Humanistic psychologists, including personal freedom and responsibility for our
the Americans Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) and Carl Rogers (1902–1987), rejected actions and the value of self-awareness and
the deterministic views of behaviorism and psychodynamic psychology—beliefs that acceptance of our true selves.
human behavior is determined by the environment (in the case of behaviorism) or by
the interplay of unconscious forces and motives lying outside the person’s awareness (in CONCEPT 1.12
the case of Freudian psychology). Humanistic psychologists believe that free will and The physiological perspective examines
relationships between biological processes
conscious choice are essential aspects of the human experience. and behavior.
Psychologists who adopt a humanistic perspective believe that psychology should
focus on conscious experiences, even if those experiences are subjective and cannot be
directly observed and scientifically measured. Humanistic psychologists view each of us behavior therapy A form of therapy that
as individuals who possess distinctive clusters of traits and abilities and unique frames involves the systematic application of the
of reference or perspectives on life. They emphasize the value of self-awareness and of principles of learning.
becoming an authentic person by being true to oneself. They also stress the creative humanistic psychology The school of psychol-
potentials of individuals and their ability to make choices that imbue their lives with ogy that believes that free will and conscious
meaning and purpose. choice are essential aspects of the human
experience.
humanistic perspective An approach to the
The Physiological Perspective study of psychology that applies the principles
The physiological perspective examines relationships between biological processes of humanistic psychology.
and behavior. It is identified not with any one contributor but, rather, with many psy- physiological perspective An approach to the
chologists and neuroscientists who focus on the biological bases of behavior and mental study of psychology that focuses on the relation-
processes. ships between biological processes and behavior.

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 10 | CHAPTER ONE THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

Sitting atop your shoulders is a wondrous mass of tissue—

your brain—that governs virtually everything you do. The brain
is the center of the nervous system, an incredibly complex liv-
ing computer that allows you to sense the world around you, to
think and feel, to move through space, to regulate heartbeat and
other bodily functions, and to coordinate what you see and hear
with what you do. Your nervous system also allows you to visual-
ize the world and imagine worlds that never were. As we’ll find
throughout this text, physiological psychology has illuminated
our understanding of the biological bases of behavior and men-
tal processes, including the roles of heredity, hormones, and the
nervous system.
Evolutionary psychology is a movement within modern
psychology that applies principles derived from Charles Darwin’s
theory of evolution to a wide range of behavior (Bolhuis & Wynne,
2009; Buss, 2008; Maestripieri & Roney, 2006). Darwin (1809–
© AP Photo/Ed Betz

1882) believed that all life forms, including humans, evolved from
earlier life forms by adapting over time to the demands of their
natural environments.
Evolutionary psychologists believe
Evolutionary psychologists believe that behavioral tendencies
that behavioral tendencies that had or predispositions, such as aggressive tendencies, might be rooted in our genes, having been
survival value to ancestral humans, passed along from generation to generation from ancestral times all the way down the genetic
such as aggressiveness, may have been highway to us. These traits may have helped ancestral humans survive, even if they are no lon-
passed down the genetic highway to ger adaptive in modern society. Evolutionary psychologists examine behaviors in different
modern humans. Even our penchant for species that they believe may be influenced by evolutionary processes, including behaviors
aggressive sports might reflect these such as aggression, mating, and even acts of altruism (i.e., self-sacrifice of the individual to
genetic undercurrents. help perpetuate the group). But they recognize that environmental factors, such as cultural
learning and family influences, play an important role in determining whether these behav-
ioral tendencies or predispositions lead to actual behavior (e.g., whether a person acts aggres-
CONCEPT 1.13
Evolutionary psychology subscribes to the sively or not).
view that our behavior reflects inherited
predispositions or tendencies that
increased the likelihood of survival of our The Cognitive Perspective
early ancestors. Like Wilhelm Wundt, cognitive psychologists study people’s mental processes in
an effort to understand how people gain knowledge about themselves and the world
CONCEPT 1.14 around them. The word cognitive comes from the Latin word cognitio, meaning “knowl-
The cognitive perspective focuses on
understanding the mental processes by
edge.” Psychologists who adopt the cognitive perspective study the mental processes
which people gain knowledge about by which we acquire knowledge—how we learn, form concepts, solve problems, make
themselves and the world around them. decisions, and use language. Some cognitive psychologists apply principles of com-
puter information processing (i.e., the methods by which computers process informa-
CONCEPT 1.15 tion to solve problems) to explain how humans process, store, retrieve, and manipulate
The sociocultural perspective places information.
behavior within a broad social context Cognitive psychologists make no apology for studying mental experience; they believe the
by examining the influences of ethnicity,
gender, lifestyle, socioeconomic status,
methods they use to study cognitions are well grounded in the scientific tradition. After all, no
and culture. one has ever observed subatomic particles such as protons and neutrons, but that hasn’t pre-
vented physicists from conducting scientific studies that attempt to investigate their proper-
ties. Chapter 7 examines the intriguing research findings reported by cognitive psychologists.
evolutionary psychology A branch of psychol-
ogy that focuses on the role of evolutionary
processes in shaping behavior.
The Sociocultural Perspective
cognitive perspective An approach to the Psychologists who adopt a sociocultural perspective examine how behavior and atti-
study of psychology that focuses on the processes tudes are shaped by the social and cultural influences to which people are exposed. More
by which we acquire knowledge. specifically, they focus on the influences of age, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, life-
sociocultural perspective An approach to the style, income level, disability status, and culture on behavior and mental processes. This
study of psychology that emphasizes the role of study of sociocultural factors in behavior is especially relevant today because of the increas-
social and cultural influences on behavior. ing diversity of American society. Ethnic minority groups now represent about one-third

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 MODULE 1.1 | 11

of the U.S. population, but are expected to grow to nearly half

the population by 2050 (Clay, 2005; Yali & Revenson, 2004).
Moreover, multiracial Americans have become the nation’s
fastest-growing population group, now comprising about
5.2 million people, including such high-profile individuals as
President Barack Obama, golfer Tiger Woods, and baseball
player Derek Jeter (“Multiracial America,” 2009).
The sociocultural perspective leads us to pose a number of
questions to which we shall return later in the text: Does sus-
ceptibility to visual illusions vary across cultures? Are there
gender differences in basic abilities in math or verbal skills?

© Tribune Media Services, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted with permission.
How does culture influence concepts of the self? Are there
ethnic differences in drug-use patterns, and if so, how might
we account for them? Are there racial differences in intelli-
gence, and if so, what do we make of them? What role does
acculturation play in the psychological adjustment of immi-
grant groups?
Psychologists recognize that research samples need to be
broadly representative of the populations to which they wish to
generalize their findings. Much of the early research in psychol-
ogy focused on White, middle-class samples, composed largely
of male college students. We should not assume that findings
based on narrowly defined groups of individuals necessarily
generalize to other groups who have different life experiences.

Summary of Contemporary Perspectives

It’s important to realize that no one perspective is necessarily
right and the others wrong. Each major perspective in contem-
porary psychology focuses on different aspects of behavior or psychological functioning.
Each has something unique to offer to our understanding of human behavior, and none
offers a complete view. Given the complexity of human behavior and experience, it is not
surprising that psychology has spawned multiple pathways for approaching its subject mat-
ter. It is also not surprising that many psychologists today identify with an eclectic approach
to understanding human behavior—one that draws on theories and principles represent-
ing different perspectives. We should recognize, too, that contemporary psychology is not
divided as neatly into different schools of thought as it seemed to be in its early days. There positive psychology A contemporary move-
is considerable room for overlap among the different perspectives. ment within psychology that emphasizes the
In addition to the six major perspectives that dot the landscape of contemporary psy- study of human virtues and assets, rather than
chology, a growing movement within psychology, called positive psychology, weaknesses and deficits.
is directed toward the study of positive aspects of human experience, such as
love, happiness, altruism, and hope (Seligman et al., 2005; Snyder & Lopez,
2007; Vallea, Huebner, & Suldo, 2006). Psychologists have devoted a great deal
of attention to understanding human weaknesses and deficits, including emo-
tional problems, effects of traumatic stress, and problem behaviors such as vio-
lence and drug addiction. Founded by psychologist Martin Seligman, positive
psychology balances the scale by focusing on our virtues and strengths, not our
flaws. Throughout the text we discuss aspects of positive psychology, including love,
© vadim kozlovsky, 2009/Shutterstock.com

helping behavior, optimism, successful aging, happiness, self-esteem, self-actualiza-

tion, and creativity.
In Concept Chart 1.1, the first of many such charts in the text, you’ll find
examples of the kinds of general questions that psychologists from each of the
major contemporary perspectives might ask, as well as the kinds of questions they
might pose to learn more about specific topics. These topics are introduced here to
help you distinguish among the various perspectives in contemporary psychology. They
will be discussed further in later chapters.

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12 | CHAPTER ONE THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

CONCEPT CHART 1.1 Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology: How They Differ

Questions About Specific Topics

Perspective General Questions Aggression Depression Obesity

Behavioral How do early learning How is aggressive How is depression How might unhealthy
experiences shape behavior learned? related to changes in eating habits lead to
our behavior as How is it rewarded reinforcement patterns? obesity? How might
adults? or reinforced? Does What social skills are we change those habits?
exposure to violence needed to establish
in the media or among and maintain social
one’s peers play a role? relationships that could
serve as sources of
reinforcement?

Psychodynamic How do unresolved How is aggression How might depression Might obesity relate
conflicts from childhood related to unconscious be related to unresolved to childhood conflicts
affect adult behavior? impulses? Against whom loss? Might it represent revolving around
How can people be are these impulses really anger turned inward? unresolved needs for love
helped to cope with directed? and support? Might food
these conflicts? have become a substitute
for love?

Humanistic How do people pursue Might violence be Might depression be What sets the stage
goals that give their related to frustration related to a lack of self- for obesity? Does food
lives a sense of meaning arising when people are esteem or a threat to have a special meaning
and purpose? blocked from pursuing one’s self-image? Might for obese people?
their goals? How might it stem from a sense of How can we help them
we turn this around to purposelessness or to find other sources
prevent violence? lack of meaning in life? of satisfaction?

Physiological How do biological What brain mechanisms How are changes in Is obesity inherited?
structures and processes control aggressive brain chemistry related What genes may be
make behavior possible? behavior? Might brain to depression? What involved? How would
What roles do nature abnormalities explain genetic links might knowledge of a genetic
(heredity) and nurture violent behavior in there be? basis lead to new
(environment) play some people? approaches to treatment
in such areas as or prevention?
intelligence, language
development, and
aggression?

Cognitive How do people solve What thoughts trigger What types of thinking How does obesity affect
problems, make aggressive responses? patterns are related a person’s self-concept?
decisions, and What beliefs do to depression? How What thoughts lead to
develop language? aggressive people might they be changed eating binges? How
hold that might increase to help people overcome might they be changed?
their potential for depression or prevent
violence? it from occurring?

Sociocultural How do concepts of self What social conditions Is depression linked Are some groups at
differ across cultures? give rise to drug use to social stresses, greater risk of obesity
How do social and and aggressive behavior? such as poverty or than others? Do cultural
cultural influences Does our society unemployment? Why differences in dietary
shape behavior? condone or even reward is depression more patterns and customs
certain forms of violence, common among certain play a role?
such as sexual aggression groups of people,
against women or especially women?
spousal abuse? Does it have to do
with their expected
social roles?

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Sain selville, että "toinen tasankomaa" tarkoitti Hollantia ja
"takalisto" Tanskaa. Ukko paha! Sinusta oli Äänisen reitti Itämeren
vetten keskus. Itämeren rannoilla kyllä tiedetään, että merestä
voidaan vesitse päästä aina Äänisen perukoille, joita pidetään
takalistona. Mutta sinä ukkoseni asetat Tanskan ja Hollannin
hallitsijat takalistoon ja asut itse keskuksessa! Sopihan se hyvin
sinun arvollesi venäläisen kylän vanhimpana tällä alueella, missä
sinun kyläsi edusti venäläisen asutuksen etujoukkoja, sillä edessäsi
aukeavan valtavan väylän länsipuolella alkoi ennen pitkää karjalainen
asutus. Ukko jatkoi.

"Pietari kulki kerran tästä matkalla Arkangeliin ja vieraili

kotitalossani esivanhempieni luona. Hän oli kertonut tuosta toisesta
tasankomaasta maailman äärillä ja luvannut sieltä tuottaa karjaa
tänne. Kutsumme sitä nyt Holmogorin karjaksi. Sitten oli tsaari
komentanut miehensä avaamaan vesiväylää Valkeasta merestä
Ääniseen, mutta huomannutkin, että laivat eivät voisi sitä myöten
purjehtia, se kun olisi liian ahdas, vaikka väylän avaamiseksi ei olisi
tarvinnutkaan kaivaa kovaan maahan kuin muutaman virstan
pituinen kanava".

Nyt muuttui ukko hyvin miettiväiseksi ja jatkoi varsin epävarmana:

"Pietari mahtoi olla hyvin vanha tullessaan tsaariksi. Isäni kertoi,

että maailman alusta ei vielä ollut pitkälti, eikä täällä tiedetty, milloin
Kristus oli syntynyt, kun Pietari kävi ensi kerran paikkakunnalla.
Mutta eihän Pietari mikään tavallinen mies ollutkaan. Hän kai oli
venäläisille sama kuin karjalaisille Väinämöinen, josta ei koskaan
puhuta muuta kuin vanhana. Ja jos hän ei nyt ihan Väinämöinen
ollut, oli hän ainakin kuin Ilmarinen".
 Tässä vilkaisi ukko minuun hyvin epätietoisena. Nyökäytin vain
päätäni merkiksi, että olin kaikki hyvin ymmärtänyt. Ja miksikä en
olisi ymmärtänyt, kun kerran tiesin, että Pietari toi Venäjälle uuden
ajanlaskun, mikä perustui Kristuksen syntymään, sekä poisti entisen,
jossa vuodet laskettiin maailman luomisesta. Kertojani siirtyi nyt
toiseen tarinaan.

"Pietarin aikana oli tässä läheisyydessä vanhauskoisten luostari ja

niin rikas, että se laski liikkeelle omia kultarahoja sekä harjoitti
kauppaa Sungun markkinoilla, mitkä vetivät vertoja Nishni-
Novgorodin suurille markkinoille".

Ukko ei osannut selittää, mikä oli Sungun mahdin lopettanut.

Mistäpä hän olisi tiennyt, että Arkangelin rata lamautti nuo Äänisen
jättiläismarkkinat, joille saapuvien rekijonot luikertelivat useiden
virstain pituisina vöinä aina uunna vuonna Äänisjärven pitkien lahtien
jäillä.

"Kun Pietari sai kuulla metsään kätkeytyneestä suuresta

luostariyhdyskunnasta, määräsi hän sen hävitettäväksi. Rukouksista
ei lähtenyt apua. Tsaari oli järkkymätön. Silloin lähti nunnien —
luostareita oli kaksi — abbedissa tapaamaan Pietaria, joka puuhaili
kanavarakennuksella, minkä piti yhdistää Äänisjärvi Valkeaanmereen.
Mitä silloin tapahtui, ei tiedetä, mutta luostarit jäivät rauhaan. Ne
hävisivät vasta minun nuoruudessani. Kerrotaan tosin niinkin, että
tsaari olisi aikeistaan luopunut, kun hän kuuli, että luostarin pellot
olivat ojitetut, niinkuin Pietari olisi pelännyt ojia"!

Tämä selitys huvitti ja nauratti ukkoa, sillä hän ymmärsi sen

omalla tavallaan, vaikka selitys saattoi olla ihan oikea. Pietarihan ei
suosinut luostareita, niiden asukkaiden toimettoman elämän takia.
Ehkä juuri nämä luostariyhdyskunnan hyvin hoidetut pellot tekivät
sen olemassaolon tsaarin silmissä oikeutetuksi, vaikka sen asukkaat
olivatkin vihattuja ja vainottuja vanhauskoisia. Tosiasia joka
tapauksessa on, että nämät luostarit hävisivät vasta viime
vuosisadan puolivälissä.

Luulin ja pelkäsin, että ukon tarinat olivat jo lopussa. Katselin yhä

uudestaan ja uudestaan edessäni aukeavaa merkillistä
Pietarinkattilalaaksoa. Siitä juuri halusin tietoja. Kertojani arvasi
ajatukseni ja ryhtyi siitä puhumaan.

"Katselette herkeämättä tuota tietä. Sekin on Pietarin

hakkauttama. Ensin hän rakensi Valkeanmeren rannalle suuren
laivaston, mikä sitten tätä avattua uraa myöten hevos- ja
miesvoimalla kuletettiin Äänisjärveen, vaikka paljonhan siinä oli
luonnon vesiväylääkin välillä. Äänisestä se purjehti vielä suurempaan
järveen ja sieltä isoon mereen, missä se hävitti vihollisten laivastot.
Silloin tuli teidän maastanne osa Venäjää".

Siihen loppuivat ukon tarinat. Mitään vastaväitteitä en tietysti

tehnyt. Olin taas kuullut noita kertomuksia, joita rahvaan miehilläkin
on runsaasti Pietari suuren ajasta. Entistä selvemmin taas käsitin,
että tuon merkillisen miehen toimet eivät ole ainoastaan
ratkaisevasti vaikuttaneet oman isänmaani kohtaloon, vaan myös
vetäneet rajantakaiset karjalaiset venäläisen vaikutuspiirin entistä
kiinteämpään yhteyteen.

En silloin tiennyt, että vastavaikutus oli niin lähellä. Minun jälkeeni

kylään eksynyt ensimäinen vieras kulkija toi sen asukkaille jo tiedon
maailmansodan syttymisestä.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ÄÄNISJÄRVEN
RANNOILLA KARJALAISTEN TUTTAVANA ***

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