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From Opismeyts Dio, Viv, Mau

CHAPTER 1: SYSTEMS, ROLES, AND DEVELOPMENT Identifying Problems, Opportunities, and Objectives
METHODOLOGIES
● Activity:
Learning Objectives
○ Interviewing user management
● Understand the need for systems analysis and ○ Summarizing the knowledge obtained
design in organizations. ○ Estimating the scope of the project
● Realize what the many roles of the systems ○ Documenting the results
analyst are. ● Output:
● Comprehend the fundamentals of three
development methodologies: ○ Feasibility report containing problem
○ SDLC definition and objective summaries
○ The agile approach from which management can make a
○ Object-oriented systems analysis and decision on whether to proceed with
design the proposed project
Roles of the Systems Analyst Determining Human Information Requirements
● The analyst must be able to work with people ● Activity:
of all descriptions and be experienced in ○ Interviewing
working with computers ○ Sampling and investing hard data
● Three primary roles: ○ Questionnaires
○ Consultant ○ Observe the decision maker’s
○ Supporting expert behavior and environment
○ Agent of change ○ Prototyping
Qualities of the Systems Analyst ○ Learn the who, what, where, when,
● Problem solver how, and why of the current system
● Communicator ● Output:
● Strong personal and professional ethics ○ The analyst understands how users
● Self-disciplined and self-motivated accomplish their work when
Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) interacting with a computer
○ Begin to know how to make the new
● The systems development life cycle is a system more useful and usable
phased approach to solving business problems ○ Know the business functions
● Developed through the use of a specific cycle ○ Have complete information on the:
of analyst and user activities ■ People
● Each phase has unique user activities ■ Goals
■ Data
The Seven Phases of the Systems Development Life ■ Procedure involved
Cycle (Figure 1.1) Analyzing System Needs
● Activity:
○ Create data flow, activity, or sequence
diagrams
○ Complete the data dictionary
○ Analyze the structured decisions
made
○ Prepare and present the system
proposal
● Output:
○ Recommendation on what, if
anything, should be done
The Impact of Maintenance
● Maintenance is performed for two reasons:
○ Removing software errors
○ Enhancing existing software
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● Over time the cost of continued maintenance ○ Use case scenarios

will be greater than that of creating an ● Create UML diagrams
entirely new system. At that point it becomes ● Develop class diagrams
more feasible to perform a new systems study. ● Draw statechart diagrams
Approaches to Structured Analysis and Design and to ● Modify the UML diagrams
the Systems Development Life Cycle ● Develop and document the system
When to Use SDLC
● Traditional systems development life cycle
● CASE systems development life cycle ● Systems have been developed and
● Object-oriented systems analysis and design documented using SLDC
Case Tools ● It is important to document each step
● Upper level management feels more
● CASE tools are productivity tools for systems comfortable or safe using SDLC
analysts that have been created explicitly to ● There are adequate resources and time to
improve their routine work through the use of complete the full SDLC
automated support ● Communication of how new systems work is
The Agile Approach important
When to Use Agile
● Based on:
○ Values ● There is a project champion of agile methods
○ Principles in the organization
○ Core practices ● Applications need to be developed quickly in
Agile Values response to a dynamic environment
● A rescue takes place (the system failed and
● Communication there is no time to figure out what went
● Simplicity wrong)
● Feedback ● The customer is satisfied with incremental
● Courage improvements
Four Agile Resources ● Executives and analysts agree with the
● Resources are adjusted to ensure successful principles of agile methodologies
project completion When to Use Object-Oriented
○ Time ● The problems modeled lend themselves to
○ Cost classes
○ Quality ● An organization supports the UML learning
○ Scope ● Systems can be added gradually, one
Five Stages of Agile Development subsystem at a time
● Exploration ● Reuse of previously written software is a
● Planning possibility
● Iterations to the first release ● It is acceptable to tackle the difficult problems
● Productionizing first
● Maintenance Open Source Software
Object-Oriented (O-O) Systems Analysis and Design ● An alternative of traditional software
• Alternate approach to the structured development where proprietary code is
approach of the SDLC that is intended to hidden from the users
facilitate the development of systems that ● Open source software is free to distribute,
change rapidly in response to dynamic share, and modify
business environments ● Characterized as a philosophy rather than
• Analysis is performed on a small part of the simply the process of creating new software
system followed by design and ● Examples: Linux Operating System, Apache
implementation Web Server, Mozilla Firefox
Unified Modeling Language (UML) Phases Four Types of Open Source Communities:

● Define the use case model: ● Ad hoc

○ Use case diagram ● Standardized

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● Organized Enterprise Resource Planning

● Commercial
● Enterprise Systems or Enterprise Resource
Planning (ERP) describes an integrated
Six Key Dimensions that Differentiate Open Source organizational information system.
Communities ● Software that helps the flow of information
between the functional areas within the
● General structure organization
● Environment Context-Level Data Flow Diagrams
● Goals
● Methods ● Focus is on the data flowing into and out of
● User community the system and the processing of the data.
● Licensing ● Shows the scope of the system:
Collective Design ○ What is to be included in the system.
○ The external entities are outside the
● Through a process of collective design the IT scope of the system.
artifact is imbued with The Basic Symbols of a Data Flow Diagram (Figure
○ Community and organizational 2.4)
structures
○ Knowledge - Process: means that some action or group of
○ Practices actions take place.
- Entity: is a person, group, department, or any
system that either receives or originates
CHAPTER 2: UNDERSTANDING AND MODELING information or data.
ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS - Data flow: shows that information is being
● Levels of management passed from or to a process.
● Design of organizations
● Organizational cultures
Organizations Are Composed of Interrelated Management in Organizations Exists on Three
Subsystems Horizontal Levels: Operational Control, Managerial
Planning and Control, and Strategic Management
● Influenced by levels of management decision (Figure 2.19)
makers that cut horizontally across the
organizational system
○ Operations
○ Middle management
○ Strategic management
● Influenced by organizational cultures and
subcultures
Organizations as Systems
● Conceptualized as systems designed to
accomplish predetermined goals and
objectives
Interrelatedness and Independence of Systems
● All systems and subsystems are interrelated
and interdependent.
● All systems process inputs from their Operations Control
environments. • Make decisions using predetermined rules
● All systems are contained by boundaries that have predictable outcomes.
separating them from their environments. • Oversee the operating details of the
● System feedback is used for planning and organization.
control
● An ideal system self-corrects or regulates
itself.
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Managerial Planning and Control Major Topics

● Project initiation
● Make short-term planning and control ● Determining feasibility
decisions about resources and organizational ● Determining resources
objectives. ● Activity planning and control
● Decisions may be partly operational and partly ○ Gantt charts
strategic. ○ PERT diagrams
Strategic Management ● Managing analysis and design activities
● Look outward from the organization to the ● The agile approach
future.
● Make decisions that will guide middle and Project Initiation
operations managers. ● Problems in the organization
● Work in highly uncertain decision-making ○ Problems that lend themselves to
environment. systems solutions
● Define the organization as a whole. ● Opportunities for improvement
Managerial Levels ○ Caused through upgrading, altering,
or installing new systems
● Different organization structure
● Leadership style Checking Output, Observing Employee Behavior, and
● Technological considerations Listening to Feedback Are All Ways to Help the
● Organization culture Analyst Pinpoint Systems Problems and
● Human interaction Opportunities (Figure 3.1)
● All carry implications for the analysis and
design of information systems
Organizational Culture
• Organizations have cultures and subcultures.
• Learn from verbal and nonverbal symbolism.

CHAPTER 3: PROJECT MANAGEMENT

● Understand how projects are initiated and
selected, define a business problem, and
determine the feasibility of a proposed
project.
● Evaluate hardware and software and the way
it supports human interactions with Problem Definition
technology. ● Problem statement
● Forecast and analyze tangible and intangible ○ Paragraph or two stating the problem
costs and benefits. or opportunity
● Manage a project by preparing a budget, ● Issues
creating a work breakdown structure, ○ Independent pieces pertaining to the
scheduling activities, and controlling the problem or opportunity
schedule and costs. ● Objectives
● Build and manage a project team ○ Goals that match the issues
● Professionally write and present an effective point-by-point
systems proposal, concentrating on both ● Requirements
content and design ○ The things that must be accomplished
Project Management Fundamentals along with the possible solutions, and
constraints, that limit the
● Project initiation
development of the system
● Determining project feasibility
● Use the problem definition to create a
● Activity planning and control
preliminary test plan
● Project scheduling
● Managing systems analysis team members

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Problem Definition Steps

● Find a number of points that may be included
in one issue
● State the objective
● Determine the relative importance of the
issues or objectives
● Identify which objectives are most critical.

Selection Of Projects
● Backing from management
● Appropriate timing of project commitment
● Possibility of improving attainment of
organizational goals
● Practical in terms of resources for the system
analyst and organization
● Worthwhile project compared with other Technical Feasibility
ways the organization could invest resources ● Can current technical resources be upgraded
or added to in a manner that fulfills the
Selection of Projects: Improving Attainment of request under consideration?
Organizational Goals ● If not, is there technology in existence that
● Improving corporate profits meets the specifications?
● Supporting the competitive strategy of the
organization Economic Feasibility
● Improving cooperation with vendors and ● Economic feasibility determines whether the
partners value of the investment exceeds the time and
● Improving internal operations support cost
● Improving internal decision support so that ● Includes:
decisions are more effective ○ Analyst and analyst team time
● Improving customer service ○ Business employee time
● Increasing employee morale ○ Hardware
○ Software
Defining Objectives ○ Software development
Many possible objectives exist including:
● Speeding up a process Operational Feasibility
● Streamlining a process ● Operational feasibility determines if the
● Combining processes human resources are available to operate the
● Reducing errors in input system once it has been installed
● Reducing redundant storage ● Users that do not want a new system may
● Reducing redundant output prevent it from becoming operationally
● Improving system and subsystem integration feasible

Determining Feasibility Estimating Workloads

● Defining objectives Systems analysts formulate numbers that represent
● Determining resources both current and projected workloads for the system
○ Operationally so that any hardware obtained will possess the
○ Technically capability to handle current and future workloads
○ Economically

The Three Key Elements of Feasibility Include

Technical, Economic, and Operational Feasibility
(Figure 3.3)

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Comparisons of Workloads between Existing and Inventorying Computer Hardware

Proposed Systems (Figure 3.4 ) ● Type of equipment
● Operation status of the equipment
● Estimated age of equipment
● Projected life of equipment
● Physical location of equipment
● Department or person responsible for
equipment
● Financial arrangement for equipment

Evaluating Hardware
● Time required for average transactions
● Total volume capacity of the system
● Idle time of the CPU or network
● Size of memory provided

People that Evaluate Hardware

● Management
● Users
Ascertaining Hardware and Software Needs ● Systems analysts
● Steps used to determine hardware and
software needs: Acquisition of Computer Equipment
○ Inventory computer hardware ● Purchasing
currently available ● Using Cloud Services
○ Estimate current and future system
workloads Available cloud services
○ Evaluate available hardware and ● Available cloud services may include:
software ○ Web hosting
○ Choose the vendor ○ Email hosting
○ Acquire the computer equipment ○ Application hosting
○ Backup
Steps in Choosing Hardware and Software (Figure ○ Storage and processing of databases
3.5) ○ Archiving
○ Ecommerce

Three Main Categories of Cloud Computing

● Software as a Service (SaaS)
● Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
● Platform as a Service (PaaS)

Strategic Cloud Computing Decisions

● Decisions on cloud computing can first be
addressed on a strategic level
● Business should focus on:
○ Define a high-level business case that
focuses on high-level benefits
○ Define core requirements
○ Define core technologies for the
enterprise

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Benefits of Cloud Computing BYOD and BYOT

● Less time spent maintaining legacy systems ● BYOD: Bring your own device
● May be simpler to acquire IT services ● BYOT: Bring your own technology
● Scalable applications that can grow by adding ● Employee uses their own device access
more cloud resources corporate networks, data, and services
● Consistency across multiple platforms remotely
● Capital is not tied up
Benefits of BYOD and BYOT
Drawbacks of Cloud Computing ● Building employee morale
● Loss of control of data stored in the cloud ● Potential for lowering the initial cost hardware
● Potential security threats to data that is not purchase
stored on premises ● Facilitating remote, around-the-clock access
● Reliability of the Internet as a platform to corporate computer networks
● Building on a familiar user interface to access
Purchasing or Using Cloud Services Advantages and corporate computing services, applications,
Disadvantages (Figure 3.6) databases, and storage

Drawbacks of BYOD and BYOT

● Security risks posed by untrained users
● Loss of the device
● Theft of the device and its data
● Unauthorized access to corporate networks
using personal mobile devices

Software Alternatives
● Created custom software
● Purchased as COTS (commercial off-the-shelf)
software
● Provided by an software as a service (SaaS)

Evaluating Vendor Support

● Hardware support
● Software support
● Installation and training support
● Maintenance support

Guidelines for Vendor Selection (Figure 3.7)

Software Evaluation
● Performance effectiveness
● Performance efficiency
● Ease of use
● Flexibility
’ ● Quality of documentation
● Manufacturer support
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Guidelines for Evaluating Software (Figure 3.9) ● Intangible benefits are difficult to measure
● Tangible costs are accurately projected by the
systems analyst and accounting personnel
● Intangible costs are difficult to estimate and
may not be known

Tangible Benefits
● Advantages measurable in dollars that accrue
to the organization through the use of the
information system
● Examples:
○ Increase in the speed of processing
○ Access to otherwise inaccessible
information
○ Access to information on a more
timely basis
○ The advantage of the computer’s
superior calculating power
○ Decreases in the amount of employee
Activity Planning and Control time needed to complete specific
● Planning includes: tasks
○ Selecting a systems analysis team
○ Estimating time required to complete Intangible Benefits
each task ● Intangible benefits are benefits from use of
○ Scheduling the project the information system that are difficult to
● Control includes: measure
○ Comparing the plan for the project ● Examples:
with its actual evolution ○ Improving the decision-making
○ Taking appropriate action to expedite process
or reschedule activities ○ Enhancing accuracy
○ Becoming more competitive in
Identifying and Forecasting Costs and Benefits customer service
● Judgment methods ○ Maintaining a good business image
○ Estimates from the sales force ○ Increasing job satisfaction
○ Surveys to estimate customer demand
○ Delphi studies Tangible Costs
○ Creating scenarios ● Those that can be accurately projected by
○ Drawing historical analogies systems analysts and the business’ accounting
● If historical data are available personnel
○ Conditional: ● Examples:
■ There is an association among ○ Cost of equipment
variables in the model ○ Cost of resources
○ Unconditional: ○ Cost of systems analysts’ time
■ Do not need to find or identify ○ Cost of programmers’ time
any relationships ○ Employees’ salaries

Estimation of Trends Intangible Costs

● Graphical judgment ● Those that are difficult to estimate and may
● Moving averages not be known
● Examples:
Identifying Benefits and Costs ○ Losing a competitive edge
● Tangible benefits are advantages measurable ○ Losing the reputation of being first
in dollars through the use of the information ○ Declining company image
system ○ Ineffective decision making

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Comparing Costs and Benefits Cash-Flow Analysis

● Break-even analysis ● Examines the direction, size, and pattern of
● Payback cash flow that is associated with the proposed
● Cash-flow analysis information system
● Present value analysis ● Determines when cash outlays and revenues
will occur for both; not only for the initial
Break-Even Analysis purchase, but over the life of the information
● The point at which the total cost of the system
current system and the proposed system
intersect Cash-Flow Analysis for the Computerized
● Useful when a business is growing and volume Mail-Addressing System (Figure 3.12)
is a key variable in costs
● Disadvantage:
○ Benefits are assumed to remain the
same
● Advantage:
○ Can determine how long it will take
for the benefits of the system to pay
back the costs of developing it

Present Value Analysis

● Way to assess all the economic outlays and
revenues of the information system over its
economic life, and to compare costs today
with future costs and today’s benefits with
future benefits
● Presents the time value of the investment in
the information system as well as the cash
flow
● Taking into account present value, the
conclusion is that the costs are greater than
the benefits.
Break-Even Analysis Showing a Payback Period of ● The discount rate, i, is assumed to be .12 in
Three and a Half Years (Figure 3.11) calculating the multipliers in this table.

Guidelines for Analysis

● Use break-even analysis if the project needs to
be justified in terms of cost, not benefits
● Use payback when the improved tangible
benefits form a convincing argument for the
proposed system
● Use cash-flow analysis when the project is
expensive, relative to the size of the company

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● Use present value when the payback period is Refining the Planning and Scheduling of Analysis
long or when the cost of borrowing money is Activities by Adding Detailed Tasks and Establishing
high the Time Required to Complete the Tasks (Figure
3.17)
Work Breakdown Structure
● Often a project needs to be broken down into
smaller tasks or activities
● These tasks together make up a work
breakdown structure (WBS)

Work Breakdown Structure Properties

● Each task or activity contains one deliverable,
or tangible outcome, from the activity
● Each task can be assigned to a single
individual or a single group
● Each task has a responsible person monitoring
and controlling performance
Project Scheduling
Developing a WBS
● Gantt Charts
● Decomposition, starting with large ideas, then
○ Simple
breaking them down into manageable
○ Lends itself to end user
activities
communication
● Product oriented, building a website can be
○ Drawn to scale
broken down into many parts
● PERT diagrams
● Process-oriented, emphasizes the importance
○ Useful when activities can be done in
of each phase
parallel
Time Estimation Techniques
Using a Two-Dimensional Gantt Chart for Planning
● Relying on experience
Activities that Can Be Accomplished in Parallel (Figure
● Using analogies
3.18)
● Using three-point estimation
● Identifying function points
● Using time estimation software

Function Point Analysis

● Takes the five main components of a
computer system and rates them in terms of
complexity:
○ External inputs
○ External outputs
○ External queries
○ Internal logical files
○ External interface files

Beginning to Plan a Project by Breaking it into Three

Major Activities (Figure 3.16)
A Completed PERT Diagram for the Analysis Phase of
a Systems Project (Figure 3.22)

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PERT Diagram Advantages Expediting

● Easy identification of the order of precedence ● Expediting is speeding up a process
● Easy identification of the critical path and thus ● Expediting can help reduce the time it takes to
critical activities complete an entire project
● Easy determination of slack time ● The expedited activities have to be on the
critical path
Project Due Dates ●
● Estimating models Expediting to minimize project time
○ Costar
○ Construx
● Function point analysis
○ Helps the analyst quantitatively
estimate the overall length of
software development efforts

Estimating Costs
● Using a work breakdown structure
○ Estimate costs for each activity in the
work breakdown structure
○ Prepare a budget for the project and
have it approved by the organization Earned Value Management (EVM)
or client ● A technique used to help determine progress
○ Manage and control the costs (or setbacks) on a project
throughout the project ● Involves:
○ Project cost
Approaches to Cost Estimation ○ Project schedule
● Basing estimates on similar projects, also ○ Performance of the project team
called the top-down approach
● Building bottom-up estimates Four Key Measures in EVM
● Using parametric modeling ● Budget at completion (BAC) is the total budget
for the project
Project Risk ● Planned value (PV) is the value of the work
● Project failures may be prevented by: that is to be completed on the project
○ Training ● Actual Cost (AC) is the total cost incurred in
○ Experience completing the work
○ Learning why other projects have ● Earned value (EV) is an estimate of the value
failed of work completed (where p is percentage
● Fishbone diagram systematically lists all of the completed)
possible problems that can occur EV = PV * p
Monitoring Completion
Fishbone Diagram (Figure 3.24) ● The Cost Performance Index (CPI), Earned
Value (EV), and BAC are used to estimate how
much more is needed to complete the project
(ETC):
○ ETC = (BAC – EV) / CPI
● The Actual Cost (AC) and the ETC are used to
estimate the completion cost (EAC):
○ EAC = AC + ETC
Managing the Team Project
● Team management
○ Assembling a team
○ Team communication strategies
○ Project productivity goals
○ Team member motivation

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Assembling a Team ● Who will evaluate the system and how will
● Shared value of team work they evaluate it?
● Good work ethic ● What is the estimated project timeline?
● Honesty ● Who will train the users?
● Competency ● Who will maintain the system?
● Readiness to take on leadership based on
expertise The Systems Proposal
● Motivation ● Cover letter
● Enthusiasm for the project ● Title page of project
● Trust of teammates ● Table of contents
● Executive summary
Communication Strategies ● Outline of systems study with appropriate
● Teams often have two leaders: documentation
○ Task leader: leads members to ● Detailed results of the systems study
accomplish tasks ● Systems alternatives
○ Socioemotional leader: concerned ● Systems analysts recommendations
with social relationships ● Summary
● The systems analyst must manage: ● Appendices
○ Team members
○ Their activities Using Figures for Effective Communication
○ Their time and resources ● Effective use of tables
● Effective use of graphs
Project Productivity Goals and Motivation
● Successful projects require that reasonable Effective Use of Tables
productivity goals for tangible outputs and ● Integrate into the body of the proposal
process activities be set. ● Try to fit the entire table vertically on a single
● Goal-setting helps to motivate team members. page.
● Number and title the table at the top of the
Ecommerce Project Management page.
● Ecommerce and traditional software ● Label each row and column.
project management differences: ● Use a boxed table if room permits.
○ The data used by ecommerce systems ● Use footnotes if necessary to explain detailed
is scattered across the organization information contained in the table.
○ Ecommerce systems need a staff with
a wide variety of skills Effective Use of Graphs
○ Partnerships must be built externally ● Choose a style of graph that communicates
and internally well ahead of your intended meaning well
implementation ● Integrate the graph into the body of the
○ Security is of utmost importance proposal
● Give the graph a sequential figure number and
Project Charter a meaningful title
● Describes in a written document what the ● Label each axis, and any lines, columns, bars,
expected results of the systems project are or pieces of the pie on the graph
and the time frame for delivery ● Include a key to indicate differently colored
lines, shaded bars, or crosshatched areas

Project Charter Clarifies These Questions Summary

● What does the user expect of the project? ● Project management fundamentals
● What is the scope of the project? ○ Project initiation
● What analysis methods will the analyst use to ○ Determining project feasibility
interact with users? ○ Activity planning and control
● Who are the key participants? ○ Project scheduling
● What are the project deliverables? ○ Managing systems analysis team
members

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● Problem definition ○ Question types

○ Issues of the present system ○ Arranging questions
○ The objective for each issue ○ The interview report
○ The requirements that must be ● User Stories
included in all proposed systems ● Joint Application Design (JAD)
● Project selection ○ Involvement
○ Backed by management ○ Location
○ Commitment of resources ● Questionnaires
○ Attains goals ○ Writing questions
○ Practical ○ Using scales
○ Important ○ Design
● Feasibility ○ Administering
○ Operational
○ Technical Interviewing
○ Economic ● Interviewing is an important method for
collecting data on human and system
● Acquiring hardware and software information requirements
● Work breakdown structure ● Interviews reveal information about:
● Project planning ○ Interviewee opinions
○ Gantt charts ○ Interviewee feelings
○ PERT ○ Goals
○ Function point analysis ○ Key HCI concerns
● Team management
● Ecommerce projects Interview Preparation
● Preparing a system proposal ● Reading background material
● Establishing interview objectives
● Deciding whom to interview
CHAPTER 4: INFORMATION GATHERING INTERACTIVE ● Preparing the interviewee
METHODS ● Deciding on question types and structure
• Recognize the value of interactive methods for Question Types
information gathering.
• Construct interview questions to elicit human ● Open-ended
information requirements and structure them in a ● Closed
way that is meaningful to users. Open-Ended Questions
• Understand the purpose of stories and why they
are useful in systems analysis. ● Open-ended interview questions allow
• Understand the concept of JAD and when to use it. interviewees to respond how they wish, and
• Write effective questions to survey users about to what length they wish
their work. ● Open-ended interview questions are
• Design and administer effective questionnaires. appropriate when the analyst is interested in
breadth and depth of reply
Advantages of Open-Ended Questions
Interactive Methods to Elicit Human Information ● Puts the interviewee at ease
Requirements ● Allows the interviewer to pick up on the
interviewee’s vocabulary
• Interviewing ● Provides richness of detail
• Joint Application Design (JAD) ● Reveals avenues of further questioning that
• Questionnaires may have gone untapped
● Provides more interest for the interviewee
Major Topics ● Allows more spontaneity
● Makes phrasing easier for the interviewer
● Interviewing ● Useful if the interviewer is unprepared
○ Interview preparation
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Disadvantages of Open-Ended Questions Bipolar Questions

● May result in too much irrelevant detail ● Bipolar questions are those that may be
● Possibly losing control of the interview answered with a “yes” or “no” or “agree” or
● May take too much time for the amount of “disagree”
useful information gained ● Bipolar questions should be used sparingly
● Potentially seeming that the interviewer is ● A special kind of closed question
unprepared
● Possibly giving the impression that the Probes
interviewer is on a “fishing expedition” ● Probing questions elicit more detail about
Closed Interview Questions previous questions
● The purpose of probing questions is:
● Closed interview questions limit the number ● To get more meaning
of possible responses ● To clarify
● Closed interview questions are appropriate for ● To draw out and expand on the interviewee’s
generating precise, reliable data that is easy to point
analyze ● May be either open-ended or closed
● The methodology is efficient, and it requires
little skill for interviewers to administer Arranging Questions

Benefits of Closed Interview Questions ● Pyramid

○ Starting with closed questions and
● Saving interview time working toward open-ended
● Easily comparing interviews questions
● Getting to the point ● Funnel
● Keeping control of the interview ○ Starting with open-ended questions
● Covering a large area quickly and working toward closed questions
● Getting to relevant data ● Diamond
○ Starting with closed, moving toward
Disadvantages of Closed Interview Questions open-ended, and ending with closed
● Boring for the interviewee questions
● Failure to obtain rich detailing Pyramid Structure
● Missing main ideas
● Failing to build rapport between interviewer ● Begins with very detailed, often closed
and interviewee questions
● Expands by allowing open-ended questions
and more generalized responses
Attributes of Open-Ended and Closed Questions ● Is useful if interviewees need to be warmed
(Figure 4.5) up to the topic or seem reluctant to address
the topic
Pyramid Structure for Interviewing Goes from
Specific to General Questions (Figure 4.7 )

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Funnel Structure
● Begins with generalized, open-ended
questions
● Concludes by narrowing the possible
responses using closed questions
● Provides an easy, nonthreatening way to begin
an interview
● Is useful when the interviewee feels
emotionally about the topic
Funnel Structure for Interviewing Begins with Broad
Questions then Funnels to Specific Questions (Figure
4.8)

Closing the Interview

● Always ask “Is there anything else that you
would like to add?”
● Summarize and provide feedback on your
impressions
● Ask whom you should talk with next
● Set up any future appointments
● Thank them for their time and shake hands.
Interview Report
● Write as soon as possible after the interview
● Provide an initial summary, then more detail
● Review the report with the respondent
Stories

Diamond Structure ● Stories originate in the workplace

● Organizational stories are used to relay some
● A diamond-shaped structure begins in a very kind of information
specific way ● When a story is told and retold over time it
● Then more general issues are examined takes on a mythic quality
● Concludes with specific questions ● Isolated stories are good when you are looking
● Combines the strength of both the pyramid for facts
and funnel structures ● Enduring stories capture all aspects of the
● Takes longer than the other structures organization and are the ones a systems
analyst should look for
Diamond-Shaped Structure for Interviewing
Combines the Pyramid and Funnel Structures (Figure Purposes for Telling a Story
4.9)
● There are four purposes for telling a story:
○ Experiential stories describe what the
business or industry is like
○ Explanatory stories tell why the
organization acted a certain way
○ Validating stories are used to convince
people that the organization made
the correct decision

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○ Prescriptive stories tell the listener ● The organizational skills and culture may not
how to act be conducive to a JAD session
● Systems analysts can use storytelling as a
complement to other information gathering Questionnaires
methods ● Questionnaires are useful in gathering
Joint Application Design (JAD) information from key organization members
about:
● Joint Application Design (JAD) can replace a ● Attitudes
series of interviews with the user community ● Beliefs
● JAD is a technique that allows the analyst to ● Behaviors
accomplish requirements analysis and design ● Characteristics
the user interface with the users in a group
setting Planning for the Use of Questionnaires

Conditions That Support the Use of JAD ● Organization members are widely dispersed
● Many members are involved with the project
● Users are restless and want something new ● Exploratory work is needed
● The organizational culture supports joint ● Problem-solving prior to interviews is
problem-solving behaviors necessary
● Analysts forecast an increase in the number of
ideas using JAD Question Types
● Personnel may be absent from their jobs for ● Questions are designed as either:
the length of time required ○ Open-ended
Who Is Involved ○ Try to anticipate the response you will
get
● Executive sponsor ○ Well suited for getting opinions
● IS analyst ● Closed
● Users ○ Use when all the options may be
● Session leader listed
● Observers ○ When the options are mutually
● Scribe exclusive
Where to Hold JAD Meetings Trade-offs between the Use of Open-Ended and
Closed Questions on Questionnaires (Figure 4.12)
● Offsite
● Comfortable surroundings
● Minimize distractions
● Attendance
● Schedule when participants can attend
● Agenda
● Orientation meeting
Benefits of JAD
● Time is saved, compared with traditional
interviewing Questionnaire Language
● Rapid development of systems
● Improved user ownership of the system ● Simple
● Creative idea production is improved ● Specific
● Short
Drawbacks of Using JAD ● Not patronizing
● JAD requires a large block of time to be ● Free of bias
available for all session participants ● Addressed to those who are knowledgeable
● If preparation or the follow-up report is ● Technically accurate
incomplete, the session may not be successful ● Appropriate for the reading level of the
respondent

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Measurement Scales ● Caused by easy raters

○ Solution is to move the “average”
● The two different forms of measurement category to the left or right of center
scales are:
○ Nominal Central Tendency
○ Interval
● Central tendency occurs when respondents
Nominal Scales rate everything as average
● Improve by making the differences smaller at
● Nominal scales are used to classify things the two ends
● It is the weakest form of measurement ● Adjust the strength of the descriptors
● Data may be totaled ● Create a scale with more points
●
What type of software do you use the most?
1 = Word Processor Halo Effect
2 = Spreadsheet
3 = Database ● When the impression formed in one question
4 = An Email Program carries into the next question
● Solution is to place one trait and several items
on each page
Interval Scales
Designing the Questionnaire
● An interval scale is used when the intervals
are equal ● Allow ample white space
● There is no absolute zero ● Allow ample space to write or type in
● Examples of interval scales include the responses
Fahrenheit or Centigrade scale ● Make it easy for respondents to clearly mark
their answers
How useful is the support given by the Technical ● Be consistent in style
Support Group?
Order of Questions
NOT USEFUL
EXTREMELY ● Place most important questions first
● Cluster items of similar content together
AT ALL ● Introduce less controversial questions first
USEFUL
Administering Questionnaires
1 2 3 4
5 ● Administering questionnaires has two main
questions:
● Who in the organization should receive the
Validity and Reliability questionnaire
● How should the questionnaire be
Reliability of scales refers to consistency in administered
response—getting the same results if the same
questionnaire was administered again under the same
conditions
Validity is the degree to which the question measures Ways to Capture Responses When Designing a Web
what the analyst intends to measure Survey (Figure 4.13)
Problems with Scales
● Leniency
● Central tendency
● Halo effect
Leniency

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CHAPTER 5: INFORMATION GATHERING:

UNOBTROSIVE METHODS

Learning Objectives
● Recognize the value of unobtrusive methods
for
information gathering.
● Understand the concept of sampling for
human
information requirements analysis.
● Construct useful samples of people,
documents,
and events for determining human
information
requirements.
Methods of Administering the Questionnaire ● Create an analyst’s playscript to observe
decisionmaker activities.
● Convening all concerned respondents
● Apply the STROBE technique to observe and
together at one
interpret the decision-maker’s environment.
● time
● Personally administering the questionnaire
Unobtrusive Methods
● Allowing respondents to self-administer the
● Less disruptive
questionnaire
● Insufficient when used alone
● Mailing questionnaires
● Multiple methods approach
● Administering over the Web or via email
● Used in conjunction with interactive
Electronically Submitting Questionnaires methods
● Reduced costs Major Topics
● Collecting and storing the results ● Sampling
electronically ● Quantitative document analysis
● Qualitative document analysis
● Observation
Summary ● STROBE
● Interviewing ● Applying STROBE
○ Interview preparation
○ Question types Sampling
○ Arranging questions ● A process of systematically selecting
○ The interview report representative elements of a population
● Stories ● Involves two key decisions:
● Joint Application Design (JAD) ○ What to examine
○ Involvement and location ○ Which people to consider
● Questionnaires
○ Writing questions Need for Sampling
○ Using scales and overcoming The reasons systems analysts do sampling are:
problems ● Containing costs
○ Design and order ● Speeding up the data gathering
○ Administering and submitting ● Improving effectiveness
● Reducing bias

Need for Sampling

● Too costly to:
○ Examine every scrap of paper
○ Talk with everyone

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○ Read every web page from the

organization

Sampling
● Sampling helps accelerate the process by
gathering selected data rather than all data for
the entire population
● The systems analyst is spared the burden of
analyzing data from the entire population

Sampling Effectiveness
● • Sampling can help improve effectiveness if
information that is more accurate can be
Four Main Types of Samples
obtained
● Convenience
● This is accomplished by talking to fewer
● Purposive
employees but asking them questions that are
● Simple random
more detailed
● Complex random
● If less people are interviewed, the systems
analyst has more time to follow up on missing
Convenience Samples
or incomplete data
● Convenience samples are unrestricted,
nonprobability samples.
Sampling Bias
● This sample is the easiest to arrange
● Data gathering bias can be reduced by
● The most unreliable
sampling
● When the systems analyst asks for an opinion
about a permanent feature of the installed
Purposive Sample
information system,
● A purposive sample is based on judgment
● the executive interviewed may provide a
● Choose a group of individuals who appear
biased evaluation because there is little
knowledgeable and are interested in the new
possibility of changing it
information system
● A nonprobability sample
Sampling Design
● Only moderately reliable
● To design a good sample, a systems analyst
must follow four steps:
Complex Random Samples
○ Determining the data to be collected
● The complex random samples that are most
or described
appropriate for a systems analyst are
○ Determining the population to be
○ Systematic sampling
sampled
○ Stratified sampling
○ Choosing the type of sample
○ Cluster sampling
○ Deciding on the sample size
The Sample Size Decision
Four Main Types of Samples the Analyst Has
● Determine the attribute
Available (Figure 5.1)
● Locate the database or reports in which the
attribute can be found
● Examine the attribute
● Make the subjective decision regarding the
acceptable interval estimate
● Choose the confidence level
● Calculate the standard error
● Determine the sample size

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A Table of Area under a Normal Curve Can Be Used ● Records

to Look up a Value Once the Systems Analyst ● Data capture forms
Decides on the Confidence Level (Figure 5.2) ● Ecommerce and other transactions

Reports Used for Decision Making

● Sales reports
● Production reports
● Summary reports

A Performance Report Showing Improvement (Figure

5.3)

Calculate the Standard Error of the Proportion

Determine the Sample Size

A Manually Completed Payment Record (Figure 5.4)

Example: A. Sembly Company

● Determine that you are looking for orders
with mistakes
● Locate order forms from the past six months
● Examine order forms and conclude that p =
5%
● Subjective decision of acceptable interval i = ±
0.02
● Look up confidence coefficient z - value = 1.96
● Calculate p = i / z = 0.02/1.96 = 0.0102
● Determine n; n = 458
Records
● Records provide periodic updates of what is
Investigation
occurring in the business
● The act of discovery and analysis of data
● There are several ways to inspect a record:
● Hard data
○ Checking for errors in amounts and
○ Quantitative
totals
○ Qualitative
○ Looking for opportunities for
improving the recording form design
Analyzing Quantitative Documents
○ Observing the number and type of
● Reports used for decision making
transactions
● Performance reports
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○ Watching for instances in which the ● A sense of humor

computer can simplify the work
(calculations and other data Analyzing Qualitative Documents
manipulation) ● Email messages and memos
● Signs or posters on bulletin boards
Data Capture Forms ● Corporate websites
● Collect examples of all the forms in use ● Manuals
● Note the type of form ● Policy handbooks
● Document the intended distribution pattern
● Compare the intended distribution pattern Analysis of Memos Provides Insight into the
with who actually receives the form Metaphors that Guide the Organization’s Thinking
(Figure 5.6)
Questions to Ask about Official and Bootleg Forms
that Are Already Filled out (Figure 5.5)

Observation
● Observation provides insight on what
organizational members actually do
● See firsthand the relationships that exist
between decision makers and other
organizational members
● Can also reveal important clues regarding HCI
concerns

Questions to Ask About Forms Analyst’s Playscript

● Is the form filled out in its entirety? ● Involves observing the decision makers
● Are there forms that are never used? behavior and recording their actions using a
● Are all copies of forms circulated to the proper series of action verbs
people or filed appropriately? ● Examples:
● Can people who must access online forms do ○ Talking
so? ○ Sampling
● If there is a paper form that is offered as an ○ Corresponding
alternative to a Web-based form, compare the ○ Deciding
completion rates for both
● Are “unofficial” forms being used on a regular
basis?

Analyzing Qualitative Documents

● Key or guiding metaphors
● Insiders vs. outsiders mentality
● What is considered good vs. evil
● Graphics, logos, and icons in common areas or
web pages
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A Sample Page from the Analyst’s Playscript (Figure ● Is the storage area large or small?
5.7)
Props
● Is there evidence that the decision maker uses
a PC, smart phone, or tablet computer in the
office?

External Information Sources

● Does the decision maker get much
information from external sources such as
trade journals or the Web?

Office Lighting and Color

● Is the lighting set up to do detailed
work or more appropriate for casual
communication?
● Are the colors warm and inviting?

Clothing
STROBE ● Does the decision maker show authority by
STRuctured OBservation of the Environment—a wearing conservative suits?
technique for observing the decision-maker’s physical ● Are employees required to wear uniforms?
environment
STROBE and Decision-Maker Characteristics (Figure
STROBE 5.9)
● Often it is possible to observe the particulars
of the surroundings that will confirm or
negate the organizational narrative
○ Also called stories or dialogue
○ Information that is found through
interviews or questionnaires

STROBE Elements
● Office location
● Desk placement
● Stationary equipment
● Props Applying STROBE
● External information sources ● The five symbols used to evaluate how
● Office lighting and color observation of the elements of STROBE
● Clothing worn by decision makers compared with interview results are:
○ A checkmark means the narrative is
Office Location confirmed
● Who has the corner office? ○ An “X” means the narrative is
● Are the key decision makers dispersed over reversed
separate floors? ○ An oval or eye-shaped symbol serves
as a cue
Desk Placement ○ to look further
● Does the placement of the desk encourage ○ A square means observation modifies
communication? the
● Does the placement demonstrate power? ○ narrative
○ A circle means narrative is
Stationary Office Equipment supplemented by
● Does the decision maker prefer to gather and ○ observation
store information personally?

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An Anecdotal List with Symbols (Figure 5.10)

Summary
● Sampling
○ Designing a good sample
○ Types of samples
○ Sample size
● Hard data
○ Quantitative document analysis
○ Qualitative document analysis
● Observation
○ Playscript
● STROBE
○ STROBE elements
○ Applying STROBE

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