Introduction to Computers

OVERVIEW

● A computer is a general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a finite
set of arithmetic or logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily
changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.

● Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a

central processing unit (CPU) and some form of memory. The processing element
carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit that
can change the order of operations based on stored information. Peripheral devices
allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and the result of operations
saved and retrieve

● The first electronic digital computers were developed between 1940 and 1945 in the
United Kingdom and United States. Originally they were the size of a large room,
consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs). In
this era mechanical analog computers were used for military applications.

● Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more
capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple computers
are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by
small batteries

HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

ABACUS
● The abacus (plural abaci or abacuses), also called a counting frame, is a calculating
tool used primarily in parts of Asia for performing arithmetic processes. It was designed
around 2500 BC.

● Today, abaci are often constructed as a bamboo frame with beads sliding on wires, but
originally they were beans or stones moved in grooves in sand or on tablets of wood,
stone, or metal

● The abacus was in use centuries before the adoption of the written modern numeral
system and is still widely used by merchants, traders and clerks in Asia, Africa, and
elsewhere. The user of an abacus is called an abacist.
SLIDE RULE

● The slide rule, invented in the 1620's, also known colloquially in the United States as
a slipstick, is a mechanical analog computer. The slide rule is used primarily for
multiplication and division, and also for functions such as roots, logarithms and
trigonometry, but is not normally used for addition or subtraction.

● Slide rules come in a diverse range of styles and generally appear in a linear or
circular form with a standardized set of markings (scales) essential to performing
mathematical computations. Slide rules manufactured for specialized fields such as
aviation or finance typically feature additional scales that aid in calculations common to
that field.

MECHANICAL CALCULATOR

● A mechanical calculator, or calculating machine, was a mechanical device used to

perform automatically the basic operations of arithmetic. Most mechanical
calculators were comparable in size to small desktop computers and have been
rendered obsolete by the advent of the electronic calculator.

● Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator in 1642. He was spurred to it by

seeing the burden of arithmetical labor involved in his father's official work as supervisor
of taxes at Rouen; first called Arithmetic Machine, Pascal's Calculator and later
Pascaline, this calculating machine could add and subtract two numbers directly
and multiply and divide by repetition.

PUNCHED CARD

● In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom by

introducing a series of punched paper cards as a template which allowed his loom to
weave intricate patterns automatically. The resulting Jacquard loom was an important
step in the development of computers because the use of punched cards to define
woven patterns can be viewed as an early, albeit limited, form of programmability.

ANALYTICAL ENGINE

● Limited finances and Babbage's inability to resist tinkering with the design meant that
the device was never completed-nevertheless his son, Henry Babbage, completed a
simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a
successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906. This machine was given
to the Science museum in South Kensington in 1910.
 ● Trial model of a part of the Analytical Engine, built by Babbage, as displayed at the
Science Museum (London)

COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

OVERVIEW

A computer system consists of mainly four basic units; namely input unit, storage unit, central
processing unit and output unit.

Central Processing unit further includes Arithmetic logic unit and control unit. A computer
performs five major operations or functions irrespective of its size and make. These are

● It accepts data or instructions as input,

● It stores data and instruction
● It processes data as per the instructions,
● It controls all operations inside a computer, and it gives results in the form of output.

BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

Functional Units:

A. Input Unit: This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer system by the
user for processing.

B. Storage Unit: The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions before and after
processing.

C. Output Unit: The output unit is used for storing the result as output produced by the
computer after processing.

D. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit
and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data
provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit. CPU includes Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and
control unit (CU

Arithmetic Logic Unit: All calculations and comparisons, based on the instructions provided,
are carried out within the ALU. It performs arithmetic functions like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and also logical operations like greater than, less than and equal to etc.

Control Unit: Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by
control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations in side the computer.
INPUT DEVICE

● In computing, an input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment)

used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system such as a
computer or other information appliance. Many input devices can be classified according
to: modality of input (e.g. mechanical motion, audio, visual, etc.)

● the input is discrete (e.g. key presses) or continuous (e.g. a mouse's position, though
digitized into a discrete quantity, is fast enough to be considered continuous)

● the number of degrees of freedom involved (e.g. two- dimensional traditional mice, or
three-dimensional navigators designed for CAD applications)

● Pointing devices, which are input devices used to specify a position in space, can further
be classified according to:

● Whether the input is direct or indirect. With direct input, the input space coincides with
the display space, i.e. pointing is done in the space where visual feedback or the pointer
appears. Touch screens and light pens involve direct input. Examples involving indirect
input include the mouse and trackball.

● Whether the positional information is absolute (e.g. on a touch screen) or relative (e.g.
with a mouse that can be lifted and repositioned)

KEYBOARD

● A keyboard is a typewriter-style device, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys,

to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. Following the decline of punch cards
and paper tape, interaction via teleprinter-style keyboards became the main input device
for computers.

● A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a
key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols
requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most
keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys or
simultaneous key presses can produce actions or execute computer commands.

COMPUTING KEYBOARD
 ● Despite the development of alternative input devices, such as the mouse, touch screen,
pen devices, character recognition and voice recognition, the keyboard remains the most
commonly used and most versatile device used for direct (human) input into computers.

MOUSE

● A mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative

to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an object held under one of the
user's hands, with one or more buttons.

● The mouse sometimes features other elements. such as "wheels", which allow the user
to perform various system-dependent operations, or extra buttons or features that can
add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates into the
motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of a graphical user
interface.

Microsoft Arc Touch Mouse

● Perfectly portable-and award-winning-Touch technology

● Stylish and eye-grabbing, Arc™ Touch Mouse is more than a pretty device. It's reliable
wireless freedom plus Microsoft touch technology, on the go. Use it just about anywhere,
even on a rough wood surface or carpet, thanks to BlueTrack Technology. Plus you can
retain wireless control of your computer up to 30 feet away.

Curve it for use, flatten for storage

● Arc™ Touch Mouse's innovative design allows for quick use and storage. Curve it
comfortably to get started. Then smoothly glide your finger up or down the touch strip.
When you're done, keep the tiny transceiver plugged into your computer's USB port, or
attach it magnetically onto the underside of the mouse. Then flatten Are Touch Mouse to
turn it off, and slip it into your pocket or bag as easily as a cell phone.

Precise vertical scrolling by feel, not wheel

● The Touch strip on the Are Touch Mouse responds precisely to the speed of your finger
movement, using Haptic feedback (light vibration that signals scrolling speed) to sean
through documents or web pages as quickly or as cautiously-aaeeded, entirely by feel

SCANNERS
 ● An image scanner-often abbreviated to just scanner-is a device that optically scans
images, printed text, handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a digital image.
Common examples found in offices are variations of the desktop (or flatbed) scanner
where the document is placed on a glass window for scanning. Hand-held scanners,
where the device is moved by hand, have evolved from text scanning "wands" to 3D
scanners used for industrial design, reverse engineering, test and measurement,
orthotics, gaming and other applications.

● Mechanically driven scanners that move the document are typically used for large-format
documents, where a flatbed design would be impractical.

GRAPHICS TABLET

● A graphics tablet or digitizer is a computer input device that enables a user to

hand-draw images and graphics, similar to the way a person draws images with a pencil
and paper. These tablets may also be used to capture data or handwritten signatures. It
can also be used to trace an image from a piece of paper which is taped or otherwise
secured to the surface. Capturing data in this way, either by tracing or entering the
corners of linear poly-lines or shapes is called digitizing.

MICROPHONE

● A microphone (colloquially called a mic or mike) is an acoustic-to-electric transducer or

sensor that converts sound into an electrical signal.

● Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, tape recorders, karaoke
systems, hearing aids, motion picture production, live and recorded audio engineering,
FRS radios, megaphones, in radio and television broadcasting and in computers for
recording voice, speech recognition, VoIP, and for non-acoustic purposes such as
ultrasonic checking or knock sensors.

WEB CAMERA

● A webcam is a video camera that feeds its image in real time to a computer or computer
network. Unlike an IP camera (which uses a direct connection using Ethernet or Wi-Fi), a
webcam is generally connected by a USB cable, FireWire cable, or similar cable. L

● Their most popular use is the establishment of video links, permitting computers to act
as videophones or video conference stations. The common use as a video camera for
the World Wide Web gave the webcam its name. Other popular uses include security
surveillance, computer vision, video broadcasting, and for recording social videos.
 ● Webcams are known for their low manufacturing cost and flexibility, making them the
lowest cost form of video telephony. They have also become a source of security and
privacy issues, as some built-in webcams can be remotely activated via spyware.

LOUDSPEAKERS

● A loudspeaker (or "speaker") is an electroacoustic transducer that produces sound in

response to an electrical audio signal input. Non- electrical loudspeakers were
developed as accessories to telephone systems, but electronic amplification by vacuum
tube made loudspeakers more generally useful

● The most common form of loudspeaker uses a paper cone supporting a voice coil
electromagnet acting on a permanent magnet, but many other types exist. Where high
fidelity reproduction of sound is required, multiple loudspeakers may be used, each
reproducing a part of the audible frequency range. Miniature loudspeakers are found in
devices such as radio and TV receivers, and many forms of music players. Larger
loudspeaker systems are used for music, sound reinforcement in theaters and concerts,
and in public address systems.

TACTILE DEVICES

● She is strong, intelligent and agile, but what makes Twendy-One so unique is the PPS
sensor technology that has given her the ability to feel, making her an ideal robot to care
for our handicapped and aging population. When other intelligent machines decide to
rise up against their human oppressors, Twendy-One will only be able to use her powers
for the good of humanity.

● a tactile sensor usually refers to a transducer that is sensitive to touch, force, or

pressure. Tactile sensors are employed wherever interactions between a contact surface
and the environment are to be measured and registered. Tactile sensors are useful in a
wide variety of applications for robotics and computer hardware and even security
systems.

● A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the
measured quantity changes. The term tactile refers to the somatosensory system or
more commonly the sense of touch. A tactile sensor is a device which receives and
responds to a signal or stimulus having to do with force.

STORAGE DEVICES

● A data storage device is a device for recording (storing) information (data). Recording
can be done using virtually any form of energy, spanning from manual muscle power in
handwriting, to acoustic vibrations in phonographic recording, to electromagnetic energy
modulating magnetic tape and optical dises.
 ● A storage device may hold information, process information, or both. A device that only
holds information is a recording medium. Devices that process information (data storage
equipment) may either access a separate portable (removable) recording medium or a
permanent component to store and retrieve information. Electronic data storage requires
electrical power to store and retrieve that data.

HARD DISK DRIVE

● A hard disk drive (HDD) is a data storage device used for storing and retrieving digital
information using rapidly rotating discs (platters) coated with magnetic material. An HDD
retains its data even when powered off. Data is read in a random-access manner,
meaning individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in any order rather than
sequentially. An HDD consists of one or more rigid ("hard") rapidly rotating discs
(platters) with magnetic heads arranged on a moving acruator arm to read and write data
to the surfaces

● Introduced by IBM in 1956, HDDs became the dominant secondary storage device for
general purpose computers by the early 1960s. Continuously improved, HDDs have
maintained this position into the modern era of servers and personal computers. More
than 200 companies have produced HDD units, though most current units are
manufactured by Seagate, Toshiba and Western Digital. Worldwide revenues for HDDs
shipments are expected to reach $33 billion in 2013, a decrease of about 12% from
$37.8 billion in 2012

● The primary characteristics of an IIDD are its capacity and performance. Capacity is
specified in unit prefixes corresponding to powers of 1000: a 1- terabyte (TB) drive has a
capacity of 1,000 gigabytes (GB; where 1 gigabyte = 1 billion bytes). Typically, some of
an IHDD's capacity is unavailable to the user because it is used by the file system and
the computer operating system, and possibly inbuilt redundancy for error correction and
recovery. Performance is specified by the time to move the heads to a file (Average
Access Time) plus the time it takes for the file to move under its head (average hitener, a
function of the physical rotational speed in revolution per minute) and the speed at which
the file is transmitted (data rate).

● The two most common form factors for modern HDDs are 3.5-inch in desktop computers
and 2.5- inch in laptops, HDDs are connected to systems by standard interface cables
such as SATA (Serial ATA), USB or SAS (Serial attached SCSID cables.

OUTPUT DEVICE
● An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate
the results of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as
 a computer) which converts the electronically generated information into
human-readable form.

PRINTER
● In computing, a printer is a peripheral which produces a representation of an electronic
document on physical media such as paper or transparency film. Many printers are local
peripherals connected directly to a nearby personal computer.

MONITOR

● A monitor or a display is an electronic visual display for computers. The monitor

comprises the display device, circuitry and an enclosure. The display device in modern
monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT- LCD) thin panel,
while older monitors use a cathode ray tube (CRT) about as deep as the screen size.

● Originally, computer monitors were used for data processing while television receivers
were used for entertainment. From the 1980s onwards, computers (and their monitors)
have been used for both data processing and entertainment, while televisions have
implemented some computer functionality.

● The common aspect ratio of televisions, and then computer monitors, has also changed
from 4:3 to 16:9 (and 16:10).

PROJECTORS

● An image projector is an optical device that projects an image (or moving images) onto a
surface, commonly a projection screen.

● Most projectors creates an image by shining a light through a small transparent image,
but some newer types of projectors can project the image directly, by using lasers. A
virtual retinal display, or retinal projector, is a projector that projects an image directly on
the retina instead of using an external projection screen.

● The most common type of projector used today is called a video projector. Video
projectors are digital replacements for earlier types of projectors such as slide projectors
and overhead projectors. These earlier types of projectors were mostly replaced with
digital video projectors throughout the 1990s and early 2000s (decade), but old analog
projectors are still used some places.
 ● The newest types of projectors are handheld projectors that use lasers or LEDs to
project images. Their projections are hard to see if there is too much ambient light.

● Movie theaters use a type of projector called a movie projector. Another type of projector
is the enlarger, a device used to produce photographic prints from negatives.

● MicroVision, Inc. has added the SHOWWX+ HDMI to its line-up of laser pico projectors.
Pico projectors (also known as handheld, mobile or pocket projectors) are devices that
project images from handheld devices, such as smartphones, portable DVD players,
tablet PCs, and cameras. As more of these devices come out with support for HDMI, it
makes sense that pico projectors also support HDMI.

BRAILLE DISPLAYS

● A refreshable Braille display or Braille terminal is an electro-mechanical device for

displaying Braille characters, usually by means of round-tipped pins raised through holes
in a flat surface. Blind computer users, who cannot use a normal computer monitor, use
it to read text output. Speech synthesizers are also commonly used for the same task,
and a blind user may switch between the two systems or use both at the same time
depending on circumstances.

CPU

● A computer can have more than one CPU; this is called multiprocessing. Some
integrated circuits (ICs) can contain multiple CPUs on a single chip; those ICs are called
multi-core processors.

● Two typical components of a CPU are the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs
arithmetic and logical operations, and the control onit (CU), which extracts instructions
from inemory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.

USB FLASH DRIVE

● A USB flash drive is a data storage device that includes flash memory with an integrated
Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface. USB flash drives are typically removable and
rewritable, and physically much smaller than a floppy disk. Most weigh less than 30
grams (1.1 oz).

● As of September 2011, drives of up to 256 gigabytes (CB) are available. A one-terabyte

(TB) drive was unveiled at the 2013 Consumer Electronics Show and will be available
during 2013. Storage capacities as large as 2 TB are planned, with steady improvements
in size and price per capacity expected.Some allow up to 100,000 write/erase cycles,
depending on the exact type of memory chip used, and a 1 time. 10-year snelstorage
 ● USB flash drives are often used for the same purposes for which floppy disks or
CD-ROMs were used, i.e., for storage, back-up and transfer of computer files. They are
smaller, faster, have thousands of times more capacity, and are more durable and
reliable because they have no moving parts. Until about 2005, most desktop and laptop
computers were supplied with floppy disk drives in addition to USB ports, but floppy disk
drives have been abandoned due to their lower capacity compared to USB flash drives.

● USB flash drives are often used for the same purposes for which floppy disks or
CD-ROMs were used, i.e., for storage, back-up and transfer of computer files. They are
smaller, faster, have thousands of times more capacity, and are more durable and
reliable because they have no moving parts. Until about 2005, most desktop and laptop
computers were supplied with floppy disk drives in addition to USB ports, but floppy disk
drives have been abandoned due to their lower capacity compared to USB flash drives.

BLU-RAY DISC

● Blu-ray Disc (BD) is an optical disc storage medium designed to supersede the DVD
format. The plastic disc is 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm thick, the same size as DVDs
and CDs. Conventional (pre-BD-XL) Blu-ray Discs contain 25 GB per layer, with dual
layer discs (50 GB) being the industry standard for feature-length video discs. Triple
layer discs (100 GB) and quadruple layers (128 GB) are available for BD- XL re-writer
drives.

● The name Blu-ray Disc refers to the blue laser used to read the disc, which allows
information to be stored at a greater density than is possible with the longer-wavelength
red laser used for DVDs. The major application of Blu-ray Discs is as a medium for video
material such as feature films. Besides the hardware specifications, Blu- ray Disc is
associated with a set of multimedia formats. Generally, these formats allow for the video
and audio to be stored with greater definition than on DVD.

● The format was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group representing makers
of consumer electronics, computer hardware, and motion pictures. The first Blu-ray Disc
prototypes were unveiled in October 2000, and the first prototype player was released in
April 2003 in Japan.

MEMORY

Computer's memory can be classified into two types; primary memory and secondary memory

a. Primary Memory can be further classified as RAM and ROM.

● RAM or Random Access Memory is the unit in a computer system. It is the place in a
computer where the operating system, application programs and the data in current use
 are kept temporarily so that they can be accessed by the computer's processor. It is said
to be 'volatile since its contents are accessible only as long as the computer is on. The
contents of RAM are no more available once the computer is turned off.

● ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read and
contents of which are not lost even when the computer is switched off. It typically
contains manufacturer's instructions. Among other things, ROM also stores an initial
program called the 'bootstrap loader whose function is to start the operation of computer
system once the power is turned on.

b. Secondary Memory

● RAM is volatile memory having a limited storage capacity. Secondary/auxiliary memory

is storage other than the RAM. These include devices that are peripheral and are
connected and controlled by the computer to enable permanent storage of programs and
data.

CPU
● A central processing unit (CPU), also referred to as a central processor unit, is the
hardware within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by
performing the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system. The
term has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s. The form,
design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but
their fundamental operation remains much the same.
● A computer can have more than one CPU; this is called multiprocessing. Some
integrated circuits (ICs) can contain multiple CPUs on a single chip; those ICs are called
multi-core processors.
● Two typical components of a CPU are the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs
arithmetic and logical operations, and the control unit (CU), which extracts instructions
from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Classes by size

Microcomputers (personal computers)

● According to webopedia.com, the term microcomputer is generally synonymous with
personal computer (PC), or a computer that depends on a microprocessor.
Microcomputers are designed to be used by individuals, whether in the form of PCs,
workstationsor notebook computers.

● A microcomputer contains a central processing unit (CPU) on a microchip (the

 microprocessor), a memory system (typically read-only memory and random access
memory), a bus system and 1/0 ports, typically housed in a motherboard.

● Microcomputers are the most common type of computers used by people today, whether
in a workplace, at school or on the desk at home. The term "microcomputer" was
introduced with the advent of single chip microprocessors. The term "microcomputer"
itself is now practically an anachronism.

These computers include:

Desktop computers - A case and a display, put under and on a desk.

In-car computers ("carputers") - Built into a car, for entertainment, navigation, etc
Game consoles - Fixed computers specialized for entertainment purposes (video games)
A separate class is that of mobile devices:
Laptops, notebook computers and Palmtop computers - Portable and all in one case.
Varying sizes, but other than smartbooks expected to be "full" computers without limitations.
Smartphones, smartbooks and PDAs (personal digital assistants) - Small handheld
computers with limited hardware.
Programmable calculator - Like small handhelds, but specialized on mathematical work.

Minicomputers (midrange computers)

● A minicomputer (colloquially, mini) is a class of multi-user computers that lies in the
middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the smallest multi-user systems
(mainframe computers) and the largest single-user systems (microcomputers or
personal computers)
● The contemporary term for this class of system is midrange computer, such as the
higher-end SPARC, POWER and Itanium-based systems from Oracle Corporation, IBM
and Hewlett-Packard. E.g.- Laboratory computers

Mainframe computers
● The term mainframe computer was created to distinguish. the traditional, large,
institutional computer intended to service multiple users from the smaller, single user
machines. These computers are capable of handling and processing very large amounts
of data quickly.
● Mainframe computers are used in large institutions such as government, banks and
large corporations. They are measured in MIPS (million instructions per second) and
respond to up to 100s of millions of users at a time.

Supercomputer
● A supercomputer is focused on performing tasks involving intense numerical calculations
such as weather forecasting, fluid dynamics, nuclear simulations, theoretical
astrophysics, and complex scientific computations
● A supercomputer is a computer that is at the frontline of current processing capacity,
particularly speed of calculation.
 ● The term supercomputer itself is rather fluid, and the speed of today's supercomputers
tends to become typical of tomorrow's ordinary computer. Supercomputer processing
speeds are measured in floating point operations per second or FLOPS.
- An example of a floating point operation is the calculation of mathematical
equations in real numbers. In terms of computational capability, memory size and
speed, I/O technology, and topological issues such as bandwidth and latency,
supercomputers are the most powerful, are very expensive, and not
cost-effective just to perform batch or transaction processing. Transaction
processing is handled by less powerful computers such as server computers or
mainframes

Top supercomputer performance over time

• Here is the performance of the fastest supercomputer in the world, the past 15 years:

Top in 2010: 2.57 petaflops

Top in 2005: 280.6 teraflops
Top in 2000: 4.94 teraflops
Top in 1995: 170 gigaflops

If we set the fastest supercomputer in 1995 as the baseline:

• The top supercomputer in 2000 was 19 times faster.

• The top supercomputer in 2005 was 1,650 times faster.
• The top supercomputer in 2010 was 15,100 times faster.

As of October 2008, the HP MediaSmart Server is sold in two models, EX470 (RRPUS$599)
and EX475 (RRP US$749).

- They feature a 1.8GHzAMD Sempron 3400+ processor, one Gigabit Ethernet port, four
internal SATA drive bays, four USB 2.0 ports and one eSATA port.

- The two models are identical with the exception of the amount of included storage: the
EX470 has one 500GB hard drive preinstalled, while the EX475 has two 500GB hard
drives preinstalled.

Workstations
● Workstations are computers that are intended to serve one user and may contain special
hardware enhancements not found on a personal computer.

Information appliances
 ● Information appliances are computers specially designed to perform a specific
user-friendly function such as playing music, photography, or editing text. The term is
most commonly applied to mobile devices, though there are also portable and desktop
devices of this class.

Embedded computers
● Embedded computers are computers that are a part of a machine or device. Embedded
computers generally execute a program that is stored in non-volatile memory and is only
intended to operate a specific machine or device. Embedded computers are very
common. Embedded computers are typically required to operate continuously without
being reset or rebooted, and once employed in their task the software usually cannot be
modified
● An automobile may contain a number of embedded computers; however, a washing
machine and a DVD plaver would contain only one. The central processing units (CPUs)
used in embedded computers are often sufficient only for the computational
requirements of the specific application and may be slower and cheaper than CPUs
found in a personal computer.