CHAPTER 1 : 3RD QUARTER  Geyser Fountain

 Geyser Cone
Geomorphology - formed by the constant deposition of
- is the study of the relief features of the silica around the geyser's vent.
earth’s crust. It is also the study of Plumbing System
landforms and landform evolution. - a series of

Geomorphologists study how the earth’s

surface is formed and changed by
mountains, oceans, air, and ice.

GEYSER FOUNTAIN GEYSER CONE

fissures in the earth that start at the

geyser's mouth and run miles beneath the
earth's surface, where the system
connects to the geyser's heat source.

Hot spring
Geologic forces - commonly occurs when rainwater or
groundwater is heated by magma
Diastrophism – refers to the vertical and underneath earth's surface. The heat
horizontal movement of the crust that produced is through the magma within the
typically produces mountains. An example earth's crust.
of diastrophism is when an earthquake
occurs. Fumarole
- are opening in the earth’s surface that
emit steam and volcanic gases, such as
sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide.
- they are responsible for the intense
chemical activities and brightly colored
rocks in many thermal areas.

Erosion – is the physical removal of rock PARTS OF THE VOLCANO

or wearing down of landmasses by 1. Cone - the most striking part of the
geomorphic agent such as running water, volcano, usually composed of mixtures of
glacial ice, and wind.

Vulcanism – sometimes called

Volcanicity. It is a phenomenon related to
various processes associated with the
surface discharge of magma or hot water
and steam including volcanoes, geysers,
fumaroles, and hot springs.

Geyser
- is a phenomenon on the surface where
the groundwater beneath the shallow lava and pyroclastic. Viscous and slow-
surface is heated up until it explodes into moving granitic magma forms high-sided
boiling water and steam. steep cones, while fast moving basaltic
magma creates low to almost flat cones.
Two types of Geysers:

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2. Vent - the opening through which an 7. Sills or intrusive sheets - are solidified
eruption takes place. This main part of a lava flows that originally forced their way
volcano supplies the magma from the between and parallel to older layers of
underlying source to the top of the rocks.
volcano. They can be straight or
convoluted. 8. Conduit - a channel or pipe conveying
liquid materials and acts as the
3. Magma Chamber - the large passageway of magma up to the crater.
underground pool of liquid rock found
beneath the earth's crust. 9. Flank - the side of a volcano.

 Tephra Fall - refers to fragmental 10. Summit - the highest point or apex of
material that consists of pumice, a volcano.
scoria, lithic materials, or crystals
or combination of the four. 11. Throat - the entrance of a volcano.

 Crater - a basin-like depression  Ash cloud - is composed of

over a vent at the summit of the pulverized rock and glass created
cone. After a volcanic eruption, a during eruption.
crater may form on top of the
volcano.  Volcanic Bomb - chunk of lava
blasted into the air which solidifies
 Caldera - a volcanic depression before reaching the ground.
much larger than the original
crater. Can be defined as a large  Pyroclastic Flow - fast moving
volcanic Crater formed by the currents of hot gases and rock
collapse of the central part of the traveling downhill from a volcano.
volcano.
FORMATION OF A VOLCANO
4. Lava
- the rock or magma expelled from a
volcano during eruption. Its temperature
upon ejection can reach up to 700°C,
hence it flows until it cools and hardens.

5. Lahar
- also called mudflows; they are flowing
mixture of volcanic debris and water. They
are classified as primary or hot when
associated with volcanic eruption, or as
cold as lahar when they are caused by
heavy rainfall.
- When hot volcanic material mixes with Subduction – dependent on the plates
water from streams or snow and ice, hot which form the top layer of the mantle.
lahar mudflows form. Cold lahars are When it occurs, the plates drift atop a thick
formed by intense rainfall during or after layer of molten pyrolytic rocks.
an eruption.  Pyroclastic Debris – the solid
rocks blown from the vent.
6. Dikes - the barrier or obstacle of a
volcano. Dikes are found in igneous form, Distension – is caused by a hotspot near
which is under great pressure, cut the earth’s outer core.
fractures or fissures, across previously
formed metamorphic, sedimentary, or  Hotspot – is a region of high
igneous rock. volcanic activity not located at any
plate boundary.

2
 1. Cinder Cone or scoria cones - is the
Viscosity - it is the resistance to flow of simplest type of volcano, consisting of a
lava and it determines how easily gas steep conical hill formed above a vent.
escapes into the atmosphere. The more They are made from gas-charged lava
viscous the lava and the greater the ejected from a single vent, which breaks
volume of gas is trying to escape, the into small fragments and falls like cinders.
more violent and dangerous a volcanic They are typically found on flanks and in
eruption is. calderas of Hawaii's shield volcanoes.

Viscosity depends on three factors: 2. Composite volcano or stratovolcano

1. Silica (SiO2) content of lava - is made of alternating layers of
- the higher the silica content (65% pyroclastic materials and solidified lava
above), the more explosive the eruption flows. Its conduct system contains a
will be. central group of vents and dikes,
strengthening the cone. Composed of
2. Temperature of the lava relative to andesite, tephra, and volcanic ash, it
the cooler temperature at which it grows larger than cinder cones due to its
solidifies resistance to erosion. Composite
- if lava is hotter than its solidification volcanoes can grow as large as
temperature, the lava is less viscous than Aconcagua in the Andes.
when its temperature is near its
3. Shield volcanoes - are broad, gently
sloping landforms formed by layers of low-
viscous lava flows. They have slopes
between 2°C and 10°C from the
horizontal, creating a flattened dome
above the crust. Some of the world's
largest shield volcanoes, such as Mauna
Loa, have diameters of over 4 miles and
heights of 2,000 feet.

solidification point. Submarine volcano - volcano located

beneath the ocean’s surface.
3. Gas dissolved in magma
- the greater the dissolved content, the Subglacial volcano - eruptions beneath
less viscous the lava will be the surface of a glacier or ice sheet which
- more gas dissolved in magma means is then melted into a lake by the rising
less Viscosity and smoother flow, while lava.
less gas dissolved in magma means
higher viscosity and stickier flow. Volcanic Domes or lava dome - is a
rounded, steep-sided mound that is
TYPES OF VOLCANOES: formed by small bulging masses of lava.
Lava coming from a dome is too viscous
to flow from the vent.

Two characteristics of lava dome:

 Exogenous lava dome
 Endogenous domes - grow by
inflating from the inside, whereas
exogenous domes grow by
squeezing out lobes of lava.

Super volcanoes - are described to

produce the largest eruptions on Earth
that has recorded an eruption with a

3
magnitude of 8 on the Volcanic Explosivity
Index (VEI). The VEI scale was created by 1. Hawaiian
Christopher G. Newhall of the USGS and - It is named after the Kilauea volcano.
- these are the calmest of eruptions.

Stephen Self at the University of Hawaii in

1982.
- they are characterized by the effusive
Supervolcano undergo a life cycle and emission of highly fluid basalt lava with
it has three main stages: low gas contents from the vents (a fissure)
1. Surge of magm at the summit or on the flank of a volcano.
2. Super Eruption - the spatter created by bits of lava coming
3. Resurgence out from the fire fountain can melt together
and form lava flows or build hills called
TYPES OF ERUPTION Spatter Cones.

1. Explosive eruption - are characterized 2. Strombolian

by gas-driven explosive that propels - eruption driven by the bursting of gas
magma and bubbles within the magma. When this gas
tephra. accumulates, they produce large bubbles
called Gas Slugs which can grow into
size, large enough to rise through the lava
column. When these gas bubbles reach
the surface, they burst with loud pop.

3. Vulcanian
- named after the Italian Island vulcano
which is also believed to be the home of
the Greek god of fire, Hephaestus.
2. - It occurs when the pressure of entrapped
Effusive gases in a relatively viscous magma
eruption becomes sufficient to blow off the
- are overlying crust of solidified lava.
feature - Its most distinct characteristic is that the
the material ejected comes from the older
rocks in the volcanic edifice and the new
outpouring of lava without significant magma is not erupted.
explosive eruptions.
4. Pelean
- It is also called nuée ardente eruption.
- It occurs when a large quantity of gas,
dust, ash, and lava fragments are blown
out of a volcano's center crater.
- This type also involves viscous magma
typically of rhyolitic or andesitic type and
3. Mixed eruption - accompanied exhibits glowing avalanche of hot
explosions, lava flows and tephra or pyrocrastic flow that could travel at a
fragment. speed faster than 150 kph.

TYPES OF MAGMATIC ERUPTION 5. Plinian

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- It is considered the most explosive and - those driven explosive expanding steam
powerful of all eruptions. resulting from cold or surface water
- The strongest types, with a VEI of 8, are meeting hot rock or magma. When it's
so-called Ultra Plinian eruption. exploded there's no magma coming out, it
- It produces ash columns that extends up is also called a steam-blast eruption.
too many tens of miles into the
stratosphere and it spreads out into an

Devices that are used to monitor and

record the behavior of a particular volcano
or mountain:
Tilt-Meter - is used to measure the
expansion of a volcano.
umbrella shape.
6. Submarine eruption - is an underwater Seismometer - is installed to record the
volcanic event that can cause significant motion of the ground.
disruptions to marine life and human
Thermometer - is used to check the
activities. It releases gas, ash, and lava
into the ocean, potentially leading to the temperature of the surrounding area.
formation of new islands or alterations in Gas detectors - used to measure the
the seafloor's topography. amount of volcanic gas.
7. Surtseyan eruption - is a type of Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
volcanic eruption that occurs underwater, Seismology (PHIVOLCS) - is a service
usually at shallow depths. It results in the institute of the Department of Science and
Technology that is principally mandated
mitigate or monitor disaster brought by
geotectonic phenomena such as volcanic
eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunami
within the Philippine territory.
Signs that a volcano is about to erupt:

formation of new islands or the addition of ● Increase of the frequency of volcanic

new land to existing islands. These quakes with rumbling sounds, the
eruptions can have significant impacts on occurrence of volcanic tremors, and
marine life and human activities in the steaming activity with a change in color of
surrounding area. steam emission from white to gray due to
"Surtseyan" comes from the island of entrained gas.
Surtsey, which was formed by such an
eruption off the coast of Iceland in 1963. ● Occurrence of crater glow due to the
presence of magma near the crater, while
8. Subglacial Eruption the ground swells (in other words inflation
- it is also called as a glaciovolcanism. It's or inflate), tilts, and fissures due to magma
between the interaction of lava and ice intusion.
often under a glacier. It requires the
presence of two factors namely glacier ● Localized landslides, rockfall, and
and active volcano. landslides from the summit area.

9. Phreatic Eruption ● Noticeable increase in the extent drying

up of vegetation such as plants, trees,
flowers near the volcano or around the

5
volcanoes upper slopes and the start of - HAZARDOUS ERUPTION
variation in the chemical content of - HAZARDOUS OR INTENSE
springs and crater lakes within the vicinity ERUPTION IS ONGOING
or near the volcano.
● Increase in the temperature of hot
springs, wells, and crater lakes near the
volcano; drying up of springs or wells
around the volcano .
● Development of new thermal areas
and/or reactivation of old one's
appearance of solfataras

VOLCANO ALERT LEVEL SCHEME:

LEVEL 0: NO ALERT
LEVEL 1:

- ABNORMAL
- LOW LEVEL UNREST.
- NO ERUPTION IMMINENT

LEVEL 2:

- INCREASING UNREST
- MODERATE UNREST.
- UNREST PROBABLY OF
MAGMATIC ORIGIN
EVENTUALLY LEADS TO. CHAPTER 2 : 3RD QUARTER
ERUPTION.
LEVEL 3: WEATHER
This is the condition the of atmosphere of
- INCREASING TENDENCY
a place of a particular time. It is merely
TOWARD ERUPTION. short-term. The weather of a place can
- RELATIVELY HIGH UNREST. change rapidly.
- MAGMA IS CLOSE TO THE
CRATER. CLIMATE
- START OF EVACUATION WITHIN This is the weather condition of an area
10 KM RADIUS. over a long period of time.
- START OF ERUPTION.
The earth's climate is always changing,
LEVEL 4: however with the drastic alternation that is
being observed and experienced at
- HAZARDOUS ERUPTION present, climate change is considered the
IMMENENT. most serious threat that human race faces
- INTENSE UNREST. today. It is also considered the root of
- HAZARDOUS OR INTENSE other environmental problems such as
ERUPTION IS POSSIBLE WITHIN biodiversity depletion, increasing ocean
acidification, rising sea levels, and
DAYS.
extreme weather patterns.
LEVEL 5:

6
Climate is affected by different factors Places within the Arctic climate zones are
namely latitude, ocean current, wind, covered with permafrost. Antarctica, all of
elevation, relief, and proximity to water. Greenland, the north of Alaska, Canada,
and Russia are some of the places that
belong to this zone. Winters are severe,
the sea freezes and the sun never rises at
all. During summer, this zone experiences
continuous periods of day.

LATITUDE
- The geographic coordinate that specifies
the north-south position of a point on the
surface of the earth. It is an angle which
ranges from 0° at the equator to 90 (north
or south) at the poles. Latitude is
considered the single most important
factor that determines climate. It dictates
the Intensity and duration of sun exposure
to the earth.

2. Tropic (Hot) Climate - refers to the

zones within latitudes between 5/10° to
35°. The equatorial belt experiences a
non-arid climate with an average
temperature above 18°C. Weather
condition is humid. Due to high
temperature, precipitation accompanied
with thunderstorms are normal events in
Generally, the area farther away from the tropical climates. High precipitation is
equator, the lesser sun energy they usually subjected when sun reaches
receive and when the area is closer to the overhead during the midday time. But the
equator, the stronger sun energy they sunshine and rainfall are present which
receive, also they have a nearly constant allows the zone to have luxuriant
state of summer because they always get vegetation. The nights of tropic weather
relatively strong sunlight and have long condition are usually covered with clouds
days. and thereby with a fall in temperature to
about 22°C. There are three distinctive
As the earth's axis is tilted 23.5°C to the tropical climates: equatorial, tropical
perpendicular, the amount of heat for each
latitude varies with the seasons. From
April to September, the Northern
Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun and
receives more energy; while the Southern
There are three general climatic zones
with respect to latitude: arctic, tropic, and
temperate.
1. Arctic - It is found at 66.5°N of the North
Pole comprise the Arctic region, from
66.5°S to the South Pole is the Antarctic. continental, and hot deserts

7
 Are the changes of the distance between
the Earth from the Sun causes the
3. Temperate - refers to the zones in the Seasons?
North Temperate Zone which extends
from the Tropic of Cancer (at about 23.5° - According to Astronomy, it's not the
north latitude) to the Arctic Circle (at distance from the Sun that causes our
approximately 66.5° north latitude). The seasons. Seasons happen because the
South Temperate Zone, on the other hand, Earth's axis is tilted at an angle. It's
extends from the Tropic of Capricorn (at because Earth orbits the Sun on a tilt that
approximately 23.5° south latitude) to the our planet gets more or less of the Sun's
Antarctic Circle (at approximately 66.5° direct rays at different times of the year.
south latitude).

SOLSTICE
- It occurs when the Earth's axial tilt is
either closest or farthest from the Sun,
resulting in the days of the year.
- It marks the longest and shortest days of
the year.
- Solstices are traditionally considered to
mark the start of summer and winter. But
which season begins with each solstice
Unlike arctic and tropic climates, this zone depends on which hemisphere you're in.
does not experience extremes of
temperature and precipitation. There are - In the Northern Hemisphere, the
two types of temperate climate, namely, Summer Solstice occurs in June and the
maritime and continental. Winter Solstice occurs in December. In the
Southern Hemisphere, it's the opposite.
• Maritime climate is strongly affected by
the oceans and has fairly steady EQUINOX
temperatures across the seasons.
- From its name "equi" which means
• Continental climate increases in land equal, it is the time when the amount of
characterized by warmer summers and daytime and nighttime hours are just
colder winter due to the thermal inertia about of equal length.
possessed by the land.
- Equinoxes are traditionally considered to
Perihelion and Aphelion mark the start of spring and autumn.
- The term Perihelion and Aphelion
describes the different points in our
planet's orbit of the Sun. This can also
apply to other planets, comets, or bodies.
PERIHELION
- It is the point of the earth's orbit that is
nearest to the Sun. This always happens
O
in early January.
cean Currents
APHELION
- These are continuous directed
- The point of the earth's orbit that is movements of seawater. Currents and
farthest away from the Sun. It always waves are different because Waves are
happens in early July. created by the wind and then radiate in all
directions away from the disturbance. It

8
moves in a vertical direction while the
currents represent the movement of water
particles which is controlled by winds and
density differences. It moves in a
horizontal direction. Ocean currents play a
crucial role in regulating earth’s climate by
redistributing heat around the globe.
There are three main factors that make
the ocean circulates:
 Tidal Forces
 Wind Stress
 Density Differences
Two factors that affects the density of a
Warm Currents - Warm ocean currents water:
originate near the equator and move
1. Temperature
towards the poles or higher latitudes.
- Colder water is denser than warm water.
Cold currents - originate near the poles
or higher latitudes and move towards the 2. Salinity
tropics or lower latitudes.
- Saltier water is denser than sea water.
Two types of Ocean Circulation Water gets saltier if the rate of evaporation
is high and less salty if there is an influx of
 Wind-driven Circulation – This is the
fresh water either from melting of ice.
force of wind stress on the sea
surface including a momentum However, there is a pressing concern that
exchange. as the arctic warms and more sea ice
melts, the influx of freshwater will make
the seawater at high altitudes and less
dense. In effect, the less dense water
could hardly sink and circulate throughout
the world. When this happens,
thermohaline circulation may stop and
change the climate of European and North
America.
Prevailing Wind
Prevailing wind is the most frequent wind
direction a location experiences.
 Thermohaline Circulation – This is Depending on the topography and
also called the Global Ocean latitude, wind determine the climate of a
Conveyer. It is derived from “Thermo” specific region. An area exposed to the
which means temperature and prevailing wind on a mountain is expected
“Haline” which refers to salt content. It to be wetter because moisture from any
is an overturning circulation in which storm systems run in to the slope and it
warm water flows forward in the rains, while the aspect facing away from
surface and is subsequently slope will likely
converted into cold water that sinks be drier
and flows equator ward in the interior. because there
It transports 10^15 watts of heat are winds that
poleward into high altitudes. bring in
moisture to the
locality.
Elevation

9
In the nineteenth century, Alexander von Bodies of water such as ocean, rivers, and
Humboldt noted a unique relationship lakes have a damping effect on the swing
between a region's altitude and its plant in temperature of coastal areas. They tend
life. This observation was verified in 1889 to store heat in warm periods and release
when Clinton hart Merriam completed his it into cold periods; they are called heat
documentary analysis dividing the stinks
Colorado Plateau into various levels called
"life zones". Altitude affects temperature Thermal inertia refers to the tendency if
and pressure. As Altitude increases, the heat to transfer more slowly to some
corresponding temperature of air material bodies that others, which creates
decreases. For every 100-meter rise in an apparent lag between temperature,
altitude, temperature decreases by 1°C. change between two material bodies.
as such, region in high altitudes
experience low temperature.
Special capacity heat
Relief
- is the heat (energy) that must be
Relief refers to the shape of the land's transferred to a material for one gram to
surface. experience a one-degree rise in
* Aspect can affect local climate in a temperature.
number of Ways. For instance, in the As water Is known to have a specific heat
Northern Hemisphere, south-facing capacity of about 4 times than that of air
Slopes are using warmer than north-facing and about twice of ice, shoreline towns
slopes. experience warmer winters and cooler
This difference is attributed to the summers than in land communities. The
following; resulting uneven heating of the air creates
small areas of local circulation called
• Sun rays arrive at more direct angles on convective currents.
South-facing slopes; hence, they are more
concentrated and give more heat in the Convective currents - occur anywhere
region. as long as there is uneven heating of the
water.
• South-facing Slopes get longer periods
of daily Sunshine, while North-facing are During daytime, land heats faster than
Sometimes in the Shade. water so the air over the land becomes
warmer and less dense. It rises and is
• South-facing slopes are sheltered from replaced by a cooler, denser air flowing
cold northerly winds. from over the water. This is called sea
breeze
Relief, also known as topography, is the
windward side of the mountain is cooler During nighttime, land cools faster than
and wetter and receives more precipitation water as does the corresponding air. In
(rain) while the leeward side is the drier this case, the warm air over the water
and receives a little precipitation. rises and is replaced by the cooler, denser
air from the land creating an offshore wind
In the windward side, its temperature called land breeze
decrease and moisture or precipitation
increase. meanwhile, the leeward side Global Climate Change Phenomenon
increase temperature and decrease
moisture or precipitation. Climate change - refers to any significant
change in the measures of climate lasting
Proximity to Water for an extended period of time.
Water on the earth exists in three phases. It includes major changes in temperature,
In it'd gaseous, liquid, and frozen phases. precipitation, or wind patterns, among
Water influences the intensity of climate other effects, that occur over several
variability of a place. decades or longer.

10
Global warming - refers to the ongoing population growth, world forests have
rise in global average temperature near depleted, leaving behind a small number
the earth's surface. of trees that could absorb
Main Indicators of Climate Change Methane (CH4)
Based on the comprehensive research - it is primarily used as fuel to make heat
conducted by National Oceanic and and light.
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the
USA, there are ten measureable planet- - persists in the atmosphere for around 12
wide features to gauge climate change. years, which is less time than carbon
dioxide, but it is much more potent in
terms of the greenhouse effect.
The earth's average temperature has risen Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
by 1.4°F over the past century and it is
projected to rise another 2 to 11.5°F over - Commonly known as laughing gas, is a
the next hundred years. chemical compound used as an oxidizer in
rocketry and in motor racing to increase
the power output of engines.
- This comes from human activities such
as agriculture, fuel combustion.
- It is clinically used as a safe anesthetic
(for dentistry, ambulance, childbirth) and
appreciated for its anti-anxiety effect.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
- are also very potent greenhouse gases
that contribute to the increased
Causes of Climate Change greenhouse gas effect
Water Vapor - They are used in the manufacture of
- Evaporation is the process that changes aerosol sprays, blowing agents for foams
liquid water to gaseous water (water and packing materials, as solvents, and as
vapor). refrigerants.

- Water vapor is water in a gaseous form Chlorine, an active substance in this

instead of liquid form. compound, was introduced to ozone layer
that unfortunately led to the depletion of
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) the latter.
- A naturally occurring chemical compound As a matter of fact, before the
that is released through natural processes industrialization and the growth of
such as respiration and volcanic population in the earth the weather is
eruptions. simply in its natural cycle, why? Because
in the present a lot of people now are
A carbon sink is anything that absorbs producing some chemicals or gasses
more carbon than it releases, like forests. specifically the GHG (Greenhouse
A carbon source is anything that releases Gasses) that can affect our ozone layer.
more carbon than it absorbed, like the Usually in the past, people are doing
volcanic eruptions. things manually without using other
equipment, also at that time they are not
- Forests are called carbon sinks as they constantly using factory, that can cause
absorb more CO, through the process pollution to the earth. The more people the
known as photosynthesis. Unfortunately, more gasses that we can produce, just by
due to industrialization and rapid

11
using things that produces gas or that Philippines is in Mindanao, so it will affect
thing came from chemicals or gasses. the agriculture and the Philippines'
economic stability.
How will the GHG affect the climate
change specifically the ozone layer that is
located in the stratosphere? First, when 2. Shrinking ice sheets, as temperatures
the sun hit the earth with its heat the rise, ice sheets and glaciers lose mass
ozone layer will filter out the heat and through melting and calving.
bounce back to the space. While, if there's
an GHG in the ozone layer instead of • Here, we'll talk about the polar regions
bouncing back in the space, the heat will such as the Arctic and Antarctica. These
be trapped by those gasses and it will regions are composed of glaciers, ice
expand that may cause the cracking of the sheets, and ice packs. However, as the
ozone layer also the worst case scenario, temperature rose, those ice sheets and
it has the possibility that the ultraviolet glaciers melted away.
rays may enter in the earth and may
cause some illnesses such as the skin
cancer and that's the reason why the These effects pose a threat to the animals
glacier are easy to melt. that are dependent on the ice sheets. Like
seals, polar bears, and penguins. They’ll
Climate Change in Focus: Impacts and drown because of the ice sheets that they
Threats live on.
Climate Change: Impacts and Threats 3. Sea level rise is a direct result of global
Some of the major effects of the warming and the melting of glaciers and
climate change: ice sheets.
1. Rising temperatures - it is a key
aspect of climate change that refers to the
long-term increase in Earth's average
surface temperature.

• One of the places that’s already been

affected by this effect is Canada. Around
June 2023, wildfires spread out in the
forests of Canada. However, as the wind
• One of the contributors of the sea level
blew the smoke, it fled to the south. Which
rise is the THERMAL EXPANSION- which
explains why, around June 2023, massive
refers to an increase in the seawater’s
smokes also spread throughout New York
volume caused by rising temperatures.
City. Resulting in many people being sick.
When water absorbs heat, its molecules
gain energy and move more rapidly.

• Sea level rise states a significant threat

to coastal areas, where it will double the
risk of flooding.

• Furthermore, Venice is a place that is

slowly sinking. Sea level rise is a major
contributor to its sinking.

Additionally, the Philippines is also

threatened by this occurrence, especially
in Mindanao. Which is bad because
almost all of the agriculture here in the

12
4.Biodiversity Depletion weather significantly. The warmer waters
cause the Pacific jet stream to move south
Due to rising of temperature, extreme of its neutral position. With this shift, areas
weather conditions and changing in the northern U.S. and Canada are dryer
vegetation become usual in most of the and warmer than usual. But in the U.S.
places in the world. As a result, animal Gulf Coast and Southeast, these periods
species are forced to migrate to new, are wetter than usual and have increased
cooler areas in order to survive. Experts flooding. La Niña has the opposite effect
predict that one-fourth of earth's species of El Niño. During La Niña events, trade
will head toward extinction by 2050 if winds are even stronger than usual,
various trends related to climate change pushing more warm water toward Asia. Off
will continue at their current rates. A the west coast of the Americas, upwelling
concrete example of this is the death of increases, bringing cold, nutrient-rich
the Golden Toad. Their species died due water to the surface. These cold waters in
to a fungus disease called the Pacific push the jet stream northward.
Chytridiomycosis, this is a disease that This tends to lead to drought in the
comes from a parasite called Chytrid southern U.S. and heavy rains and
fungus that targets amphibians. Because flooding in the Pacific Northwest and
of the rising of temperature, amphibians Canada. During a La Niña year, winter
are weakened which allows the Chytrid temperatures are warmer than normal in
fungus to be a more effective parasite. the South and cooler than normal in the
Furthermore, Polar bears is the first North. La Niña can also lead to a more
mammal to be listed as threatened due to severe hurricane season.
habitat loss that is caused by global
warming. Ways to Mitigate the Effects of Climate
Change
5.Ocean acidification
Climate change mitigation refers to any
Is caused by carbon emissions which, action focused on reducing the intensity of
when not controlled, will pose serious climate change to lessen the effects of
threat to biodiversity and marine species global warming. On the other hand,
(coral reefs and fisheries) When there is adaptation to global warming involves
more CO2 in the atmosphere, there is also acting to tolerate the effects of global
an abundant amount of this compound in warming. Climate change is a universal
the ocean. When CO2 reacts with water, it issue; hence, a universal effort is deemed
produces a weak acid called carbonic necessary to combat the problem.
acid, changing the sea water chemistry.
This change in the chemical composition During were the Earth conducted Summit
of salt water has a significant impact in the and held several in Rio de Janeiro in
ability of plants and animals to complete 1992, an international environmental
calcification. If atmospheric CO2 can be treaty, now popularly known as United
established at 450 ppm, only 8% of Nations Framework Convention on climate
existing tropical and subtropical coral Change (UNFCCC), was negotiated to
reefs will still be in waters of the right pH stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations
level to support their growth. As of now, in the atmosphere. These are the
the atmospheric CO2 is 400ppm and the following programs:
set maximum safe is 350ppm.
1. Increasing the sequestration
6.Extreme weather and conservation of carbon.
Scientists believe the increased intensity There are several ways of increasing the
and frequency of two phenomena, namely, sequestration and conservation of carbon.
El Nino and La Nina, in recent years are Some examples are through carbon sinks
due to global warming. During El Niño, and by improving vegetation management
trade winds weaken. Warm water is or sustainable land management (SLM)
pushed back east, toward the west coast techniques. Under the Kyoto Protocol,
of the Americas. El Niño can affect our reforestation and afforestation of

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degraded land were already identified as combusted to generate renewable
project types that increase sequestration. electricity, cleaned to pipeline natural gas
standards, or can be further processed
2. Use of Bioenergy into compressed natural gas.
Rather than using fossil fuels or wood to
generate energy, renewable resources
could be used to produce bioenergy. By
reducing emissions, this practice also
helps protect endangered woodlands and
forest thereby solving another problem
known as land degradation. Agricultural
waste products such as straw, plant fiber,
and seed shells can be used to fire boilers
for both domestic heating and industrial
5. Improved energy efficiency
processes.
With limited natural resources that can be
3. Reduced fertilizer use
offered by the planet, humans have to
Chemical fertilizers, sometimes called think of ways on how to improve energy
inorganic or synthetic fertilizers, are efficiency while reducing the carbon
produced through synthetic means making dioxide emissions in the atmosphere.
them no degradable. They are composed Listed below are some practices that
of one or more growth elements such as would improve energy use and efficiency:
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
- Utilize domestic energy sources. This
which when applied to vegetation, may
includes the green technologies of wind,
result in eutrophication, increased acidity,
solar, hydro, nuclear, tidal, and recycling
and loss of good bacteria in the soil. To
sources.
reduce these harmful effects, proper
timing of fertilizer application and - Make mass transit more extensive,
utilization of nitrification inhibitors, and economical, and user-friendly.
existing nitrogen from organic matter are
advised. To ensure precise application of - Develop and disseminate practical
fertilizers, farmers can use the Global energy conservation packages for the
Positioning System software. Another general population and industry sectors
alternative which is considered the most such as agriculture, trucking, airline,
basic of all is the switching from synthetic fishing, mining, refining, and warehousing.
to organic fertilizers made from decayed These packages should contain
or partially decayed materials such as reasonable energy reduction targets,
rotten green manure and fertilizers made progress markers (milestones), and
from decayed or partially decayed estimates of savings if achieved.
materials such as rotten green manure
- Set advisory guidelines for industry and
and animal wastes.
consumers in the use of Energy Star'
4. Anaerobic digestion of waste qualified products.

Methane (CH4) is an identified - Recycle items considerately. Sometimes,

greenhouse gas that is produced through this can be counterproductive if there is
natural decay of waste water, crop waste, not enough volume or if recycling requires
and animal waste. To reduce its emission, too much energy or cost.
wastes can be collected and stored in
anaerobic digesters. As a process,
anaerobic digestion uses naturally
occurring microorganisms to break down
organic materials and eventually produce
a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide,
called biogas. This end product can be

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Global Warming
is the unusually rapid increase in Earth's
average surface temperature over the
past century primarily due to the
greenhouse gases released as people
burn fossil fuels.
Greenhouse Effect
is the process through which heat is
trapped near Earth's surface by
substances known as 'greenhouse gases.’
What is the current concentration of
greenhouse gases?
Greenhouse gases have increased due to
CFC used in refrigerators, industrial
chemical release, water vapor, fossil fuels
and volcano eruptions etc. CFC,
deforestation, burning of fossil fuels are
causes of the increase in greenhouse
gases.
Greenhouse gases current
concentration:
Carbon dioxide
- concentrations have increased
substantially since the beginning of the
industrial era, rising from an annual
average of 280 ppm in the late 1700s to
414 ppm in 2021
a 48 percent increase. Almost all of this
increase is due to human activities.
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs
- Make up just four parts per billion of the
atmosphere, but they're so efficient at
warming the planet that they're still an
important contributor to climate change.
The HFC or Hexafluoroethane
-abundance in the atmosphere is 1.5% as
a percentage of total emissions of all
greenhouse gases.
Ozone
Most air molecules are either oxygen (02)
or nitrogen (N2) molecules. In the
troposphere near Earth's surface, ozone is
even less abundant, with a typical range
of 20 to 100 ozone molecules for each
billion air molecules.

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