MEE503/MEE703 N.

Zakhia – LAU – SOE – IME Department

Chapter 2 - FOSSIL-FUEL STEAM GENERATORS

I. Introduction and Classification
In general, there are two types of Steam generators – industrial and utility

 Industrial steam generators - Fire-tube boilers

Designed for small steam and low-pressure applications (24 bars, ∼ 25 tons/hr.) → not suitable for
large power plants. Hot flue gasses flow inside the tubes while water flows around the tubes.
• They only produce wet steam or hot water with operating pressure from 5 to 105 bars and a
capacity around 125 kg/sec (450 tons/hr).
• Industries (i.e. paper, sugar, …), institutions (commercial and residential, hospitals, …)

 Utility steam generators - Water-tube boilers (our main concern in this chapter)
Used for electrical-power generating plants. Water flow inside the tubes while hot flue gases flow
around the tubes. → 2 types:
a) Subcritical water-tube drum:
• Operating pressure range is 130 to 180 bar with high steam capacity up to 450 tons/hr
• They produce superheated steam up to 560°C
• Reheat systems: one or two stage
• Its overall efficiency is ∼ 95% and operating cost is high
• Bursting can happen if not controlled
b) Supercritical once-through drumless:
• Operating pressure and temperature: 240 bar and up to 620°C.
• No phase change. Water transforms directly to superheated steam with steam capacity
up to 4700 tons/hr.

II. Description of water-tubes boiler

This type of steam generator is a combination of economizer, evaporator, superheater, and air
preheater wit auxiliary component such as stokers, pulverizers, burners, fans, emission control
equipment, stack, and ash-handling equipment. These boilers have reasonable drum stresses (drum
stresses are the shortcomings of these boilers).
• Economizer: preheat the incoming feedwater from the pump, using a major part of the exhaust flue
gas, to reach saturated liquid.
• Evaporator: uses directly the flue gasses to convert the sat-liquid to sat-vapor.
• Superheater: heats up the incoming sat-vapor to a desired/design temperature of the turbine
• Reasonable drum stresses

There are 2 classes of these boilers, namely, straight-tube or bent-tube boilers. Types are:

 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler  Benson boiler

 Stirling Boiler  Yarrow boiler
 La-Mont Boiler  Loeffler boiler
1. Straight-tube boilers
Made of straight tubes at each header and inclined at about 15° upward. Saturated-liquid water leaves the
drum through a header (downcomer) and flows to the tubes and get heated while going up through a riser
transforming to saturated-vapor as it leaves the upper header. The flow circulates due to the difference in
density between sat-liq. water and sat-vapor water creating a natural buoyancy force.
A popular type is Babcock and Wilcox Boiler. https://youtu.be/dPllyDCYBKI

Sat-steam

Figure 1. Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

Important features Details

– Straight inclined tubes, high pressure, externally fired.
Boiler’s type – Natural circulation
– Stationary/mobile.
Pressure range 40 bar to 100 bar
Efficiency 60% to 80%
– Horizontal Drum, diameter up to 2 m.
– drum length: 6 to 9 m
Boiler specs
– heating surface: 95 to 2200 m2
– also used as industrial boilers

Advantages Disadvantages
- Large steam production rate - Large flat surface needs braces
- High moderate pressure operation - Large area is required
- Capable of using all types of fuel - Corrosion problem
- Draught loss are small - High leakage → need for
- Easy inspection and maintenance continuous makeup water
- Proper tolerance is provided for expansion and contraction - Hard access to tubes replacement
of boiler drum and water tubes.

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2. Bent-tube boiler
These boilers solved the shortcomings of the straight-tube boiler. Tubes are bent so they enter and leave
the drums radially for better access and replacement of tubes.
A popular Bent-tube boiler is “Stirling Boiler”. It consists of 4 drums. 3 for steam and one for water/mud.
The drums are interlinked with bent water tubes for the following reasons:
• Allowing free expansion and contraction of the tubes.
• Tubes can enter the drums in radial direction which makes tubes replacement and
maintenance much easier.
• Mud/water drum is 10 to 25 larger than a steam drum.
• Entire unit is independent and made of brick work
• High moderate steam pressures (80 bar and 450°C).
• High evaporation capacity up to 50,000 kg/hr
• Efficiency up to 90%

https://youtu.be/FoY5vqRDj0c

Saturated vapor
Pressure gage Feedwater from pump
Safety valve
3 Steam drums
Feed check valve

Superheater

Baffles
Ensure proper Circulation
of flue gas between tubes

Flue gas

Mud drums

Blow off valve

(Discharge of
Heavy Particles)
Figure 2. Stirling boiler

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3. Heat absorption in Water-Tube Boilers:
Feedwater coming from the H-P FWH enters the economizer where it is heated by the outgoing gas till it
becomes saturated-liquid then fed to the drum. Saturated water falls through the downcomer into the
bottom-header then moves up through the riser where water is partially boiled and back to the drum.
Saturated steam, from the drum, goes then to superheater to raise the steam temperature to desired
design inlet temperature of the turbine. T
4 6
𝑄𝑄̇𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ℎ2 −ℎ1
% 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = × 100 = × 100 3
𝑄𝑄̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ℎ6 −ℎ1
2
𝑄𝑄̇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ℎ3 −ℎ2
% 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = × 100 = × 100
𝑄𝑄̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ℎ6 −ℎ1 1
5
𝑄𝑄̇ ℎ4 −ℎ3
% 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ = ̇ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 × 100 = × 100

QRH
QSH
𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ℎ6 −ℎ1 Qeco Qevap
𝑄𝑄̇𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ℎ6 −ℎ5 s
% 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = × 100 = × 100
𝑄𝑄̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ℎ6 −ℎ1
Figure 3. Heat absorption in water-tube boiler
𝑄𝑄̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑄𝑄̇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑄𝑄̇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑄𝑄̇𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 𝑄𝑄̇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
https://youtu.be/kxI0tlivmzo
https://www.patreon.com/LearnEngineering
4. Operation of Water Tube Boiler
The use of large number of FWH results in smaller economizer. Also, high pressure means smaller riser
tubes (smaller surface area) since ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 gets smaller.
High-pressure steam generators require more superheating and reheating surfaces and less boiler surface.
Current design improves the fraction of heat in the superheater up to 60%.

PSH

RSH

Figure 4. Typical Layout of a natural circulation Steam Generator (water-tube boiler)

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 Superheated Steam to HPT
Superheater Reheat system

Reheater

Steam from HPT

Flue gas ducting

Economizer
Blowdown

Furnace walls
Downcomer
FW from HP-CFWH
Flue gas
Risers
Fuel

Air Fan
Hot Flue Preheater
Combustion gas
Chamber Ambient air

Inlet header
Hot air

Figure 5. Steam generation in water-tube boiler

4.1 Circulation phenomena in water-tube boiler

Circulation is owed to steam pressure in the boiler. It can be natural or forced.
a) Natural Circulation
Natural circulation ≡ flow circulation is due to buoyancy force caused by the density difference between
the steam in the riser and the liquid in the downcomer.
Consider a simple downcomer-riser circuit connecting a drum and a header as shown in figure 6. The
downcomer is well insulated and located outside the furnace wall while the risers are inside.
SH
To SH

Saturated
vapor Steam
Separators

BD
Wet steam
Heat
(inside furnace walls

𝝆𝝆𝒎𝒎
Risers

𝝆𝝆𝑫𝑫
Furnace walls

FW from
Riser economiser

Downcomer Header Downcomer

Furnace wall
(outside furnace walls)
Figure 6. Natural circulation in water-tube boiler Figure 7. Drum description for Natural circulation
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The pressure head available for natural circulation is given by To SH

∆𝑃𝑃 = 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔�𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓,𝐷𝐷 − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 � = Δ𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 + Δ𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 + Δ𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + Δ𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

H = height of the riser (or the furnace). Upper header

𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓,𝐷𝐷 = density of the sat-water in the downcomer

Heated risers inside the furnace walls

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = average density of the mixture in the riser
Δ𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 = pressure loss in the downcomer, Pa
Δ𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 = pressure loss in the riser, Pa

Outside the furnace walls

Cold Downcomers
Δ𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = pressure loss in the headers, Pa
Δ𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = pressure loss in the bends & fittings
The average density, 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 , is given as
𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓,𝐷𝐷 + 𝜌𝜌𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 1
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = where 𝜌𝜌𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
2 𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓 + x𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

Lower header
x𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≡ Quality at the riser’s top ≡ Top Dryness Fraction (TDF) Figure 8. Pressure drops in natural circulation boiler

b) Forced circulation
Since ∆𝑃𝑃 is proportional to �𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓,𝐷𝐷 − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 �, then as 𝑃𝑃 ↗ , �𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓,𝐷𝐷 − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 � decreases. Figure 9 shows that at 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ,
𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓 = 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 → 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓,𝐷𝐷 = 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 resulting in �𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓,𝐷𝐷 − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 � = 0 → No buoyancy force → This implies that at or
above 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , there could be no natural circulation.
Practice shows that when steam pressure exceeds 180 bar, �𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓,𝐷𝐷 − 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 � ≈ 0. Thus, a circulating pump must
be installed to provide the proper circulation between the riser and downcomer → supercritical steam
generator. See figure 10.
P C.P To SH

From eco.
P
𝒗𝒗𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇
BD Salt
water
Heat
v Forced circulation
pump
𝝆𝝆𝒇𝒇 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚
𝝆𝝆 𝜌𝜌𝐷𝐷
𝝆𝝆𝒎𝒎

𝝆𝝆𝒈𝒈 𝝆𝝆𝒇𝒇𝒈𝒈 C.P Riser

p Saturated water Header

Furnace wall
Figure 9. Effect of pressure increase Figure 10. Super-critical steam generator

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Downcomers are usually fewer in number and larger in diameter than riser because larger “D” allows
faster water fall by gravity where
• Downcomer’s diameter varies from 150 to 220 mm
• Risers diameter vary from 62 to 76 mm.
𝐿𝐿 �2
𝑉𝑉
• From Fluid Mechanics, ∆𝑃𝑃 in downcomers or risers may also be found from ∆𝑃𝑃 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜌𝜌 .
𝐷𝐷 2
𝜋𝜋
• The mass flow rate of the sat-water in the downcomer can be found from 𝑚𝑚̇𝑓𝑓 = �𝑛𝑛 𝐷𝐷2 � 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 𝑉𝑉�
4

𝑛𝑛 = Number of tubes. It varies as 6, 8, 10,…, 20.

𝐷𝐷 = Diameter of the downcomer, m
𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 = Saturated water density evaluated at 𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , kg/m3.

𝑉𝑉� = Average water velocity in downcomers, in m/sec, which varies from 0.4 to 1.4 m/sec. This
average velocity depends directly on the circulation ratio, 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶, indicating how much the drum
makes steam relative to the amount of water in the downcomer. It is expressed as:
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔 +𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙 1
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = = = =
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 = mass of the saturated water in the downcomer

𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔 = mass of the saturate steam released from the drum
𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙 = 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 − 𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔 = mass of saturated water in the riser exit.

For natural circulation, 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 varies from riser to another inside the boiler. Risers closer to furnace wall have
smaller CR than others [6 < 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 < 25]. For a proper natural circulation, 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 > 6.
• If 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 < 6, risers get overheated and fail prematurely.
• If 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 > 25 the flow reaches nucleate boiling phenomena. Meaning, risers begin to produce more
steam at higher temperature forming hot bubbly film (blanket of vapor) at the wall surface which
prevents adequate heat transfer. This film boiling of vapor has higher 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡ℎ then the liquid which
stores heat and eventually overheats the wall tube surface leading to tube damage.

5. Nucleate and Film boiling – Fig 11

It is essential to avoid film boiling caused from too much steaming Sat-water
in risers. This creates less circulation and the departure from nucleate
boiling (DNB) to onset film boiling. Heat
• Nucleate boiling ≡ occurs when the surface temperature is hotter Surface
than the saturated fluid temperature and, as a result, creates a film blanketed
By bubbles
boiling causing critical heat flux (CHF) at the surface.
• Onset nucleate boiling (ONB) ≡ the appearance of the first bubble
Figure 11. Nucleate and film boiling
on the heated surface. in a riser tube

To eliminate film boiling, the internal wall surface of riser tubes are made ribbed (finned) in a helical form.
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6. Location of downcomers and risers:
Usually, risers are installed all around the four walls of the furnace to absorb the max rate of heat from the
furnace. Thus, adequate circulation must be provided. If not, heat won’t be absorbed at the same rate
during heat releasing and, as a result, the difference in heat will be stored in the metal of the riser tubes
leading to overheating → this will damage (rupture) the tubes when temperature exceeds the melting point
of the tube metal. Practice recommends that:
• When P > 30 bars, downcomers are placed outside the furnace to ensure natural circulation.
• When P < 30 bars, both downcomer and risers are placed inside the furnace with risers closer to
furnace wall (hotter zone). This setting requires a pump to ensure proper flow circulation

𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

7. Void fraction: It is defined as 𝛼𝛼 =
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙+𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

The density of the mixture can be expressed in terms of 𝛼𝛼, as 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 + 𝛼𝛼�𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 − 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 �
Consequently, the void fraction in a riser can be visualized as:
𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 1−𝛼𝛼
𝛼𝛼 = or 1 − 𝛼𝛼 = → =
𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 +𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 +𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 𝛼𝛼
𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 = Cross-section area occupied by vapor bubbles, 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 = cross-section area occupied by sat-liquid
Since vapor bubbles move faster than liquid (due to its higher buoyancy), a slip ratio, S, is introduced as:
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 �𝑔𝑔
𝑉𝑉
𝑆𝑆 = = �𝑓𝑓
> 1.0
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑉
𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔 �𝑔𝑔
𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 𝑉𝑉 �𝑔𝑔
𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 x (1−x) 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓 �𝑔𝑔
𝑉𝑉 x 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓
Also, x = = = → 𝑉𝑉�𝑔𝑔 = & 𝑉𝑉�𝑓𝑓 = → �𝑓𝑓
=
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 𝑉𝑉 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 (1−x)𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓

𝐱𝐱 𝟏𝟏−𝜶𝜶 𝒗𝒗𝒈𝒈
𝑺𝑺 = � �� �
𝟏𝟏− 𝐱𝐱 𝜶𝜶 𝒗𝒗𝒇𝒇

1 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓 𝟏𝟏
𝛼𝛼 and x can be solved from above equation → 𝛼𝛼 = 1−𝑥𝑥 where 𝜓𝜓 = 𝑆𝑆 and 𝐱𝐱 = 𝟏𝟏−𝜶𝜶 𝟏𝟏
1+ 𝑥𝑥 𝜓𝜓 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 𝟏𝟏+
𝜶𝜶 𝝍𝝍

• As pressure increases, 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 and 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 approach each other → “𝑆𝑆” decreases.
• "𝑆𝑆" is measured empirically → for safety operation, it varies between 0 < 𝑆𝑆 < 10
Note: El-Wakil developed an expression for the density in the riser assuming constant axial heat flux:
1 𝐻𝐻 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 −𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 1 1
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = ∫0 𝜌𝜌(𝑧𝑧)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 − �1 − � − 1� 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 �
𝐻𝐻 1−𝜓𝜓 𝛼𝛼𝑒𝑒 (1−𝜓𝜓) 1−𝛼𝛼𝑒𝑒 (1−𝜓𝜓)

H = distance from bottom to top of the riser.

𝛼𝛼𝑒𝑒 = void fraction at the riser exit.
Z = axial distance starting from the bottom of the riser.

8. Tensile Stress on the Drum Wall

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
It is given by 𝜎𝜎 = where 𝜎𝜎 = tensile stress, N/m2 p = gage pressure, N/m2
2𝑡𝑡

t = thickness of the wall, m d = internal diameter of the shell, m

Based on the above equation, if high pressure and bigger size are required, then larger wall thickness is
needed to maintain less stress on the drum wall → thicker shell → higher cost.
Example 2.1
8
9. Steam drum: The main fucntions of the drum, figure 12, in a water-tube, are:
• To separate vapors from liquid-water mixture
• To store sufficient amount of water and steam to meet varying loads.
• To provide enough surface area for liquid-vapor release.
• To mainain a certain desired ppm in the drum water by phosphate injection and blowdown.

Methods of vapor-liquid separation:

When drum pressure increases (≥ 80 bar) → 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 gets smaller → buoyancy force gets smaller → gravity
force gets smaller → hard to separate liquid from vapor. As a result, mechanical devices are introduced
inside the drum (i.e. baffles, screens, scrubbers…) to help separation process. See figure 12.b
When pressure gets higher (≥ 150 bar)→ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 ≈ 0 → buoyancy vanishes and centrifugal forces becomes
greater than gravity forces. These centrifugal forces are used in a device, called cyclone, to separate vapor
from liquid. These cyclones direct the water downward and the steam flows upward. The steam then goes
through scrubbers (zig-zag corrugated plates) all the way up to reach perforated screens under the drum
exit providing the last stage of steam drying. See figure (c)
In large SPP (Power > 500 MW), each turbine has its own water-tube boilers (Drum diameter: 5 m, length:
30 m). SH Perforated plates (screen)
SH
Riser
P < 80 bar

80 < P< 150 bar

Riser

Riser
Riser
Downcomer
(a)
Downcomer (b)
SH
Scrubber
(Corrugated plates) Perforated screens

Cyclone

P > 150 bar

Blowdown

Downcomer
(c)

Figure 12. Drums types

9
Figure 14. Exploded view of a boiler drum
10
 III. Economizer:
Uses the flue gases exiting the last superheater or reheater where 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 = 370℃ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 540℃.
𝑻𝑻𝒈𝒈𝟏𝟏 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝑻𝑻𝒈𝒈𝟏𝟏
𝒎𝒎̇𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭

Header Exit
𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝑻𝑻𝒈𝒈𝟐𝟐

TFW
𝑻𝑻𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭
𝒎𝒎̇𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭
C C
𝑻𝑻𝒈𝒈𝟐𝟐
Header Inlet ∆𝑻𝑻𝒊𝒊 𝑨𝑨𝒐𝒐 or 𝑳𝑳 ∆𝑻𝑻𝒆𝒆
B
(b)
(a)
Figure 15. Temperature profile in the economizer

• The heat transfer rate is: 𝑄𝑄̇𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 �𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔1 − 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔2 � = 𝑚𝑚̇𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 �𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 � = 𝑈𝑈𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 ∆𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
Δ𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 −Δ𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒 1 1 1 x𝑤𝑤 1 1
Δ𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = Δ𝑇𝑇 , Δ𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 = 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔1 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 , Δ𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒 = 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔2 − 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 , = + + + +
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑖 𝑈𝑈𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 𝐴𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜
Δ𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒

𝑈𝑈𝑜𝑜 = Overall heat transfer coefficient

ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = Heat transfer coefficient due to scale formed inside the tube surfaces.
ℎ𝑖𝑖 = Heat transfer coefficient of inside water
ℎ𝑜𝑜 = Outside film (gas-side) heat transfer coefficient
ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = Heat transfer coefficient due to ash & soot built on outside tubes surface = fouling resistance
𝑋𝑋𝑤𝑤 = Thickness of the tube wall.
𝑘𝑘𝑤𝑤 = Thermal conductivity of tube wall material
𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 −𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖
𝐴𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝐴𝐴 = log-mean area 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿, L = length of one coil, n = number of coils
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜
𝑖𝑖
ℎ𝑖𝑖 and ℎ𝑜𝑜 are found from Dittus-Boelter Nusselt equation for turbulent flow as:
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 0.023 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 0.8 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑛𝑛 where 𝑛𝑛 = 0.4 (for heating)
ℎ 𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝜇𝜇𝑓𝑓
Recall 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 𝜈𝜈𝑓𝑓 𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓

At the exit of the economiser, the mass flow rate of feedwater is:
𝑯𝑯𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆

𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖2 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
P
𝑚𝑚̇𝑤𝑤 = 𝑛𝑛 � � where 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = exit velocity of feedwater
4 𝜈𝜈𝑓𝑓
𝜈𝜈𝑓𝑓 = sat-liquid specific volume
Practice recommends, for optimum circulation, 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 10 to 12 m/sec
and 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 = 1 to 1.2 m/sec
𝐿𝐿
• The number of turns in one coil is estimated as 𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡 = Figure 16. Tubes layout in the economizer
𝐵𝐵−2𝐶𝐶
• The height of the economiser duct can be foud as: 𝐻𝐻𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡 × 𝑝𝑝 where "𝑝𝑝" is the vertical pitch
(usually known). See figure 16.
• Location of the economizer: it is placed between the superheater and the air preheater (figure 4)
• Coils materials: Carbon steel
11
IV. Superheaters
They are the most important components in the steam generator to improve 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡ℎ . In superheaters, fins
should be avoided as they increase the thermal stresses and cautious should be taken when choosing the
material (steel alloy) to stand for high temp and corrosion resistance. Superheaters assist to:
• Increase the temperature of the steam to reach the design inlet turbine.
• Reduce the moisture for the last turbine stage → improve 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 .
• Increase the thermal cycle efficiency.
In modern boilers, 40% of flue gases goes to superheaters. This requires large surface area to transfer this
portion of heat into the steam. Therefore, most steam generators are made of 3 parts: convective,
radiant, and pendant superheater. See figure 4.

- Convective superheaters (CSH): primary superheaters, placed in the convective zone of the
furnace, usually, ahead of the economizer to protect water-tubes from direct flame. Sat-steam
leaves the drum and discharges directly to this superheater.

- Radiant superheater (RSH): secondary superheater. It is placed in the radiant zone close to
furnace wall to absorb heat by radiation.. Its surface is the first to absorb heat from the furnace.
The steam leaves RSH to an attemperator (de-superheater) to spray cold water into the steam if
temperature exceeds the design turbine temperature.

- Pendant superheater (PSH): it is the last stage of superheating where temperature is controlled to
reach the design turbine inlet temperature.

Pipe materials: Carbon steel is used up to 400° C and chrome-moly steel up to 660°C. Superheaters and
reheaters are made of tubes 50 to 75 mm OD for where:
• Small diameters → low pressure stresses and tubes are well withstand
• Large diameters → low pressure drop and tubes are easier to align.

1. Heat rates absorbed in the superheaters:

Figure 17 shows that PSH receives the greatest heat transfer from the furnace while CSH receives the
least heat portion from the furnace.

T 4
𝑸𝑸̇𝑹𝑹𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 3
2
1
𝑸𝑸̇𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷

𝑸𝑸̇𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪

s
Figure 17. Heat absorption in the 3 type of SH
12
a) Heat rate absorbed in CSH
𝑻𝑻𝒈𝒈𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎̇𝒈𝒈
𝒎𝒎̇𝒔𝒔 𝑻𝑻𝒈𝒈𝟏𝟏
To RSH
2
𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐
T Tg2

𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟏𝟏 = 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝒎𝒎̇𝒔𝒔
From drum
1 ∆𝑻𝑻𝒊𝒊 𝑨𝑨𝟎𝟎 or 𝑳𝑳 ∆𝑻𝑻𝒆𝒆
𝑻𝑻𝒈𝒈𝟐𝟐
Figure 18. Temperature profile in the CSH
2
𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉
𝑄𝑄̇𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 �𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔1 − 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔2 � = 𝑈𝑈𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 ∆𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 where 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑛𝑛 � 𝑖𝑖 � 𝑠𝑠
4 𝜈𝜈𝑔𝑔
1 1 𝑋𝑋𝑤𝑤 1
= + + and 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 = 𝑛𝑛(𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿) where 𝐿𝐿 ≡ length of one coil, 𝑋𝑋𝑤𝑤 ≡ coil wall thickness
𝑈𝑈𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑖𝑖,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = Average steam velocity in the coils which varies with boiler pressure.
Higher is the gas velocity (𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 ), the higher will be ℎ𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 and higher would be ∆𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 since ∆𝑃𝑃 α 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔2 . This
increase results in higher pumping power.

b) Heat rate absorbed in RSH

𝑄𝑄̇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹f−w �𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
4 4
− 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 � = 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (ℎ3 − ℎ2 ). This Eq. shows that 𝑄𝑄̇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝛼𝛼 �𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
4 4
− 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 �
𝜎𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 𝑊𝑊/𝑚𝑚2 𝐾𝐾 4 (Stefan-Boltzmann constant)
𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 = Total surface area of the superheater exposed to flame
𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓−𝑤𝑤 = View factor w.r.t to flame and wall
𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = Flame temperature, in K
𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 = Wall temperature, in K
Practice shows that 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 ≈ 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + (50 to 75℃) → 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 > 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 . However, 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 ≫ 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤
Design Note:
When an increase in the plant power is needed, 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 should increase. Also, fuel and airflow and
combustion flowrates will all increase as well. The consequences of these increases are:
• In CSH, 𝑄𝑄̇𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 will eventually increase which leads to an increase in ℎ𝑖𝑖,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 and ℎ𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 where steam
will receive more heat transfer resulting for a rise in steam exit temperature. (see figure 19)
• In RSH, 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 does not strongly depend on load. Since 𝑄𝑄̇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝛼𝛼 �𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤4 � and 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 ≫ 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 , this shows
𝑄𝑄 ̇
that 𝑄𝑄̇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝛼𝛼 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓4 . As 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 increases, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
̇
decreases since 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 is increased. Hence, an increase in 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

will decrease 𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 → This is the opposite effect of CSH (see figure 19).
Practice shows that a combination of CSH and RSH in SERIES gives a relatively flat curve of steam outlet
temperature and becomes insensitive to load change. See figure 19 and 20.
13
 Combined CSH & RSH in series

Steam exit temperature

Steam exit temperature

% of steam flowrate
Figure 19. Superheater combination (radiant and convective in SERIES)

Superheated Steam to PSH or turbine

Valve Steam

Wet steam Attemperator

Drum
Water

Radiant SH Convective SH

Boiler tubes

Furnace

Figure 20. Superheater combination (radiant and convective in SERIES)

Attemperator Steam from CSH

Temperature
(Water Spray) Sensor
𝑚𝑚̇𝑤𝑤
economizer exit
From drum or

𝑚𝑚̇𝑤𝑤 + 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚̇𝑤𝑤

𝑚𝑚̇𝑤𝑤 + 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

1 2 Venture
Nozzle spray

Convective superheater Radiant superheater

(Primary) (Secondary)
Total flow
Figure 21. Attemperator between radiant and convective SH 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠 + 𝑚𝑚̇𝑤𝑤
Figure 22. Attemperator operation
14
 Sat-steam

To PSH or turbine
Automatic
valve RSH
Drum 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠2
𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠1

𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠1 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠2 − 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠1

Blowdown 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠1 Automatic

valve
𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠2
Attemperator
(Heat exchanger)

CSH

𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠2

Figure 23. Attemperator Control

c) Heat transfer in PSH:

This superheater receives heat partly by convection and radiation, thus, called mixed or combined
superheater.

• The first part (1/4th of PSH) is made as parallel-flow coils while the remaining 3/4th is counter-flow
coils (figure 25). This is done to avoid metal failure because at the end of the PSH, the tubes will
be subject to flue gas at 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 ≈ 1100℃ while steam inside the tubes exits at a 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≈ 540℃.
The steam velocity ranges from 15 to 25 m/s dependent to ∆P.

• RSH and PSH can be made of coils or platens hanged from above.

Single coil tube Double-coil one tube Triangular platens Rectangular platens

Figure 24. Types of coils and platens configuration for RSH and PSH

15
 T
Tst2 Tst1 Tg1
To turbine Steam from RSH
Parallel-flow coils
Parallel-flow
Tst2

Tg2
Flue gas 𝒎𝒎̇𝒈𝒈
Counter-flow

𝑻𝑻𝒈𝒈𝟏𝟏 𝑻𝑻𝒈𝒈𝟐𝟐
Tst1

∆Ti Ao or L ∆Te
Counter-flow coils
Figure 25. Temperature profile in the PSH

V. Reheaters: similar to superheaters.

𝑻𝑻𝒈𝒈𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎̇𝒈𝒈 𝒎𝒎̇𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔

Steam to
Tg1
IP turbine
Tst2
4
Tst2

T Tg2

𝒎𝒎̇𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 Steam from

HP turbine Tst1 = Tsat

1 Tst1
𝑻𝑻𝒈𝒈𝟐𝟐
∆Ti Ao or L ∆Te

Figure 26. Temperature profile in a convective Reheater

Heat rate absorbed in Reheaters:

1 1 𝑋𝑋𝑤𝑤 1
𝑄𝑄̇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (ℎ4 − ℎ3 ) = 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 �𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔1 − 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔2 � = 𝑈𝑈𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 ∆𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 where = + +
𝑈𝑈𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑜𝑜

𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖2 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠 = 𝑛𝑛 � � , 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑜
4 𝜈𝜈𝑠𝑠

n = number of coils 𝜈𝜈𝑠𝑠 = specific volume at the inlet

L = length of one coil 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = steam velocity at the inlet
- Reheater is usually located above the CSH
- Modern boiler has 2 sections of Reheaters: one at the convective zone above CSH and the other at
the furnace exit hanging from top (called pendant reheater).

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VI. Air preheater
In today’s SPP having 5 or more FWH, 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 entering the economizer ranges from 170 to 280°C while 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔
leaving the economizer is about 270 to 480°C. To prevent losing this thermal energy, a major part of this
flue gas is sent to preheat the air prior to combustion and the rest of the flue gas is sent to dry the coal
prior to burning. The flue gas leaves the air-preheater to a stack at 𝑇𝑇 ≈ 160℃. This results in:
- Increase of combustion efficiency
- Saving in fuel consumption (4 to 11% fuel saving)
- More stable combustion process (less unburnt carbon and complete combustion)
- Increase the flame temperature which leads to more radiant heat in the furnace.
- Air temperature entering the combustion chamber may increase to 480°C due to preheating.

To Stack (T≈ 160°C)

Gas outlet
By-pass damper

Air
By-pass air duct

Baffles

Tubes

To combustion Heated air outlet

Chamber

Expansion Joints

Flue Gas
From the
economizer

Soot or cinder hopper

Figure 27. Air-Preheater

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 Flue gas 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔1

𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎2 Tg1

Hot air

Tubes
Ta2

Tg2
Baffles

Outdoor Ta1
𝑚𝑚̇𝑎𝑎 Air
F.D
Fan
𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎1
Ao or L
𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔2 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔
Figure 28. Temperature profile of a Tubular Air-Preheater
The rate of heat transfer from flue gas to air is:
1 1 1 𝑥𝑥𝑤𝑤 1
𝑄𝑄̇𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝,𝑔𝑔 �𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔1 − 𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔2 � = 𝑚𝑚̇𝑎𝑎 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝,𝑎𝑎 (𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎1 ) = 𝑈𝑈𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 ∆𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 and = + + +
𝑈𝑈𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 ℎ𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 𝐴𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜

ℎ𝑑𝑑 ≡ Heat transfer coefficient due to deposits on inside surface, W/m2K.

𝜋𝜋
𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔 = The gas flowing through tubes, given as: 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔 = 𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖2 𝜌𝜌𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔,𝑖𝑖
4
𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔,𝑖𝑖 = Inlet gas velocity ≈ 12 to 14 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 = Number of tubes
𝑃𝑃
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 = Inside diameter (∼50 mm) 𝜌𝜌𝑖𝑖 = and 𝑃𝑃 = 1.03 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 (𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 )𝑖𝑖

𝜌𝜌𝑖𝑖 = Gas density at the inlet of APH 𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔 ≈ 0.287 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. 𝐾𝐾

Example 2.2 (HWK 4&5)

VII. Boiler Blowdown:

Although feedwater coming from FWH is somehow purified, it still has some impurities in the form of
Total Dissolved Solid (TDS, inorganic salts such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium cations
and carbonate, hydrogencarbonate, chloride, sulfate, ...). These solids, expressed in ppm (parts per
million), increase during heating. Therefore, a blowdown is necessary to maintain minimum amount of
TDS in the drum. These TDS are removed through blowdown valve at the drum bottom. Moreover, some
trisodium phosphate is injected periodically into the drum to help precipitating these solids. Blowdown is
always necessary to prevent solids to flow to other components of the boiler.
For continuous steady blowdown, the mass balance states:
Impurities in = impurities out
Impurities entering with FW + impurities entering with make-up = impurities leaving with blowdown +
impurities leaving with the steam from the drum.

𝑚𝑚̇𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 × 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑚𝑚̇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚−𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 × 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (1 − x)𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 × 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

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𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = Flowrate of blowdown, kg/sec, given as 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑚𝑚̇𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 × 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
1 − x = Moisture leaving the drum where "x" is the quality of steam.
𝑚𝑚̇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = Flowrate of FW entering the drum, kg/sec
𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠 = Flowrate of steam leaving the drum, kg/sec
(1 − x)𝑚𝑚̇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 × 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ≡ This is the amount of scale that will be deposited in the superheater
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
% of blowdown being removed is expressed as: % 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = × 100
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

For example, 3% blowdown means that 3% of the supplied 𝑚𝑚̇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 is removed as liquid by blowdown.

How to check the level of TDS?

TDS in water is linked to the electrical conductivity of the water. As such, of the most
effective ways of measuring TDS in water is by measuring the conductivity of water itself.
Thus, the simplest and most effective method to check TDS levels is using a TDS meter.
It is a small, battery-operated with metal probes at one end to measure the conductivity of
TDS in water since TDS ions carry an electrical charge.
Example 2.3

End of chapter STEAM GENERATOR

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