Chapter 1

Introduction to
Machinery Principles
 Text book and supplementary
materials of this course
• Stephen J. C hapman
• 5th edition (Feb. 18, 2011)
 Reference book

• A. E. Fitzgerald, Electric
M a c hinery, M c G raw-Hill , 6th
edition (July 25, 2002)
Electric Machinery Principles

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 Energy types
Energy is the ability to do work or cause a change. There
are many types of energy, inc luding:

Thermal energy - the energy of heat, which can be

converted into mechanical energy or electrical energy
through processes such as combustion, nuclear reactions,
or thermoelectric conversion.

Electrical energy - the energy of moving electrons, which

can be generated through processes such as
electromechanical conversion or photoelectric conversion.
 Energy types

Chemical energy - the energy stored in

chemical bonds, which can be released
through processes such as combustion or
cellular respiration.

Light energy - the energy of electromagnetic

waves, which can be converted into electrical
energy through processes such as photovoltaic
conversion.
 Energy conversions
Energy can be converted from one form to
another through various processes. Some
examples of energy conversions are:

Chemical to electrical - in a battery,

chemical energy is converted into electrical
energy through a redox reaction.

Nuclear to thermal - in a nuclear power plant,

nuclear energy is converted into thermal
energy through nuclear fission, which is then
used to produce steam and generate
electricity.
 Energy conversions

Thermal to mechanical - in a steam engine,

thermal energy from the combustion of fuel is
used to produce steam, which drives a piston to
produce mechanical energy.

Electrical to thermal - in an electric heater,

electrical energy is converted into thermal energy
through the resistance of a wire.
 Energy conversions

Mechanical to electrical - in a generator,

mechanical energy from a turbine is used
to turn a rotor in a magnetic field,
generating electrical energy.

Light to electrical - in a solar cell,

light energy is converted into
electrical energy through the
photoelectric effect.
 Energy conversions

Energy conservation is important to reduce the

environmental impact of energy use and to
ensure a sustainable future.

It is also important to consider the efficiency of

energy conversions, as some forms of energy
conversion may result ins ignificant losses of
energy.
Introduction to Electric
Machinery Fundamentals

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Introduction to Electric
Machinery Fundamentals

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What to learn in this c ourse

• Energy Conversion schemes are the key

ideas introduced in this course
• Which types of energy conversion are
concerned?
• Electric energy to electric energy
– Transformer
• Electric energy to mechanical energy
– Motor
• Mechanical energy to electric energy
– Generator
• Magnetic energy is essential !
 Course Outlines
Overview of relative
electromagnetic theories
• Magnetic field: Ampere’s law
• Magnetic flux: magnetic material, hysteresis characteristics
• Transformer: Faraday’s law, Len’s law

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 Course Outlines

Overview of Relative
Electromagnetic Theories

• Magnetic circuit:
• Motor/generator: Induced
voltage, induced force
 Course Outlines
Transformer
• Ideal/non-ideal transformer
• Equivalent transformer circuit
• Voltage regulation, efficiency
• Determining transformer parameters
– Open-circuit test
– Short-circuit test

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 Course Outlines
Basic elec tric mac hine
(motor/generator) theories
• AC machine
– induction machine
– synchronous mac hine
• DC machine
– separated excited,
– shunt exc ited,
– series exc ited,
– compound excited
• How the motor rotates
– Torque/speed
• How the generator to build output voltage
– Voltage/current
 Course Outline
Induction(Asynchronous) Machine

• Induction motor (IM) – the most widely

used ac motor in the world
– Structure and operation theories of
IM
– Equivalent c irc uit of IM
– Torque/speed characteristics
– Basic motor c ontrol
• Induc tion generator (seldom used)
– Output voltage c ontrol
– Voltage/c urrent c harac teristics
 Course Outline
Synchronous machines

• Synchronous generator (SG) – the most widely

used generator in the world
– Structure and operation theories of SG
– Equivalent circuit of SG
– Voltage/c urrent c harac teristics
– Parallel operation
• Sync hronous motor
– Operation princ iples
– Starting of synchronous motor
– Torque/speed characteristics
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History of Electric Machinery

DC generator, driven
1882 ThomasA. Edison opens
by steam engines Pearl St. Station, NYC

Waterwheel-driven DC
generator installed in
Appleton, Wisconsin

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History of Electric Machinery

Frank J. Sprague
1884 produces DC motor for
Edison systems

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History of Electric Machinery

William Stanley
1885 develops commercially
practical transformer
History of Electric Machinery

Nikola Tesla presents paper on

two-phase ac induction and
synchronous motors
1888
 History of Electric Machinery
The history of electrical machines dates
back to the early 19th century when
scientists began to experiment with the
principles of electromagnetism.

In 1821, Michael Faraday discovered that

electric current could produce a
magnetic field, and

In 1824 he invented the first electric

motor, which consisted of a wire hanging
from a battery that could rotate around a
magnet.
 History of Electric Machinery

In the following years, other scientists and

inventors made important contributions to the
development of electrical machines.

In 1831, Joseph Henry built the first practical

electromagnetic generator, which could produce
an electric current from a rotating magnet.

In 1832, Hippolyte Pixii built the first

alternating current (AC) generator, which used
a commutator to convert the output of a
rotating magnet into a pulsating DC current.
 History of Electric Machinery

In the late 19th century, Nikola Tesla and George

Westinghouse made significant contributions to the
development of AC power systems.

Tesla invented the induction motor, which could operate

on AC power, and Westinghouse built the first AC
power system, which used transformers to distribute
power over long distances.

During the 20th century, electrical machines became

more sophisticated and efficient, thanks to
advances in materials, manufacturing techniques,
and control systems.
 History of Electric Machinery

In the early years of the century, the DC motor was

the dominant type of electrical machine.

But by the mid-20th century, AC motors had become

more common, especially for industrial applications.

Today, electrical machines are used in a wide range of

applications, from small appliances to large industrial
machinery.

And continue to evolve as new technologies emerge,

such as electric vehicles and renewable energy
systems.
 Today’s development
• DC Machine
– Motor
– Generator
• Transformer
– Single phase
– Three phases
• AC Machine
– Synchronous machine – motor, generator
– Asynchronous machine (induction machine)
– motor, generator
 Today’s development and
future trends
• Micro-step stepping motor
• Permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM)
– Brushless dc motor (BLDCM)
• Linear motor
• Reluctance motor
– Synchronous reluctance
– Switched reluctance
• Ultrasonic motor
• Bionic robotics
• MEMS motor
 Course relation

• It is the fundamental course of the

electrical engineering
• Future courses
– Power electronics
– Motor control
– Electric motor drive
– Power systems
– Renewable energy
– Electrical vehicle
Chapter 1
Introduction to
machinery principles
1. Rotation motion, Newton’s law and
power relationships
2. The magnetic field
3. Faraday’s law
4. Produce an induced force on a wire
5. Produce an induced voltage on a
conductor
6. Linear dc mac hine examples
7. Real, reactive and apparatus power in
AC circuits
 Rotation motion, Newton’s law
and power relationships
• Clockwise (CW) and Counterclockwise (CCW)
– CCW is assumed as the positive direction, CW is assumed
as the negative direction.
• One dimension and rotation motion
– Position and angular (meter) (degree or radian)
– Speed and angular speed(meter/s) (degree/s or radian/s)

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Rotation motion, Newton’s
law and power relationships

– Revolution and frequency relationship

– Ac c eleration and angular ac c eleration

Torque

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Torque
Newton’s law of rotation

1. Forc e

2. Torque
 Torque and Work

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Power (rate of doing work)

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Relationships of linear Motion and Revolution
Conversion between
watts and horsepower
The magnetic field
Producing a magnetic field
Ampere’s law

1. The magnetic field is produced by Ampere’s law

2. The c ore is a ferromagnetic material
 From the magnetic field to
magnetic flux density
1. When the magnetic field is applied on a ferromagnetic material,
the magnetic flux density B will be produc ed

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 Unit c onversions

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Magnetic flux density and magnetic flux

1. Magnetic flux density

2. Magnetic flux
Magnetic C ircuit –
magnetomotive forc e
Magnetic c ircuit
Electric circuit and magnetic circuit
Electric Machinery
Reluc tanc e in magnetic circuit

1. Series connection

2. Parallel connection
The errors in magnetic c ircuit
computation
The errors in magnetic c ircuit
computation (computation errors)

4. Air gap “fringing effect”

Example 1-1

Region 1
Region 2

Fig. 1-7a
Example 1-1
Example 1-1
MATLAB script
Example 1-2
Solution

A c =0.0012 m2
Rc =66,315 A.turns/Wb
Solution

Req =382,315A.turns/Wb
Solution

i=0.6037A
Example 1-3

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Solution 1-13

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Solution 1-13
Solution 1-13

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Magnetic behavior of
ferromagnetic material - Saturation
Magnetic c urve for a typic al steel
A plot of relative permeability µr
Example 1-5
Solution 1-15
Energy loss in ferromagnetic core – hysteresis loss

During the cycle of magnetization and demagnetization of magnetic

substances, energy is spent and this is spent energy appears in the
form of heat. This heat loss is known as hysteresis loss.
https://byjus.com/jee/hysteresis/
Hysteresis loop – residual flux
The effe ct of magnetomotive forc e on
the hysteresis loop

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 Magnetization c urve

Several applications of hysteresis are found in ferromagnets. It is

mostly used to retain a memory, for example, hard disks,
magnetic tape, and credit cards.
Hysteresis loss
Hysteresis loss
Faraday’s law: induc e voltage from a
time-varying magnetic field
1. Induced voltage magnitude and polarity
 Lenz’s law (induced voltage (back emf) and magnetic flux)
When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to
Faraday's Law, the polarity of the induced emf is such that it produces a
current whose magnetic field opposes the change which produces it. The
induced magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep the
magnetic flux in the loop constant. In the examples below, if the B field
is increasing, the induced field acts in opposition to it. If it is decreasing,
the induced field acts in the direction of the applied field to try to keep it
constant. The direction of this induced voltage opposes the change in current.
The induc ed voltage polarity – Lenz’s law

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Flux and flux linkage
Example 1-6

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Example 1-6 (continued)

Fig. 1-15
Example 1-6 (continued)
Producing induced force on a wire

The induced force on a wire by a current in the presence

of a magnetic field is the basis of motor action.
Example 1-7
Relationship between electric-magnetic variables

• Magnetic field:Ampere’s law

• Magnetic flux: magnetic material, hysteresis characteristics
• Transformer: Faraday’s law, Len’s law
 Induced voltage on a conductor
moving in a magnetic field

The polarity of the induced voltage is determined by the right-hand rule.

 Example 1-8

Fig 1.17 A c onduc tor in the presence of a magnetic field

 Example 1-9

Fig 1.18 A c onduc tor in the presence of a magnetic field

The linear DC mac hine - a simple example

Assume
• Uniform and c onstant magnetic field
• Frictionless trac ks
• A bar lying ac ross the trac ks
• Battery
• Switch
 The linear DC machine
• The simplest and easiest to understand version of a
DC machine.

• It works on the same principles and exhibits the

same behavior as real generators and motors.

• Therefore, it serves as a good starting point in the

study of machines.
Determining the behavior of the machine
with four basic equations
The linear DC machine
Starting a linear DC machine

1. Current =>

2. Induced force =>

3. Induced voltage =>

 Starting a linear DC machine
• Eventually the bar will reach a constant steady-state speed
where the net force on the bar is zero.

• This occurs when 𝑒i𝑛𝑑 rises until it equals the voltage 𝑉𝐵.
• At that time, the bar will be moving at a speed given by

• The bar will continue to slide along at this no-load speed

forever unless some external force disturbs it.

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Summarize of starting a dc machine

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DC linear machine operates at no-load condition

Veloc ity 𝑣(t) vs time

Veloc ity 𝑒i 𝑛 𝑑 (t) vs time

Current i(t) vs time

Induced forc e 𝐹i𝑛𝑑(t) vs time

Fig. 1-21
Linear dc machine as a motor
• Applying the load (𝐹𝑙 𝑜𝑎𝑑 )

Fnet =Fload - Find

• The c onversion of power between mec hanic al
and elec trical
Summarize of a dc motor
operation
Graphic al plots for motor a ction

Speed 𝑣(t) vs time

Induced voltage 𝑒i 𝑛 𝑑 (t) vs tim

Current i(t) vs time

Induced forc e 𝐹i𝑛𝑑(t) vs time

Fig. 1-23
 Linear dc machine as a generator

• Applying an external forc e (𝐹𝑎 𝑝 𝑝 ) on the moving direction

•The c onversion of mechanical power into

electrical
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝐹𝑣 = i𝑒 i𝑛𝑑
Linear dc machine as a generator
With applying a force to the bar in the direction of motion,
the bar positively accelerates and the velocity v of the bar
increases.
As the velocity increases, will increase and will be
larger than the battery voltage 𝑉𝐵.
When 𝑒i𝑛𝑑 > 𝑉𝐵 , the current reverses direction and is now
given by the equation

, the c urrent reverses

Since this current now flows up through the bar, it induces a

force in the bar given by
Summarize of a dc generator
operation
Graphic al plots for generator a ction

V
B

The current reverses

F

At no load, F ind
motor a c tion Loaded motor a c tion
Starting problems with dc linear machine
At starting conditions, the speed of the bar is zero, so 𝑒i𝑛𝑑 = 0.

Thus, the current flow at starting is

Such currents can cause severe damage to a motor.

 Starting problems with dc linear machine

Inserting an extra resistance into the circuit

during starting to limit the current flow until 𝑒i𝑛𝑑
builds up enough to limit it.

Fig 1-26 A linear dc machine with an extra series

resistor inserted to control the starting current.
Example 1-10

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Example 1-10

Fig. 1-27 The linear dc machnine of Example 1-10, (a) Starting conditions;
(b) operating as a generator; (c) operating as a motor
Example 1-10
 Example 1-10

genera tor a c tion

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 Example 1-10

motor a c tion

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Example 1-10
Linear dc motor simulation

• Equations: (only magnitudes)

– F =ilB, l: bar length
– e =vBl
– i =(Vb- e) / R
– dv/dt =a =(F - Fload)/m
• Simulation parameters:
– Vb=120V, R=0.3W, l =1m
– B= 0.6T, m =0.1kg
– Fload=10(u-1)-20(u-2) N
Linear dc motor simulation

Find

F load

e=Blv, (Vb-e)/R=I, Bli=f, f-(fstep_t1- fstep_t2)/m=a, a/s=v

 v i

find
fload e
Real, reactive and apparent power
in AC circuits
 Real, reactive and apparent
power in AC circuits

• AC source applies power to an impedance Z

Instantaneous power
Instantaneous power
Average power and reactive power
Reactive power Q and apparent power S

1. Reactive power Q (var) is defined from

instantaneous power

2. Apparent power S (VA) is defined to

represent the product of voltage
and current magnitudes
Alternative Forms of the Power Equations
Power in AC circuit
i(t)= (I /sqr(2))cos(wt-𝜃) rms
Power in AC circuit
Complex power representation
Complex power representation
Power direc tion
Power fac tor
Example 1-11
Example 1-11
Example 1-11
 Notes about total P, Q, and S

• First, the total apparent power, ST can be

determined from the total average PT and total
reactive powers QT and cannot be determined from
the apparent powers of each branch.
• Second, and more important, it is not necessary to
consider the series-parallel arrangement of
branches. In other words, the total real PT , total
reactive QT , or total apparent power ST is
independent of whether the loads are in series,
parallel, or series-parallel.
 Example

1. Find the total real power PT, total reactive power QT,
and volt-amperes ST and draw the power triangle.
2. Find the power factor (PF)
3. Find the current in phasor form.
 Solution

1. Find total power

Load 1
S = P2 + Q2

P1 = 100 W; S1 = 100 + j0
Q1 = 0 VAR = 100 VA
 Solution (cont’d)

Load 2
S = P2 + Q2

P2= 200 W; S 2 = 200 + j700

Q2 = 700 VAR = 728 VA
 Solution (cont’d)

Load 3
S = P2 + Q2
P3= 300 W; S3 = 300 - j1500
Q3 = 1500 VAR = 1529.71 VA
 Solution (cont’d)

Total real power => PT = P1 + P2 + P3

= 100 + 200 + 300

PT = 600 W
 Solution (cont’d)

Total reactive power => QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

= 0 + 700 -1500
= -800 VAR
QT = 800 VAR(C)
 Solution (cont’d)

2. The power factor (PF)

 Solution (cont’d)

3. The current

ST = 1000 VA
VI = 1000 VA
I = 1000 VA
100 V
I = 10 A

Since PF is leading, I leads E, predominantly capacitive circuit.

I = 10 A Ð + 53.13°