Noun

A noun is a word used to refer to people, animals, objects, substances, states, events, ideas
and feelings. A noun functions as a subject or object of a verb and can be modified by an
adjective.

Examples - John, lion, table, freedom, love

I live in United States of America.

Emma is my sister.

I love to play with my cat.

Different types of Nouns

There are different types of nouns:

Abstract Noun - An Abstract Noun names an idea, event, quality, or concept (freedom, love,
courage etc) Concrete nouns name something recognizable through the sense (table, dog,
house etc)

Examples –

Love-Love is a wonderful thing!

Peace-Let there be peace on

Fear-I was full of fear.

Compound Noun – A Compound nouns refer to two or more nouns combined to form a
single noun (sister-in-law, schoolboy, fruit juice)

Examples –
Get your hair-cut today, please.

Emma is my girl-friend.

The Police-man rushed to the scene of the crime.

Collective Noun - A collective noun describes a group of things or people as a unit (family,
flock, audience)

Examples –

Our class took a field trip to the natural history museum.

We waited anxiously for the jury to come to a verdict.

Napoleon’s army was finally defeated at Waterloo.

Some Collective Nouns

Flock– A group of birds; also used to discuss small hooves animals such as sheep or goats.

Swarm– A group of insects.

Shoal– A group of fish.

Group– A very general term used to describe people, places, things, and animals.

Crowd– Usually used to describe a group of people.

Common Noun - Common noun is the name of a group of similar things (table, book,
window) Proper nouns, however, refer to the name of a single person, place or thing (John,
Joseph, London)

Examples –

Let's pick the yellow flowers for Dad.

I really like the song that is playing on the radio.

Sophia gives us homework every day of the week except Sunday.

More Examples of Common Nouns:

People: boy, man, teacher, nurse, firefighter, president

Places: house, yard, building, church, city, country, beach

Things: desk, phone, book, candle, pencil, basket, dog

Ideas: confidence, sadness, courage, speed

Animate Noun - Animate nouns refer to a person, animal, or other creature (man, elephant,
chicken etc) An inanimate noun refers to a material object (stone, wood, table etc)

Examples –

Tigers and Elephants are found throughout the country.

The young Lions are far more destructive than the old.

The new office block has become an expensive leopard.

Countable Noun- Countable (or count) nouns have a singular and a plural form. In plural,
these nouns can be used with a number- they can be counted. (Friends, chairs, houses, boys)
Uncountable (or non count) nouns, however, can only be used in singular. They can't be
counted. (Money, bread, water, coffee)

Examples –

There are almost 35 restaurants in New York where I like to go.

We took many photographs when we went to Los Angeles.

I have only few

Plural Vs Singular

Nouns can be singular or plural. The plural form of a noun is usually formed by adding s at
the end of the noun. But this is not always the case. There are exceptions to the rule. Some
plurals are irregular.

Singular Vs Plural Examples –

Leaf – Leaves
Knife – Knives

Scarf - Scarves

Singular Examples –

A girl was playing football in the ground.

My horse is hungry and tired.

There is only one window in that house.

Plural Examples –

My sisters have given me a gift.

That boy has been beaten up by those boys.

We have bought new brushes.

Pronoun

A pronoun is used in the place of a noun or phrase. Or Pronouns are words that substitute a
noun or another pronoun.

Examples - I, you, he, she, it, who, themselves.

This House belongs to us.

I won the race.

The matter is between Olivia and me.

Types of pronouns
1- Subject Pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, and they)

2- Object Pronouns (Me, you, him, her, it, us, and them)

3- Reflexive Pronouns (Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves)

4- Possessive Pronouns (Mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs)

5- Demonstrative Pronouns (This, that, those, these)

6- Relative Pronouns (Who, which, that, whose)

Subject Pronouns - Subject pronouns are used as grammatical subjects in a sentence. A

subject pronoun does the action of the sentence instead of receiving the action, as an
object/objective pronoun does.

Subject pronouns are used to replace the subject (person or thing) of a verb.

We do NOT normally say:

Olivia is tall and Olivia is intelligent.

Saying the word "Olivia" twice is repetitive and does not sound natural.
We replace the Subject (Olivia) that appears the second time with a subject pronoun to
avoid repetition (and in this case to avoid saying the name Olivia again.)

So we would say:

Olivia is tall and she is intelligent.

We replace the second "Olivia" with the Subject Pronoun "She".

Examples – (I, you, he, she, it, we, and they)

I am from United States of America.

My friends and I are having a great time!

The time is seven o'clock.

Object Pronouns - Object pronouns are used as grammatical objects in the sentence: the
direct or indirect object of a verb or the object of a preposition. An object pronoun receives
the action instead of doing the action itself. They are contrasted with subject/subjective
pronouns.

Examples – (Me, you, him, her, it, us, and them)

I like you but you don't like me.

He loves sitting next to her.

She always writes e-mails to us.

Reflexive Pronouns - Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and the object in a
sentence are the same person.
Examples – (Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves)

She looked at herself in the mirror.

He injured himself during the game.

Emma herself cooked dinner, not her mother.

Possessive Pronouns - A possessive pronoun is a word that replaces a noun (or a noun
phrase) in a sentence and shows ownership. The possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his,
hers, ours, and theirs.

Examples – (Mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs)

This car is bigger than mine.

No, it's yours.

Oliver found his clothes but Emma couldn't find hers.

Demonstrative Pronouns - Demonstrative pronouns are those that identify or point to a

thing or things and occasionally persons. They can be both singular and plural and they refer
to nouns that are either nearby or far away in time or space.

Examples – (This, that, those, these)

This is her car, and (further away) is mine.

These are my shoes.

That is incorrect.
Relative Pronouns - Relative pronouns introduce a relative clause - either as a subject (who,
which, that), or as a direct object (whom, which, that), or in the context of a prepositional
phrase (to whom, with which, by which, etc). They are called "relative" because in a
declarative sentence, they relate to a noun that has normally just been mentioned.

Examples – (Who, which, that, whose)

Her new laptop, which she bought last week, is very expensive.

The girl whom he met last week is very nice.

This is the woman who sold me a stolen mobile phone

Verbs

A verb in syntax is a part of speech which conveys action (bring, read, walk, run, learn) or
state of being (exist, stand) or Verbs have traditionally been defined as words that show
action or state of being.

Sentences in English have a main verb which is stated in a tense (simple present, simple past,
simple future...)

Examples –

William writes short stories at home

Emma is buying a newspaper today.

Students went to the play ground often.

Types of Verbs –

Main Verbs (or Action Verbs)

Helping Verbs or (Auxiliary Verbs)

Linking Verbs

Transitive Verbs

Intransitive Verbs

Main Verbs (or Action Verbs) - Main verbs or action verbs are used to express action;
something that an animal, a person or a thing does. In each of the following sentences, we
only have a main verb. Or Action verbs are verbs that are used to explain what the subject of
a sentence is actively doing.

Examples - Ran, swim, jump, move, look, and catch are all action verbs.

He is reading the newspaper.

A girl rolled down the hill on a skateboard.

I wake up at 6 A.M. everyday

Helping Verbs - As the name suggests, helping verbs help or support the main verb, also
known as Auxiliary Verbs, lend a helping hand to the main verb in a sentence.

These verbs can assist in:

Forming a question

Creating a negative statement

Showing a possibility

Dictating verb tense

Examples – Is, Be, Do, Have, Could, Must, Will, Should, May, Might, Must, Were

Does Sophia write all her own reports?

I may marry you soon.

She is watching a movie.

Linking Verbs - Linking Verbs do not express action. Instead, they connect the subject of the
verb to additional information about the subject.

Examples - be, being, been, am, is, are, was, were, seem, look, feel, sound, and taste.

This sweet tastes

The pizza is heavenly?

The fabric will feel

Transitive Verbs- A transitive verb requires a direct object to complete its meaning, an
'agent' performs an action and a "patient" or "theme" undergoes the action. The direct
object usually takes form as a noun phrase.

It has two prominent features:

It acts as an action verb, expressing an activity.

It uses a direct object that receives an action.

Examples –

I know – Here, the verb is ‘know’ The object upon which that verb is acting is Emma.
Therefore, know is a transitive verb in this case.

He lost my cat. – The verb is ‘lost’ The object upon which that verb is acting is my cat. Lost,
then, is a transitive verb in this case.

He found the article very interesting to read. – The verb ‘found’ is taking the object ‘the
article,’ making this a transitive verb in this case.
Intransitive Verbs - An intransitive verb does not accept an object (Noun Phrase) as its
complement. Instead, it may take an adverb or a prepositional phrase as its complement (a
required element) or as an adjunct (an optional element). A passive structure cannot be
formed because there is no object.

Examples –

The students arrived at the residency in Chicago.

The patient’s health deteriorated quickly during the night.

The meeting continued after the break.

Adverbs

An adverb is a word that modifies verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. "Modifies" means
"tells more about." An adverb tells more about how the verb is being done. Many adverbs
end in "-ly."

Examples –

Emma writes quickly and well.

The midwives waited patiently through a long labor.

The brothers were badly injured in the fight.

Types of Adverbs -

Adverb of Time

Adverb of Place

Adverb of Manner

Adverb of Degree
Adverb of Frequency

Adverb of Time- An adverb of time tells us when something is done or happens.

Examples - Now, yesterday, soon, later, tomorrow, yet, already, tonight, today, then, last
month/year

We are going to church on Sunday for prayer.

My father went to Chile last year for a vacation.

He was in Thailand for two months last year.

Adverb of Place - An adverb of place tells us where something is done or happens.

Example - off, above, abroad, far, on, away, back, here, out, outside, backwards, behind, in,
below, down, indoors, downstairs, inside, nearby, near, over, there, towards, under, up,
upstairs, where, everywhere, elsewhere, anywhere, nowhere, somewhere.

Let us put the china wares in the cupboard.

The kid is hiding behind

Teapot is inside the kitchen drawer.

Adverb of Manner - An adverb of manner tells us how something is done or happens.

Example - cheerfully, efficiently, painfully, secretly, quietly, peacefully, carefully, slowly,

badly, closely, easily, well, fast, quickly.
I am madly in love with my dear wife.

The clever thief moved swiftly.

Make your decision carefully.

Adverb of Degree- An adverb of degree tells us the level or extent that something is done or
happens.

Example - quite, fairly, too, enormously, entirely, very, extremely, rather, almost, absolutely,
just, barely, completely, enough, deeply, enormously, fully, greatly, hardly, incredibly,
practically, scarcely, barely, somewhat, terribly, virtually

Arthur is rather

Father was much

Father was very much

Adverb of Frequency- An adverb of frequency tells us how often something is done or

happens.

Example - always, sometimes, often/frequently, normally/generally, usually, occasionally,

seldom, rarely/hardly ever, never,

They were almost fifty when they got married.

He always wears a shirt and tie.

She normally eats three meals a day.

Adjectives
An adjective is a word which modifies a noun or a pronoun. Adjectives are describing words.
Large, grey, and friendly are all examples of adjectives.

Examples –

They live in a big, beautiful.

This shop is much nicer.

The sky was multicolored.

(i). Adjectives may come before a noun

He found a nice job

(ii). Adjectives may also come after certain verbs like be, feel, seem, look:

He is intelligent

I feel happy

She seems unhappy

They look fantastic

The Different Types of Adjectives

The Articles

Possessive Adjectives

Demonstrative Adjectives

Indefinite Adjectives

Numbers Adjectives
The Articles - There are only three articles, and all of them are adjectives: a, an, and the.
Because they are used to discuss non-specific things and people, a and an are called
indefinite articles.

Examples –

I think an animal is in the garage.

I own a horse and two cats.

The girl sitting next to me raised her hand.

Possessive Adjectives - my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their - modify the noun following it
in order to show possession.

Examples –

This is my car

Why didn't you clean your room?

Its color is beautiful.

Demonstrative Adjectives- Demonstrative adjectives are adjectives that are used to modify a
noun so that we know which specific person, place, or thing is mentioned.

Examples – (This, that, former, latter, these, those)

If I hear that parrot again, I will call the police.

Can you pass me this black pen?

The former education minister was a corrupt person.

Indefinite Adjectives - Indefinite adjective offers general information about the amount of
the noun it modifies.
Examples – another, any, less, little, many, more, much, some

She left the house a few (adjective) minutes (Noun) ago.

I expected several visitors for today’s function.

Both charges have not been proved.

Numbers Adjectives- Numbers are classified as adjectives too.

Examples –

I have five

You have three

They have ten

Prepositions

A preposition is usually a short word placed before a substantive (or a pronoun) and
indicating the relation of that substantive to other parts of the sentence (mostly verbs).

Example - in, of, at, by, for, with, under, above, into, onto, upon, about, behind, beside,
before, after, towards, inside, outside, below, around etc.

She sat on the chair.

There is some fruits in the fridge.

He was hiding under the roof.

Types of Preposition –

Preposition of Time
Preposition of Place

Preposition of Direction

Preposition of Agent or Instrumentality

Preposition of Phrases

Preposition of Time – Prepositions of Time is used to discuss time like months, days, hours,
seasons and general time of the day.

Example - In, On, At, By, With, For, Over, Under, Of, To

I have a meeting at

Many shops don't open on

No, we went out for drinks after.

Preposition of Place - Preposition of Place is used to denote the place or position of

something or someone.

at for a POINT

in for an ENCLOSED SPACE

on for a SURFACE

Example - on, in, at, by, above, below, under, beside, near, behind, between, among,
against.

Do you live in India?

Jupiter is in the Solar System.

The author's- Oliver name is on the cover of the book.

Preposition of Direction- Preposition of Direction is expressing the idea that someone or

something is moving in a specific direction.
Example - to, into, onto

Emma went to the library.

The Black ball is bouncing onto the Red box.

The White ball is bouncing into the Black box.

Preposition of Agent – Also known as Instrumentality. Prepositions are words that link either
the noun, or the pronoun with another word in the sentence so as to form a relationship
between them.

Example – By, With

Harry Potter was written byK. Rowling.

Her heart was filled with

The Odyssey was written by

Preposition of Phrases- A preposition is a word that expresses a relationship between a noun

or a pronoun and another word in the sentence.

Example – in, by, on, about, under, with, except, of, to, out of, when, where, why, up, down

He bumps his head going up and down the stairs.

We stayed at the cabin by the river.

Sophia was asking about the project.

Conjunctions

The conjunction is the part of speech used as a “joiner” for words, phrases, or clauses in a
particular sentence.
Examples – For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So (FANBOYS)

Pizza and burgers are my favorite snacks.

Emma did not like bananas but she loved apples.

You may bring a main dish or a side dish to the party.

There are three types of conjunctions:

Coordinating Conjunctions

Correlative Conjunctions

Subordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions - Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are

conjunctions that connect two or more equal items.

Examples- and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet

She plays tennis and soccer

It is raining, so we have an umbrella.

He works quickly but accurately

Correlative Conjunctions- Correlative Conjunctions are used in pairs. They work in pairs to
coordinate two items.

Examples- both...and..., either...or, not only... but also... neither…nor, not only …. But also
My sister will begin either trade school or community college in the fall.

I didn't know that she can neither read nor

He is not only a strong student but also a gifted athlete.

Subordinating Conjunctions - Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are

conjunctions that join a dependent (or subordinating) clause to an independent (or main)
clause.

Examples- After, Although, As, Because, Before, Even if, Even though, If, In order that, Once,
Provided that, Rather than, Since, So that, Than, That, Though, Unless, Until, When,
Whenever, Where, Whereas, Wherever, Whether, While, Why

After dinner, we’ll go see a movie.

Whether or not you agree, I think it looks fine.

Until we find it, we can’t leave.

Interjections

In grammar, an interjection is a part of speech or (a lexical category) which is used to show a

short sudden expression of emotion. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or
Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in
speaking than in writing. An interjection is a short word or phrase that shows emotion. It
often stands alone, unconnected to a sentence.

Example –

Oops! I did it again!

Ooh, what a lovely dress!

Yahoo, we did it!

Alas, it was not to be.

You two are dating? Awesome!

Bingo! Right on target!

Oh wow, that is so cool!

Present Continuous

Forming the present continuous

The present continuous of any verb is composed of two parts - the present tense of the verb
to be + the present participle of the main verb.

(The form of the present participle is: base+ing, e.g. talking, playing, moving, smiling)

Affirmative

Subject + to be + base + ing

She is talking.

Negative

Subject + to be + not + base + ing

She is not (isn't) talking

Interrogative

to be + subject + base + ing

Is she talking?

Examples: TO GO, present continuous

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I am going I am not going Am I going?

You are going You aren't going. Are you going?

He, she, it is going He, she, it isn't going Is he, she, it going?

We are going We aren't goingAre we going?

You are going You aren't going Are you going?

They are going They aren't going Are they going?

Note: alternative negative contractions: I'm not going, you're not going, he's not going etc.

Functions of the present continuous

As with all tenses in English, the speaker's attitude is as important as the time of the action
or event. When someone uses the present continuous, they are thinking about something
that is unfinished or incomplete

The present continuous is used:

to describe an action that is going on at this moment: You are using the Internet. You are
studying English grammar.

to describe an action that is going on during this period of time or a trend: Are you still
working for the same company? More and more people are becoming vegetarian.

to describe an action or event in the future, which has already been planned or prepared:
We're going on holiday tomorrow. I'm meeting my boyfriend tonight. Are they visiting you
next winter?

to describe a temporary event or situation: He usually plays the drums, but he's playing bass
guitar tonight. The weather forecast was good, but it's raining at the moment.

with "always, forever, constantly", to describe and emphasise a continuing series of

repeated actions: Harry and Sally are always arguing! You're constantly complaining about
your mother-in-law!

Be careful: Some verbs are not usually used in the continuous form

Verbs that are not usually used in the continuous form

The verbs in the list below are normally used in the simple form because they refer to states,
rather than actions or processes.

Senses / perception

to feel*

to hear

to see*

to smell
to taste

Opinion

to assume

to believe

to consider

to doubt

to feel (= to think)

to find (= to consider)

to suppose

to think*

Mental states

to forget

to imagine

to know

to mean

to notice

to recognise

to remember

to understand

Emotions / desires

to envy

to fear

to dislike

to hate

to hope

to like

to love
to mind

to prefer

to regret

to want

to wish

Measurement

to contain

to cost

to hold

to measure

to weigh

Others

to look (=resemble)

to seem

to be (in most cases)

to have (when it means "to possess")*

Exceptions

Perception verbs (see, hear, feel, taste, smell) are often used with can: I can see... These
verbs may be used in the continuous form but with a different meaning

This coat feels nice and warm. (your perception of the coat's qualities)

John's feeling much better now (his health is improving)

She has three dogs and a cat. (possession)

She's having supper. (She's eating)

I can see Anthony in the garden (perception)

I'm seeing Anthony later (We are planning to meet)

Present perfect
Definition of the present perfect tense

The present perfect is used to indicate a link between the present and the past. The time of
the action is before now but not specified, and we are often more interested in the result
than in the action itself.

BE CAREFUL! There may be a verb tense in your language with a similar form, but the
meaning is probably NOT the same.

The present perfect is used to describe

An action or situation that started in the past and continues in the present. I have lived in
Bristol since 1984 (= and I still do.)

An action performed during a period that has not yet finished. She has been to the cinema
twice this week (= and the week isn't over yet.)

A repeated action in an unspecified period between the past and now. We have visited
Portugal several times.

An action that was completed in the very recent past, expressed by 'just'. I have just finished
my work.

An action when the time is not important. He has read 'War and Peace'. (= the result of his
reading is important)

Actions started in the past and continuing in the present

They haven't lived here for years.

She has worked in the bank for five years.

We have had the same car for ten years.

Have you played the piano since you were a child?

When the time period referred to has not finished

I have worked hard this week.

It has rained a lot this year.

We haven't seen her today.

Actions repeated in an unspecified period between the past and now.

They have seen that film six times

It has happened several times already.

She has visited them frequently.

We have eaten at that restaurant many times.

Actions completed in the very recent past (+just)

Have you just finished work?

I have just eaten.

We have just seen her.

Has he just left?

When the precise time of the action is not important or not known

Someone has eaten my soup!

Have you seen 'Gone with the Wind'?

She's studied Japanese, Russian, and English.

Forming the present perfect

The present perfect of any verb is composed of two elements : the appropriate form of the
auxiliary verb to have (present tense), plus the past participle of the main verb. The past
participle of a regular verb is base+ed, e.g. played, arrived, looked. For irregular verbs, see
the Table of irregular verbs in the section called 'Verbs'.

Affirmative

Subject +to have +past participle

She has visited.

Negative

Subject +to have + not +past participle

She has not (hasn't) visited.

Interrogative

to have +subject +past participle

Has she visited?

Negative interrogative

to have + not +subject +past participle

Hasn't she visited?

To Walk, present perfect

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I have walked I haven't walked Have I walked?

You have walked You haven't walked. Have you walked?

He, she, it has walked He, she, hasn't walked Has he, she, it walked?

We have walked We haven't walked Have we walked?

You have walked You haven't walked Have you walked?

They have walked They haven't walked Have they walked?

Present perfect continuous

The present perfect continuous is used to refer to an unspecified time between 'before now'
and 'now'. The speaker is thinking about something that started but perhaps did not finish in
that period of time. He/she is interested in the process as well as the result, and this process
may still be going on, or may have just finished.

Actions that started in the past and continue in the present

She has been waiting for you all day (= and she's still waiting now).

I've been working on this report since eight o'clock this morning (= and I still haven't finished
it).

They have been travelling since last October (= and they're not home yet).

Actions that have just finished, but we are interested in the results

She has been cooking since last night (= and the food on the table looks delicious).

It's been raining (= and the streets are still wet).

Someone's been eating my chips (= half of them have gone).

Forming the present perfect continuous

The present perfect continuous is made up of two elements: the present perfect of the verb
'to be' (have/has been), and the present participle of the main verb (base+ing)
Subject +has/have been+base+ing

She has been swimming

Affirmative: She has been / She's been running.

Negative: She hasn't been running.

Interrogative : Has she been running?

Interrogative negative: Hasn't she been running?

Example: present perfect continuous, TO LIVE

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I have been living I haven't been living Have I been living?

You have been living You haven't been living Have you been living?

He, she, it has been living He hasn't been living Has she been living?

We have been living We haven't been living Have we been living?

You have been living You haven't been living Have you been living?

They have been living They haven't been living Have they been living?

Verbs without continuous forms

With verbs not normally used in the continuous form, use the simple present perfect instead
(verbs such as: know, hate, hear, understand, want).

I've wanted to visit China for years.

She's known Robert since she was a child.

I've hated that music since I first heard it.

I've heard a lot about you recently.

We've understood everything.

Present participle

The present participle of most verbs has the form base+ing. It is used in many different ways.
The present participle as part of the continuous form of a verb

Examples

I am working.

He was singing.

They have been walking.

We will be staying.

She would have been expecting me.

The present participle after verbs of movement & position

This construction is particularly useful with the verb to go.

Examples

She went shopping.

I go running every morning.

He lay looking up at the clouds.

She came running towards me.

The present participle after verbs of perception

The pattern for this usage is verb + object + present participle. There is a difference in
meaning when such a sentence contains a zero infinitive rather than a participle. The
infinitive refers to a complete action while the present participle refers to an ongoing action.

Examples

I heard someone singing.

He saw his friend walking along the road.

I can smell something burning!

I watched the birds flying away.

The present participle as an adjective

Examples
It was an amazing film.

Dark billowing clouds often precede a storm.

He was trapped inside the burning house.

Many of his paintings show the setting sun.

The present participle with the verbs spend and waste

The pattern with these verbs is verb + time/money expression + present participle.

Examples

My boss spends two hours a day travelling to work.

Don't waste time playing computer games!

They've spent the whole day shopping.

I wasted money buying this game.

The present participle with the verbs catch and find

The pattern with these verbs is verb + object + present participle. With catch, the participle
always refers to an action which causes annoyance or anger. This is not the case with find,
which is unemotional.

Examples

If I catch you stealing my apples again, there'll be trouble!

Don't let him catch you reading his letters.

I caught him going through my bag.

We found some money lying on the ground.

They found their mother sitting in the garden.

The present participle for two actions at the same time

When two actions occur at the same time, and are done by the same person or thing, we
can use a present participle to describe one of them. When one action follows very quickly
after another done by the same person or thing, we can express the first action with a
present participle.
Examples

Whistling to himself, he walked down the road. = He whistled to himself as he walked down
the road.

They went laughing out into the snow. = They laughed as they went out into the snow.

Dropping the gun, she put her hands in the air. = She dropped the gun and put her hands in
the air.

Putting on his coat, he left the house. = He put on his coat and left the house.

The present participle to explain a reason

The present participle can be used instead of a phrase starting with as, since, or because. In
this usage the participial phrase explains the cause or reason for an action.

Examples

Feeling hungry, he went into the kitchen and opened the fridge.

Being poor, he didn't spend much on clothes.

Knowing that his mother was coming, he cleaned the flat.

He whispered, thinking his brother was still asleep.

Simple past tense

Definition of the simple past tense

The simple past tense, sometimes called the preterite, is used to talk about a completed
action in a time before now. The simple past is the basic form of past tense in English. The
time of the action can be in the recent past or the distant past and action duration is not
important.

Examples

John Cabot sailed to America in 1498.

My father died last year.

He lived in Fiji in 1976.

We crossed the Channel yesterday.

You always use the simple past when you say when something happened, so it is associated
with certain past time expressions

frequency: often, sometimes, always

I sometimes walked home at lunchtime.

I often brought my lunch to school.

a definite point in time: last week, when I was a child, yesterday, six weeks ago

We saw a good film last week.

Yesterday, I arrived in Geneva.

She finished her work atseven o'clock

I went to the theatre last night

an indefinite point in time: the other day, ages ago, a long time ago

People lived in caves a long time ago.

She played the piano when she was a child.

Note: the word ago is a useful way of expressing the distance into the past. It is placed after
the period of time: a week ago, three years ago, a minute ago.

Be Careful: The simple past in English may look like a tense in your own language, but the
meaning may be different.

Forming the simple past tense

Patterns of simple past tense for regular verbs

Affirmative

Subject + verb + ed

I skipped.

Negative

Subject + did not + infinitive without to

They didn't go.

Interrogative

Did + subject + infinitive without to

Did she arrive?

Interrogative negative

Did not + subject + infinitive without to

Didn't you play?

To Walk

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I walked I didn't walk Did I walk?

You walked You didn't walk Did you walk?

He walked He didn't walk Did he walk?

We walked We didn't walk Did we walk?

They walked They didn't walk Did they walk?

Simple past tense of to be, to have, to do

Subject Verb

Be Have Do

I was had did

You were had did

He/She/It was had did

We were had did

You were had did

They were had did

Notes on affirmative, negative, & interrogative forms

Affirmative

The affirmative of the simple past tense is simple.

I was in Japan last year

She had a headache yesterday.

We did our homework last night.

Negative and interrogative

For the negative and interrogative simple past form of "to do" as an ordinary verb, use the
auxiliary "did", e.g. We didn't do our homework last night.

The negative of "have" in the simple past is usually formed using the auxiliary "did", but
sometimes by simply adding not or the contraction "n't".

The interrogative form of "have" in the simple past normally uses the auxiliary "did".

Examples

They weren't in Rio last summer.

We didn't have any money.

We didn't have time to visit the Eiffel Tower.

We didn't do our exercises this morning.

Were they in Iceland last January?

Did you have a bicycle when you were young?

Did you do much climbing in Switzerland?

Note: For the negative and interrogative form of all verbs in the simple past, always use the
auxiliary 'did''.

Simple past, irregular verbs

Some verbs are irregular in the simple past. Here are the most common ones.

to go

He went to a club last night.

Did he go to the cinema last night?

He didn't go to bed early last night.

to give

We gave her a doll for her birthday.

They didn't give John their new address.

Did Barry give you my passport?

to come

My parents came to visit me last July.

We didn't come because it was raining.

Did he come to your party last week?

Past continuous tense

Functions of the past continuous

The past continuous describes actions or events in a time before now, which began in the
past and were still going on when another event occurred.

It is used:

Often, to describe the background in a story written in the past tense, e.g. "The sun was
shining and the birds were singing as the elephant came out of the jungle. The other animals
were relaxing in the shade of the trees, but the elephant moved very quickly. She was
looking for her baby, and she didn't notice the hunter who was watching her through his
binoculars. When the shot rang out, she was running towards the river..."

to describe an unfinished action that was interrupted by another event or action, e.g. "I was
having a beautiful dream when the alarm clock rang."

to express a change of mind: e.g. "I was going to spend the day at the beach but I've decided
to get my homework done instead."

with 'wonder', to make a very polite request: e.g. "I was wondering if you could baby-sit for
me tonight."

Examples

They were waiting for the bus when the accident happened.

Caroline was skiing when she broke her leg.

When we arrived he was having a bath.

When the fire started I was watching television.

Note: with verbs not normally used in the continuous form, the simple past is used.
Forming the past continuous

The past continuous of any verb is composed of two parts : the past tense of the verb "to
be" (was/were), and the base of the main verb +ing.

Subject +was/were +base + ing

They were watching

Affirmative

She was reading

Negative

She wasn't reading

Interrogative

Was she reading?

Interrogative negative

Wasn't she reading?

To play, past continuous

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I was playing I was not playing Was I playing?

You were playing You were not playing Were you playing?

He was playing He wasn't playing Was he playing?

We were playing We weren't playing Were we playing?

They were playing They weren't playing Were they playing?

Past perfect tense

Functions of the past perfect

The past perfect refers to a time earlier than before now. It is used to make it clear that one
event happened before another in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned
first - the tense makes it clear which one happened first.
In these examples, Event A is the event that happened first and Event B is the second or
more recent event:

Event A Event B

John had gone out when I arrived in the office.

Event A Event B

I had saved my document before the computer crashed.

Event B Event A

When they arrived we had already started cooking.

Event B Event A

He was very tired because he hadn't slept well.

Forming the past perfect

The Past Perfect tense in English is composed of two parts: the past tense of the verb to
have (had) + the past participle of the main verb.

Subject +had +past participle

Affirmative

She had given

Negative

She hadn't asked.

Interrogative

Had they arrived?

Interrogative Negative

Hadn't you finished?

To decide, past perfect

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I had decided I hadn't decidedHad I decided?

You had decided You hadn't decided Had you decided?

She had decided She hadn't decided Had she decided?

We had decided We hadn't decided Had we decided?

They had decided They hadn't decided Had they decided?

Past perfect + just

'Just' is used with the past perfect to refer to an event that was only a short time earlier than
before now, e.g.

The train had just left when I arrived at the station.

She had just left the room when the police arrived.

I had just put the washing out when it started to rain.

Past perfect continuous

Functions of the past perfect continuous

The past perfect continuous corresponds to the present perfect continuous, but with
reference to a time earlier than 'before now'. As with the present perfect continuous, we are
more interested in the process.

Examples

Had you been waiting long before the taxi arrived?

We had been trying to open the door for five minutes when Jane found her key.

It had been raining hard for several hours and the streets were very wet.

Her friends had been thinking of calling the police when she walked in.

This form is also used in reported speech. It is the equivalent of the past continuous and the
present perfect continuous in direct speech:

Jane said, "I have been gardening all afternoon." = Jane said she had been gardening all
afternoon.

When the police questioned him, John said, "I was working late in the office that night." =
When the police questioned him, John told them he had been working late in the office that
night.
Forming the past perfect continuous

The past perfect continuous is composed of two elements - the past perfect of the verb to
be (=had been) + the present participle (base+ing).

Subject +had been +verb + ing

I had been walking

Affirmative

She had been trying

Negative

She hadn't been sleeping

Interrogative

Had you been eating?

Interrogative negative

Hadn't they been living?

To buy, past perfect continuous

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I had been buying I hadn't been buying Had I been buying?

You had been buying You hadn't been buying Had you been buying?

She had been buying She hadn't been buying Had she been buying?

We had been buying We hadn't been buying Had we been buying?

They had been buying They hadn't been buying Had they been buying?