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www

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaassaa
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w .P.P
w
www w
www

N Nett
e N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P

.N
w w
w www
www www

l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
lai l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
l a
l i
a
sa
assaa aaddaasaa
s
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www NAME w
www
da

CLASS XII -
Pa

N Neett GROUP N Neett

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa YEAR aassaa 20
ad
ad
- 20
aaddaasaa
s
w.

ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
ww

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www

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l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa dda assaa
daassaa
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NN ee
LIST tOFt EXPERIMENTS N Ne ett
lalai .i. 1. Determination of the specific resistance l al i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa aa aa
of the material of the given coil
using metre bridge.
d da as s ddaass
.
2. Determination of theP Pa a
. tangent galvanometer.
value of the horizontal component of the Earth’s
. P
.Paa
w w w w w w
wwwof emf of two cells using potentiometer. www
magnetic field using
3. Comparison
4. Determination of the refractive index of the material of the prism by
finding angle of prism and angle of minimum deviation using

N Neett spectrometer.
N Neett
lalai.i. 5.
l l i
a .i.
Determination of the wavelength of a composite light by normal
a l a
l i
a

et
assaa aa aa
incidence method using diffraction grating and spectrometer (The
ddas
a s d a
d s
a s
number of lines per metre length of the grating is given).
6.
. P
.Paa . P
. Paa
Investigation of the voltage-current (V-I) characteristics of PN junction

.N
w w
w www
www www
diode.
7. Investigation of the voltage-current (V-I) characteristics of Zener diode.
8. Investigation of the static characteristics of a NPN Junction transistor

lai
in common emitter configuration.
9.t t tt
i .
i N
. Nee circuits.
i .i. Nee
Verification of the truth table of the basic logic gates using integrated
N i
a
ll a l a
l a l a
l a
sa
s
asaa 10.
aa saa
Verification of De Morgan’s theorems using integrated circuits.
s aassaa
P Paadd P Paadd
w w. .
1. SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF THE MATERIAL OF THE COIL USING
ww. .
w w
da

www
METRE BRIDGE
AIM
www
To determine the specific resistance of the material of the given
coil using metre bridge.
Pa

N Neett
APPARATUS REQUIRED

N Neett
Meter bridge, galvanometer, key, resistance box, connecting wires,

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
Lechlanche cell, jockey and high resistance.

assaa addaassaa
ρ=
Xπv2
a ddaasaa
s
w.

FORMULA
. P
. P a L
(Ωm)
. P
. P a
www w w
w
www www
where, ρ → Specific resistance of the given coil (Ωm)
X → Resistance of the given coil (Ω)
ww

R → Known resistance (Ω)

N Ne tt
e N N ett
L → Length of the coil (m)
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i.
r → Radius of the wire (m)
l a
l i
a
assaa aa aa
PROCEDURE
• ddaass d a
d s
a s
right gap.
.P. Paa . P
. Paa
A resistance box R is connected in the left gap and the unknown resistance X in the

w w
w w w
w
www www
• A Lechlanche cell is connected across the wire of length 1 m through a key.

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N Ne
•e
tt N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
A sensitive galvanometer G is connected between the central strip and the jockey
a
assaa aa aa
through a high resistance (HR).
•
ddaass ddaass
With a suitable resistance included in the resistance box, the circuit is switched on.
•
. P
. Paa .P.Paa
To check the circuit connections, the jockey is pressed near one end of the wire, say

www w w
w
www www
A. The galvanometer will show deflection in one direction. When the jockey is pressed
near the other end of the wire B, the galvanometer will show deflection in the opposite
direction. This ensures that the circuit connections are correct.
• By moving the jockey over the wire, the point on the wire at which the galvanometer

NNe tt
e
• The balancing length AJ =l is noted.
N Neett
shows null deflection i.e., balancing point J is found.

lalai.i. • l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
R(100-l)

assaa s aa s aa
The unknown resistance X1 is found using the formula X1 =
• ddaa s d a
d a s l

. .Paa
The experiment is repeated for different values of R.
P . P
. Paa
• The same procedure is repeated aft er interchanging R and X.

.N
w w
w www
www www Rl
• The unknown resistance X2 is found using the formula X2 = 100-l
• The experiment is repeated for same values of R as before.

lai
• The resistance of the given coil is found from the mean value of X1 and X2.

N
•
Neett N Neett
The radius of the wire r is found using screw gauge.

l a
l i
a .i. •
a i .i.
The length of the coil L is measured using meter scale.
l l a l a
l i
a
sa
assaa aa aa
•
determined.
ddaass ddaass
From the values of X, r and L, the specific resistance of the material of the wire is

. P
. Paa . P
. Paa
ww
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (L\S)
w w w
w
da

wwwR X
www
D
G G
Pa

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 0
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa A
d
l aada
Jassaa B
a ddaasaa
s
w.

. P
. P . P
. P a
ww w w w
w
www + –
www
ww

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa aa aa
OBSERVATION (L\S)

ddaass d a
d s
a s
.P. Pa
length of the coil, L = 100 cm.
a . P
. Paa
Table 1
w w
To find the resistance of the given coil
w w w
w
www www
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N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i.
Before interchanging
l a
l i
a
After interchanging

assaa ssaa ssaa Mean

S.No.
R (Ω)
aadda
Resistance Balancing
length la R(100-l)
aa aa
Balancing
dd
length l Rl X1+X2

ww. P
. P
(cm) X1 = l (Ω)
w
w .P.P (cm)
X2 = 100-l (Ω) X= 2 (Ω)

1
w
www
1 38 1x62
w
www 62 1x62 1.632
38 =1.632 38 =1.632

N Nett
e
2 2 54 2x46

N Neett
54 =1.704
45 2x45
54 =1.637
1.6705

lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa aa aa
3 3 64 3x36 35 3x35 1.652

ddas
a s 64
=1.688
d a
d s
a s 64
=1.688

. P
.Paa . P
. Paa

.N
4 4 70 4x30 30 4x30 1.714

w w
w 70 = 1.714
www 70 = 1.714

5 www
5 74 5x26 www 25 5x25 1.712
74 = 1.757 74 = 1.667

tt
lai tt
6 6 77 6x23 22 6x22 1.742

i N
.i. Nee i N
.i. Nee
77 = 1.792
i
77 = 1.692

l a
l a l a
l a l a
l a
sa
assaa aa aa Mean resistance, X =1.687 Ω

ddaass ddaass
Table 2
. P Paa
To find the radius of the wire
. . P
. Paa
www Zero error = Nil
w w
w
da

www Zero correction = Nil

www
LC = 0.01 mm
Pa

Total Reading Corrected Reading

N Neett
Sl.No.
PSR HSC
N Neett = TR ± ZC

l a
l i
a .i. (mm)
l a
lai .i.
(div.)
= PSR + (HSC × LC)

l a
l i
a
assaa aa aa
(mm) (mm)
1 0
ddaass 54
d aa
0.54
d ss 0.54
a a
w.

2
. P
. P0a 54
. P
. P a0.54 0.54

www w w
w
3
www 0 54
www 0.54 0.54
ww

Mean diameter ,2r = 0.54x10-1 cm

N Neett N Neett
Radius of the wire, r = 0.27x10-1 cm
r = 0.27x10-3 m

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
r2 = 0.0729x10-6 m

assaa CALCULATION
Xπr2
aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P
i) P = L = 1.687 x π x 0.0729x10-6 = 3.863x10-7 Ωm
. P w
w. P
. P
RESULT w
www w
www
The specific resistance of the material of the given coil = 3.86x10-7 Ωm
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NNeett NNeett
lalai .i. 2. HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OFlalEARTH’S
ai .i. MAGNETIC FIELD l a
l i
a
assaa ddaass
USING TANGENT
aa
aaGALVANOMETER
aaddaassaa
w w. P
. P w w .P.P
AIM w
www wwww
To determine the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field
using tangent galvanometer.

Tangent galvanometer (TG), commutator, battery, rheostat, ammeter,

N Nett
APPARATUS REQUIRED
e N Neett
key and connecting wires.

lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa s aa
s s aa
s
µ0nk
FORMULA
aaddaa BH = 2r (Tesla)
ad
a a
d a
. P
.P I
. P
. P

.N
w w
w k = tanϴ (A)
www
www www
where, BH → Horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic fi eld (T)
µ0 → Permeability of free space (4π × 10−7 H m−1)

lai
n → Number of turns of TG in the circuit (No unit)

N Neett N Neett
k → Reduction factor of TG (A)

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
sa
assaa aa aa
r → Radius of the coil (m)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
ddaa
(L\S)ss ddaass
. P
. Paa . P
. Paa
www w w
w
da

www k + – www
Pa

N Neett N Neett TG

l a
l i
a .i. +A – l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa addaassaa
a ddaasaa
s
w.

. P
. P a . P
. P a
www w w
w
www www
ww

PROCEDURE

N Ne
•
et t a. eett
The preliminary adjustments are carried out as follows.
N N
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
The leveling screws at the base of TG are adjusted so that the circular turn table

assaa saa
s s aa
s
is horizontal and the plane of the circular coil is vertical.
b.
aaddaa ad
a a
d a
The circular coil is rotated so that its plane is in the magnetic meridian i.e.,

w
w .P. P
along the northsouth direction.
w
w. P
. P
• w
www w
c. The compass box alone is rotated till the aluminium pointer reads 0°−0°.
www
The connections are made as shown in Figure.
• The number of turns n is selected and the circuit is switched on.
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N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. •
l l i
a .i. l a
l i
The range of current through TG is chosen in such a way that the deflection of the
a a
assaa aa aa
aluminium pointer lies between 30°−60°.
•
ddaass ddaass
A suitable current is allowed to pass through the circuit, the deflections θ1 and θ2 are

. P
. Paa
noted from two ends of the aluminium pointer.
.P.Paa
•
ww w
w
Now the direction of current is reversed using commutator C, the deflections θ3 and
w w
• www
θ4 in the opposite directions are noted.
www
The mean value θ of θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4 is calculated and tabulated.
• The reduction factor k is calculated for each case and it is found that k is a constant.
• The experiment is repeated for various values of current and the readings are noted

N Nett
e and tabulated.
N Neett
lalai.i. •
l l i
a .i. l a
l i
The radius of the circular coil is found by measuring the circumference of the coil
a a

et
assaa aa aa
using a thread around the coil.
•
ddas
a s d a
d s
a s
From the values of r, n and k, the horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field is
determined.
. P
.Paa . P
. Paa

.N
w w
w www
OBSERVATION
www (L\S)
Number of turns of the coil n = 5
www

lai
Circumference of the coil (2πr) = 48.7×10-2

N Neett
Radius of the coil r =
48.7×10-2
m
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 2π
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
sa
assaa S.No Current I
(A)
aaddaasaa
s Deflection in TG
(degree)
aaddaassaaMean θ

ww. P
. P θ1 θ2 θ3
w
w . P
. P θ4
(degree)
k=
I

w w
da

www www
tanθ
1 1 47 47 45 45 46o 0.97

2 0.9 43 43 42 42 42.5o 0.98

Pa

N Neett3 0.8 40 40
N Neett 40 40 40o 0.95

l a
l i
a .i. 4 0.7 38
l a
lai .i.
38 38 38
l a
l i
a
38o 0.89

assaa addaassaa
a ddaasaa
s Mean 0.948
w.

CALCULATION
. P
. P a
(L\S)
. P
. P a
www w w
w
www
µ0nk 4π×10-7×5×0.98 4π2×10-7×5×0.98
BH = 2r = = 2×48.7×10-2 www
ww

48.7 -2
2× ×10
2π
[µo = 4π×10-7]

N Neett= 3.842 × 10-5 T

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. RESULT
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa aad aasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
The horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field is found to be 3.842×10-5 T
d
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
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N Neett NNeett
lalai .i. l
3. COMPARISON OF EMFa
l i
a .i.TWO CELLS
OF l a
l i
a
assaa aassaa
USING POTENTIOMETER
aadd aaddaassaa
AIM
w w. P
. P w
w .P.P
To compare the emf of the given two cells using a potentiometer.

w
www
APPARATUS REQUIRED w
www
Battery eliminator, key, rheostat, DPDT switch, Lechlanche and
Daniel cells, galvanometer, high resistance box, pencil jockey and
connecting wires.

ε1 l1

N Nett
FORMULA
e ε2 = l2
N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
where, ε1 and ε2 are the emf of Lechlanche and Daniel cells respectively (V)

et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
respectively (cm)
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths for Lechlanche and Daniel cells

. P
.P . P
. P

.N
PROCEDURE
w w
w www
www www
• The apparatus is arranged as shown in the circuit diagram.
• The primary circuit consisting of battery, key and rheostat is connected to the potentiometer in
series.

lai
• The positive poles of the cells are connected to terminals M1 & M2 and the negative poles to

N Neett N N ett
terminals N1 & N2 of the DPDT switch. The potentiometer is connected to the common terminals M
e
l a
l i
a .i. and N as shown in the circuit.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
sa
• Using the two-way key, Lechlanche cell is included in the circuit. By sliding the jockey on the

assaa measured.
aaddaasaa
s
aaddaassaa
potentiometer wire, the balancing point is found and the corresponding balancing length is

ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
• Similarly, the balancing length is found by including Daniel cell in the circuit.
w
www w
www
da

• The experiment is repeated for different sets of balancing lengths by adjusting the rheostat.
• From different values of l1 and l2, the ratio of emf of the two cells is calculated.

OBSERVATION (L\S)
Pa

N Neett N Neett
Table: To find the ratio of emf of two cells

l a
l i
a .i. S.No Balancing length for
l a
lai .i. Balancing length for
l a
l i
a
ε1 l1
=

assaa aa aa
Lechlanche cell, l1 Daniel cell, l2 ε2 l2
a
(cm)
dd ass (cm)
ddaass
aa aa
w.

1
ww. P
. P570
w
w . P
.
410
P 1.390

2 w
www 520 w
www 381 1.364
ww

3 462 341 1.354

N Neett
4 512

N Neett 380 1.347

l a
l i
a .i. 5 456
l a
lai.i. 342
l a
l i
a 1.333

assaa 6 563
aaddaasaa
s 418
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s 1.346

w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www Mean
ε1
ε2 = 1.355 (no unit)

N Neett N N ee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a 6|Page

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N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaassaa
aaddaassaa
CALCULATION (L\S)
w w. P
. P w
w .P.P
ε1 570 w w
w=w1.390
ε2 = 410
w
www
ε1 520

NNett
e ε2 = 381 = 1.364
N Neett
lalai.i. ε l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa s aa
s s aa
s
1 462
ε
=
2 341
= 1.354
aaddaa ad
a a
d a
. P
.P . P
. P

.N
ε1 512
w w w www
ε2 = 380
www
= 1.347
www

lai
ε1 456
ε2 = 542 = 1.333

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .
i . ε
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
sa
1 563

s
asaa ε =2 418
= 1.346
aasaa
s aassaa
P Paadd P Paadd
RESULT
w w. . w
w . .
w w
da

www www
Ratio of emf of the given two cells = 1.355 (no unit)

4. REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE MATERIAL OF THE PRISM

Pa

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. AIM
l lai .i. l a
l i
To determine the refractive index of the material of a prism
a a
assaa aa aa
using spectrometer.

ddaa ss ddaass
a a
w.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

. PP a
.   . . P a
Spectrometer, prism, prism clamp, sodium vapour lamp, spirit level.
P
www w w
w
www 



sin
A+D
2 www
ww

FORMULA (No unit)

A
sin 2 
 

N Neett N Neett
Where, μ → Refractive index of the material of the prism (No unit)

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa saa
s s aa
s
A → Angle of the prism (degree)

aaddaa ad
a a
d a
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
D → Angle of minimum deviation (degree)

DIAGRAMS
w
www (L\S)
w
www

N Neett N Neett 7|Page

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N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a C

assaa aaddaassaa
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w .P.P
w
www w
www
2 D

N Nett
e T
N Neett T

lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P

.N
w w
w www
PROCEDURE
www
1) Initial adjustments of the spectrometer
www
• Eye-piece: The eye-piece of the telescope is adjusted so that the cross-wires are seen

lai
clearly.

N Neett N Neett
• Slit: The slit of the collimator is adjusted such that it is very thin and vertical.

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
• Base of the spectrometer: The base of the spectrometer is adjusted to be horizontal
a
sa
assaa saa
s ssaa
using leveling screws.

aaddaa aaddaa
• Telescope: The telescope is turned towards a distant object and is adjusted till the clear

ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
inverted image of the distant object is seen. Now the telescope is adjusted to receive

w w
da

www www
parallel rays.
• Collimator: The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. Collimator is adjusted
until a clear image of the slit is seen in the telescope. Now the collimator gives parallel
rays.
Pa

• Prism table: Using a spirit level, the prism table is adjusted to be horizontal with the
N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
three leveling screws provided in the prism table.
2) Determination of angle of the prism (A)
l a
l i
a
assaa ssaa saa
s
• The slit is illuminated by yellow light from sodium vapour lamp.
ddaa ddaa
• The given equilateral prism is placed on the prism table in such a way that refracting
a a
w.

. P
. P a
edge of the prism is facing the collimator.
. P
. P a
www w w
w
• The light emerging from the collimator is incident on both reflecting faces of the prism
www
and is reflected.
www
ww

• The telescope is rotated towards left to obtain reflected image of the slit from face 1 of
the prism and is fixed.
• Using tangential screws, the telescope is adjusted until the vertical cross-wire coincides

N Neett
with the reflected image of the slit.
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
• The main scale reading and vernier coincidence are noted from both vernier scales.
a
assaa aa aa
• The telescope is now rotated towards right to obtain the reflected image from face 2 of

ddaass
the prism. As before, the readings are taken.
d a
d s
a s
.P. Paa . P
. Paa
• The difference between the two readings gives 2A from which the angle of the prism
w
w
A is calculated.
w w w
w
www www
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N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l l i
a .i.
3) Determination of angle of minimum deviation (D)
a l a
l i
a
assaa aa aa
• The prism table is rotated such that the light emerging from the collimator is incident on one of

ddaass ddaass
the refracting faces of the prism, gets refracted and emerges out from the other refracting face.

. . Paa
• The telescope is turned to view the refracted image.
P .P.Paa
• Looking through the telescope, the prism table is rotated in such a direction that the image moves
www w w
w
www
towards the direct ray.
www
• At one particular position, the refracted ray begins to retrace its path. The position where the
refracted image returns is the position of minimum deviation.
• The telescope is fixed in this position and is adjusted until the vertical cross-wire coincides with

N Nett
e
the refracted image of the slit.

N Neett
• The readings are taken from both vernier scales.

lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
• The prism is now removed and the telescope is rotated to obtain the direct ray image and the

et
assaa readings are taken.

a ddas
a aa
s
ad a
d s
a aa
s
• The readings are tabulated and the difference between these two readings gives the angle of
a a
. P
.P . P
. P

.N
minimum deviation D.

w w
w www
www www
• From the values of A and D, the refractive index of the material of the glass prism is determined.
Least count (L\S)
1 MSD = 30′

lai
Number of vernier scale divisions = 30

N Neett N Neett
For spectrometer, 30 vernier scale divisions will cover 29 main scale divisions.

l a
l i
a .i. ∴ 30 VSD = 29 MS
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
sa
assaa saa
s ssaa
29

aa daa
Or 1 VSD = 30 MSD
d aaddaa
ww. P
. P
Least count (LC) = 1 MSD – 1 VSD
w
w . P
. P
w w
da

www www
1
= MSD
30
= 1′
OBSERVATION (L\S)
Pa

N Neett N Nee
Table 1, To find the angle of the prism (A)tt
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa aa aa
Vernier A (Degree) Vernier B (Degree)
Image
ddaass ddaass
a a
w.

. P
. P a MSR VSC
. P
. P a
TR MSR VSC TR

www w w
w
www www
127°30’ 10’ 127°40’ 307°30’ 10’ 307°40’
Reflected image
from face 1
ww

Reflected image 249°30’ 10’ 249°40’ 69°30’ 10’ 69°40’

N N ett
from face 2
e N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. Difference 2A
l a
lai.i. 122°

l a
l i
a
122°

assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s Mean 2A=122°

w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P Mean A = 61°

w
www w
www
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l i
a
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a aa
s
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N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l l i
a .i.
Table 2 To find the angle of minimum deviation (D)
a l a
l i
a
assaa Image
aaddaassaa Vernier A (Degree)

aaddaassaa Vernier B (Degree)

ww. P
. P MSR VSC
w
w .P.P TR MSR VSC TR
w
www
Refracted image
155° 10’ w
www 155°10’ 335° 10’ 335°10’

195° 10’ 195° 15° 10’ 15°10’

Direct image

N Nett
e N Neett 40° 40°

lalai.i. Difference D
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s Mean D = 40°

. P
.P . P
. P

.N
CALCULATION (L\S)

w w
w www
sin 2 

www
A+D 

61°+40° 
sin 2



www
sin(50° 30') 0.77162

lai
µ= = = sin (30° 30°) = 0.5075 = 1.52
A  61° 
sin2  sin 2 

N Neett    
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. RESULT
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
sa
assaa saa
s ssaa
1. Angle of the Prism (A) = 61° (degree)

aaddaa a ddaa
2. Angle of the minimum deviation of the prism (D) = 40° (degree)
a
ww . P
. P ww. P
. P
3. Refractive index of the material of the Prism (μ) = 1.52 (No unit)

w w
da

www OF THE CONSTITUENT COLOURS OFww

5. WAVELENGTH
w
A COMPOSITE
LIGHT USING DIFFRACTION GRATING AND SPECTROMETER
Pa

N
AIM

Neett N N ett
To find the wavelength of the constituent colours of a composite light
e
using diffraction grating and spectrometer.

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa ssaa saa
s
APPARATUS REQUIRED Spectrometer, mercury vapour lamp, diffraction grating,

addaa a ddaa
w.

. P
. P a . . P a
grating table, and spirit level.
P
www sinθ
w w
w
www www
FORMULA λ= nN Å
ww

where, λ → Wavelength of the constituent colours of a

composite light (Å)

N Neett N Neett
N → Number of lines per metre length of the given grating

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
(No unit) (the value of N for the grating is given)

assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
n → Order of the diffraction (No unit)

w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
θ → Angle of diffraction (degree)

w
www w
www
10 | P a g e

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a .i. l a
l i
a
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a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa
Kindly send me yourP
questions P d aa
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N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. PROCEDURE
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa aa aa
1) Initial adjustments of the spectrometer

ddaass ddaass
• Eye-piece: The eye-piece of the telescope is adjusted so that the cross-wires are seen
clearly.
. P
. Paa .P.Paa
www w w
w
• Slit: The slit of the collimator is adjusted such that it is very thin and vertical.
www www
• Base of the spectrometer: The base of the spectrometer is adjusted to be horizontal
using leveling screws.
• Telescope: The telescope is turned towards a distant object and is adjusted till the clear
image of the distant object is seen. Now the telescope is adjusted to receive parallel

N Nett
e rays.
N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
• Collimator: The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. Collimator is adjusted
a

et
assaa aa aa
until a clear image of the slit is seen in the telescope. Now the collimator gives parallel

ddas
a s d a
d s
a s
rays. Grating table: Using a spirit level, the grating table is adjusted to be horizontal

. P
.Paa . P
. Paa
with the three leveling screws provided in the grating table.

.N
w
w
2) Adjustment of the grating for normal incidence
w www
www www
• The slit is illuminated with a composite light (white light) from mercury vapour lamp.
• The telescope is brought in line with the collimator. The vertical cross-wire is made to
coincide with the image of the slit.

lai
• The vernier disc alone is rotated till the vernier scale reads 00 - 1800 and is fixed. This

N Neett
is the reading for the direct ray.
N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
• The telescope is then rotated (anti-clockwise) through an angle of 900 and fixed.
l a
l i
a
sa
• Now the plane transmission grating is mounted on the grating table.

assaa aaddaasaa
s
aaddaassaa
• The grating table alone is rotated so that the light reflected from the grating coincides
with vertical cross-wire of the telescope. The reflected image is white in colour.

ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
• Now the vernier disc is released. The vernier disc along with grating table is rotated
w w
da

www www
through an angle of 450 in the appropriate direction such that the light from the
collimator is incident normally on the grating
• The telescope is then rotated (anti-clockwise) through an angle of 900 and fixed.
• Now the plane transmission grating is mounted on the grating table.
Pa

N N ett N N ett
• The grating table alone is rotated so that the light reflected from the grating coincides
e e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i.
with vertical cross-wire of the telescope. The reflected image is white in colour.

l a i
a
• Now the vernier disc is released. The vernier disc along with grating table is rotated
l
assaa ssaa saa
s
through an angle of 450 in the appropriate direction such that the light from the

addaa a ddaa
w.

. P
. P a
collimator is incident normally on the grating

. P
. P a
3) Determination of wave length of the constituent colours of the mercury spectrum

www w w
w
• The telescope is released and is brought in line with the collimator to receive central
www www
direct image. This undispersed image is white in colour.
ww

• The diffracted images of the slit are observed on either side of the direct image.
• The diffracted image consists of the prominent colours of mercury spectrum in
increasing order of wavelength.

N Neett N Neett
• The telescope is turned to any one side (say left) of direct image to observe first order

l a
l i
a .i. diffracted image.
l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa aa aa
• The vertical cross-wire is made to coincide with the prominent spectral lines (violet,

ddaass d a
d s
a s
blue, yellow and red) and the readings of both vernier scales for each case are noted.

.P. Paa . P
. Paa
• Now the telescope is rotated to the right side of the direct image and the first order
w
w
image is observed.
w w w
w
www www
• The vertical cross-wire is made to coincide with the same prominent spectral lines and
the readings of both vernier scales for each case are again noted.
11 | P a g e

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l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
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s
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Kindly send me yourP
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N N eet treadings are tabulated. N Ne ett

lalai .i. • The
l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa • The difference between theseaatwodda assaagives the value of 2θ for the particular aaddaassaa
readings

spectral line.
w w .P. P w w .P.P
w w w
w w w w w
• The number of lines per metre length of the given grating N is noted from the

grating.

N N eet t the values of N, n and θ, the wave length ofN N ee t t colours of the
lalai.i. • From
l a
l i
a .i.
the prominent
l a
l i
a

et
assaa mercury light is determined usinga
a ad d thes
a saaformula.
given
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P

.N
w w w w w
w w w
w w
OBSERVATION (L\S)
w
w

l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
lai l a
l i
a N
.i. Ne ett
To find the wave length of prominent colours of the mercury spectrum

l a
l i
a
sa
assaa a add
Diffracted Ray aas saa
Reading (Degree)
a ad da s
a aa
s
. P
. P . P P
.Difference
Colour of Light

w ww w w
w
www www
da

Left Right θ
2θ
Vernier A Vernier B Vernier A Vernier B (Degree)
(Degree)
Pa

eett eett
TR

TR

TR

VER A

MEAN
VER B
TR
VSC

VSC

VSC
MSR

MSR

MSR

MSR

VSC

l a
l i
a N
.i. N l a
lai N
.i. N l a
l i
a
assaaBlue 301°30’ 10’ 301°40’ 121°30’

ad
adaassaa
10’ 121°40’ 333°30’ 10’

aa aasaa
s
333°40’
dd
153°40’ 10’ 153°40’ 32° 32° 32° 16°
w.

Green 299°30’ 10’ 299°40’

ww. P
. P
119°40’ 10’ 119°40’ 335°40’
w
w . P
.
10’
P 335°40’ 155°30’ 10’ 155°40’ 36° 36° 36° 18°

Yellow 297° 10’ 297°40’w

www 117° 10’ 117°10’ 337°w
www 10’ 337°10’ 157° 10’ 157°10’ 40° 40° 40° 20°
ww

Red 294° 10’ 294°40’ 114° 10’ 114°10’ 340° 10’ 340°10’ 160° 10’ 160°10’ 46° 46° 46° 23°

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www

N Neett N N ee t t 12 | P a g e

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l i
a .
i . l a
l i
a
assaa dda assaa
d aassaa
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NNeett N Neett
lalai .i. DIAGRAMS (L\S) l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa aassaa aassaa
C C C

d d
C

P Paa d P Paa d
w
w . . w
w . .
www w w
www
T

N Nett
e N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa aa aa C

ddas
a s d a
d s
a s
. P
.Paa . P
. Paa

.N
w w
w www
www www
G

tt
lai tt
Y Y

i N
.i. Nee i N
.i. Nee
G G

i
l a
l a l a
l a l a
l a
sa
assaa CALCULATION (L\S)
aaddaa ssaa
aaddaassaa
ww . P
. P ww. P
. P
w w
da

wwλ =w
(i) For blue,
sinθ sin16° 0.263589
=
nN 5.9x10 =5
5.9x10 105= 4671 w
Åw w
= 0.04671x -5
Pa

NNee tt NN eett
l a
l i
a .i. (ii) For green, λ = nN = 5.9x10 = 5.9x10lal=a0.05237x10
sinθ sin18° 0.308983
5 i .i. = 5237 Å
5
-5

l a
l i
a
assaa a d daas saa
a ddaasaa
s
w.

. PP a
sinθ. sin20° 0.341964 . P
. P a
(iii) For yellow, λ w
=w = 5.9x10 = 5.9x10 = 0.05796x10 = 5796 Å w
w
www w nN 5 5
wwww -5
ww

sinθ sin23° 0.390698

N Neett N N ett
(iv) For red, λ = nN = 5.9x105 = 5.9x105 = 0.06622x10-5 = 6622 Å
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa RESULT
a a d d a assaa
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
1.
w P P
The wavelength of.blue
w . line = 4671x10 m -10
w
w. P
. P
2.
w w w w
The wavelength of green line = 5237x10 m
w
w
-10 w
w
-10
3. The wavelength of yellow line = 5796x10 m
4. The wavelength of red line = 6622x10-10 m

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
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N Neett N Ne ett
lalai .i. l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa aa ss aa
6. VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS
aad d
OF A PN JUNCTION
aa dd aas saa
DIODE
ww. PP w w .
. To draw the voltage-current (V- I) characteristics P P
. the PN junction
AIM
w
www w
wwandwforward resistance.
diode and to determine its knee voltage
of

APPARATUS REQUIRED
PN junction diode (IN4007), variable DC power supply,

N Neett N Nee tt
milli-ammeter, micro-ammeter, voltmeter, resistance and

lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.connecting wires.
l a
l i
a

et
assaa FORMULA
aRd
a d∆Vssa
aa a
= ∆I (Ω)
F

ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. PP F

. where, R → Forward resistance of thew

F
. P
. P

.N
w w
w w w
www F
www diode (Ω)

lai
∆VF → The change in forward voltage (volt)

NNee tt N N e etintforward current (mA)

l a
l i
a .i. PROCEDURE l a
l i
a .i.
∆I → The change
F

l a
l i
a
sa
assaa a ad da as saa
aaddaassaa
• In the forward w w . P
i) Forward bias characteristics
P
. P- region of the diode is connected to the positive
w w . P
. P
w w
da

andw w
bias, the
ww
terminal N-region to the negative terminal of the DC powerw
• The connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
w
supply.

• The voltage across the diode can be varied with the help of the variable
Pa

NNee t t
DC power supply.
N N eett
l a
l i
a .i. of 0.1 V up to 0.8 V and the forward current
• F

l a
la i ..
(I i) through the diode is noted
The forward voltage (V ) across the diode is increased from 0.1 V in steps
l a
l i
a
assaa ssaaare tabulated. saa
s
F

d da a
from the milli-ammeter. The readings
a a ddaa
w.

• The forward voltageP

. . P
V anda the forward current I are taken as positive.
. P
. P a
w w
F F

ww
forward
w
• A graph is drawn
current
w
w(I ) along the y-axis. F

www w
taking the forward voltage (V ) along the x-axis and the w
ww

• The voltage corresponding to the dotted line in the forward characteristics

gives the knee voltage or threshold voltage or turn-on voltage of the diode.

N Neett N Neett
• The slope in the linear portion of the forward characteristics is calculated.

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
The reciprocal of the slope gives the forward resistance of the diode.
a
assaa saa
s s aa
s
ii) Reverse bias characteristics
aaddaa ad
a a
d a
• In the reverse bias, the polarity of the DC power supply is reversed so that
w
w .P. P w. P
. P
the P- region of the diode is connected to the negative terminal and N-
w
w
www w
www
region to the positive terminal of the DC power supply
• The connections are made as given in the circuit diagram.
• The voltage across the diode can be varied with the help of the variable
DC power supply.

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
14 | P a g e
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NNeett NN ee tt
lalai .i. • The reverse voltage (V ) across the diodelaislaincreased
i .i. from 1 V in steps of l a
l i
a
assaa 1 V up to 5 V and the reverse currenta (Ia aa
R

d d a a s s ) through the diode is noted from

R

ddaass
• The reverse voltage.P P aa
the micro-ammeter. The readings are tabulated.
. the reverse bias voltage (V ) along negativew .P.Paa
• A graph isw w w w V and
R reverse current I are
R taken as negative.
w w
ww
and the
drawn taking
reverse bias current (I ) along negative y-axis.
R
R
www x-axis

MODEL GRAPH (L\S)

N Nett
e N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i.
F
)

l a
l i
a

et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P ∆F
. P
. P

.N
w w
w www Slope = ∆VF
www R
www VF
∆IF

lai
∆VF 11

N Neett N Neett Forward resistance =

slope
slope

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
sa
assaa aaddaasaa
s –I
aaddaassaa
w w. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w w
da

www www
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (L\S)

N P
Pa

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l ala i .i.
PN junction diode and its symbol
l a
l i
a
assaa mA d
+ a– d
a a ssaa
a ddaasaa
s
w.

. P
. P a + –
. PP a
. – +
w w
w w ww
wwVw + +
V) w
w w
ww

)
– – + –

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
15 | P a g e
a
assaa a s
a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa
Kindly send me yourP
questions P d aa
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NNeett N Neett
lalai .i. OBSERVATION (L\S) l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa Table 1
aa d d a a ssaacurve
Forward bias characteristic
a d
a a
d s
a aa
s
S.No. w ww . P
. P
Forward bias voltage V Forward
w
bias
w . P
. P
current I
w
F F

www (volt) www (mA)

1 0.42 0.1

N Nett
e 2 0.45
N Neet t 0.1

lalai.i. l a
l i
a .
i . l a
l i
a

et
assaa aa aa
3 0.48 0.2

dda ass d a
d s
a s
4
. PPaa 0.5
. 0.55 0.3
. P
. Paa

.N
w w
w ww w
5
www www0.9

lai
6 0.6 2.8

N Neett 7 0.65
N Neet t 7.3

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .
i . l a
l i
a
sa
assaa aa aa
8 0.7 21.2

dd a ass ddaass
9
. P
. Pa a 0.75 68.5
. P
. Paa
w w w w w w
da

Tablew
w
2wReverse bias characteristic curve www
Reverse bias voltage VR Reverse bias current IR
S.No.
Pa

N Neett (volt)
N Neet t (µA)

l a
l i
a .i. 1 0.1
l a
lai .
i . 1
l a
l i
a
assaa 2
add a
0.15assaa 1
a ddaasaa
s
w.

. PP a
. 0.2 .
1 w.
P
P a
www w w
www www1
3
ww

4 0.3

5 0.4 1

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 6
l a
0.5
lai.i. 1
l a
l i
a
assaa 7
aadda
0.6asaa
s 1
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P P
. 0.7 w .
1 w. P
P
8
w
www w
www

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. 16 | P a g e
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l i
a
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s
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N Neett N N e ett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa RESULT
a add aas saa
aaddaassaa
w w . P P
The V-I characteristics of the PN junction diode are studied.
. junction diode = 0.5 V w
w .P.P
w w of the diode = 12.5 Ω
i) Knee voltage of the PN
wwresistance
ii) Forward
w
www

N Nett
e N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P

.N
w ww ww w
www www
7. VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF A ZENER DIODE

tt
lai tt
AIM To draw the voltage-current (V-I) characteristic curves of a Zener

i N
.i. Nee i N
.i. N ee
diode and to determine its knee voltage, forward resistance and
i
l a
l a l a
l a l a
l a
sa
assaa aa1Z5.6V, variable dc power supply (0 – 15V),milli aa
reverse breakdown voltage.

dda as s d d a s
a s
APPARATUS REQUIRED
. P
. Paa
Zener diode
ammeter, volt meter, 470 Ω resistance, and . P
. Pa
connecting a
wires.
w w w w w w
da

www ∆V
www
RF = ∆I (Ω)
F
FORMULA
F
Pa

N Neett where, RF →
N N ett
Forward resistance of the diode (Ω)
e
l a
l i
a .i. ∆V → Thei.
l a
la i . in forward voltage (volt)
change
l a
l i
a
assaa aa The change in forward current (mA) aassaa
F

ddaa
∆s
Is
→ F
dd
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (L\S) a a
w.

. P
. P a . P
. P a
w ww w w w
www www
ww

N Neett N N e ett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa ssaa s aa
s
Zener diode and its symbol

aaddaa ad
a a
d a
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www

N Neett N Neett 17 | Page

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l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa a s
a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa
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questions P d aa
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N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. mA
l a
l i
a .i. mA
l a
l i
a
assaa aa aa
+ – + –

ddaass – ddaass
+
V) .P
. P aa + + +
1 .P. aa
P+ – +

w
w 1 (0 )
ww
wwww wwww
– – – –

NNee tt N N e ett
lalai.i. PROCEDURE l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa i) Forward bias characteristics aa
• In the forward bias,.P aa d d s saa
a ad a
d s
a aa
s
. P . P
. P

.N
the P- region of the diode is connected to the positive terminal
w w w w w w
www are given as per the circuit diagram. www
and N-region to the negative terminal of the DC power supply.
• The connections
• The voltage across the diode can be varied with the help of the variable DC power

lai
supply.

N Neett N Neett
• The forward voltage (VF) across the diode is increased from 0.1V in steps of 0.1V up
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
to 0.8V and the forward current (IF) through the diode is noted from the milli-
sa
assaa saa
s ssaa
ammeter. The readings are tabulated.

aaddaa aaddaa
• The forward voltage and the forward current are taken as positive.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
• A graph is drawn taking the forward voltage along the x-axis and the forward current
w w
da

www
along the y-axis.
www
• The voltage corresponding to the dotted line in the forward characteristics gives the
knee voltage or threshold voltage or turn-on voltage of the diode.
• The slope in the linear portion of the forward characteristics is calculated. The
Pa

N Neett N Neett
reciprocal of the slope gives the forward resistance of the diode.

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai
ii) Reverse bias characteristics .i. l a
l i
a
assaa a ssaa a saa
s
• In the reverse bias, the polarity of the DC power supply is reversed so that the P-
add a a dd a
w.

. P
. P a . P
. P a
region of the diode is connected to the negative terminal and N-region to the positive
ww
terminal of the DC power supply
w w w
w
www www
• The connections are made as given in the circuit diagram.
ww

• The voltage across the diode can be varied with the help of the variable DC power
supply.

N Neett N N ett
• The reverse voltage (VR) across the diode is increased from 0.5V in steps of 0.5V
e
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
up to 6V and the reverse current (IR) through the diode is noted from the milli-
a
assaa aa aa
ammeter. The readings are tabulated.

ddaass d a
d s
a s
• Initially, the voltage is increased in steps of 0.5V. When the breakdown region is

.P. Paa . P Paa

approximately reached, then the input voltage may be raised in steps of, say 0.1V
.
w
w
to find the breakdown voltage.
w w w
w
www www
• The reverse voltage and reverse current are taken as negative.
• A graph is drawn taking the reverse bias voltage along negative x-axis and the
reverse bias current along negative y-axis.

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
18 | P a g e
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a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa
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NNe tInt the reverse bias, Zener breakdown occurs at aNparticular

•e
N eet t voltage called Zener voltage V
lalai .i. (~5.6 to 5.8V) and a large amount oflalcurrent a i .i. flows through the diode which is the lalai
Z

assaa characteristics of a Zener diode. ss

• The breakdown voltage of a a dd aa aa
a ad da assaa
MODEL GRAPH (L\S) .
w w . PP the
ww . P
. P
Zener diode is determined from the graph as shown.

www w IZ www w

N Nett
e N Neett
lalai.i. ∆IF
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa -
-
a
Z

addas
a aa
s V
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
Slope = ∆IF
∆VF
R

. P
.P . P
. P

.N
w w
w www
www www
∆ F 1
Forward resistance = slope

l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
lai l
- IR
a
l ai N
.i. Neett
l a
l i
a
sa
assaa OBSERVATION (L\S)
aaddaa s saa
Table 1 Forward bias characteristic curve
aaddaassaa
w w . PP
. Forward bias voltage V w w . P. P
w w
da

www Forward biasw

F
S.No
(volt) ww (mA)
current I F

0
1 0.1
Pa

N Neett N Neett 0
l a
l i
a .i. 2
l a
lai .i.
0.6
l a
l i
a
assaa addaassaa 0.1
a ddaasaa
s
w.

3
. P
. P a 0.65
. P
. P a
www 0.6 w
w w
www 4 0.7
ww1.5w
ww

5 0.75

N Neett N Neet t 3.1

l a
l i
a .i. 6
l a
lai.i
0.8
. l a
l i
a
assaa saa
s s aa
s
4.5
7
aaddaa 0.85
ad
a a
d a
w
w .P
8 . P 0.9
6.5
w
w. P
. P
w
www 9 w
w w
8.4
w
0.95

10.8

N Neett 10 1
N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa a s
a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa
Kindly send me yourP
questions P d aa
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NNeett N Neett
lalai .i. Table 2 Reverse bias characteristiclal i
a
curve.i. l a
l i
a
assaa S.No.
a
Reverses
add aa saavoltage V Reverse bias current I
bias R

aaddaassaa R

w w . P
. P (volt) (mA)
w w . P
. P
w
www 1 4.5
wwww
0.1

2 4.75 0.1

N Nett
e 3
N
5
Neet t 0.2

lalai.i. 5.25la
l i
a .
i . l a
l i
a

et
assaa s aa s aa
4 0.4

ddaa s d a
d a s
5
. P
.Paa 5.5 1.4
. P
. Paa

.N
w w
w w w
w
www 6 5.75
www
7.3

lai
7 6.0 17

N Neett 8 6.25
N Neet t 26
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
sa
assaa saa
s ssaa
9 6.5 36.2

aaddaa aaddaa
w w . P
. P w
w . P
. P
w w
da

www of the Zener diode are studied. www

RESULT
The V-I characteristics
(i) Forward resistance RF = 25 Ω
Pa

N Nee t tThe breakdown voltage of the Zener diode V =N-5.6

(ii) knee voltage = 0.65 V
Ne ett
l a
l i
a .i. (iii)
l a
lai .i.
Z V
l a
l i
a
assaa a d da assaa
a d a
d s
a saa
w.

8. CHARACTERISTICS
EMITTERw . P
. P aOF A NPN-JUNCTION TRANSISTOR IN COMMON
. P
. P a
w w
CONFIGURATION
w ww
AIM www To study the characteristics and toww w the current gain of a
determine
ww

NPN junction transistor in common emitter configuration.

N Neet t
APPARATUS REQUIRED
ammeter, voltmeters,N
N e et t DC power supply and connecting
Transistor - BC 548/BC107, bread board, micro ammeter,milli

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. variable
l a
l i
a
assaa aa aa
wires.

d da as s dd aas s
.P Paa
. r = ∆V  (Ω), r = ∆V  (Ω), βw= w . P
∆I  . Pa a
w w w w
www  ∆I  w w
BE CE C

w  ∆I  (No unit)
FORMULA
 ∆I 
i
B VCE
o
C IB B VCE

Where, ri → Input impedance (Ω)

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
20 | P a g e

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a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa
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questions P d aa
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N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i.
∆VBE → The change in base-emitter voltage (volt)
l a
l i
a
∆IB → The change in base current (µA)
assaa aaddaassaa ro → Output impedance (Ω)
aaddaassaa
∆VCE → The change in collector-emitter voltage (volt)
ww. P
. P w
w .P.P
∆ IC → The change in collector current (mA)
w
www w
www

N Nett
e N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P

.N
w w
w www
www www

l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
lai l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
l a
l i
a
sa
assaa aaddaasaa
s
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w
www w
www
da
Pa

NN e e t t supply. N Ne ett
l a
l i
a .i. (i) Input characteristic curve: V vs I (V lconstant)
a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa s akeptaconstant.
iss saa
s
BE B CE

• The collector-emitter voltage a

Va aa
aad d CE

a ad d
w.

current (I ) isww . P
• The base-emitter voltage
. P V BEis varied in steps of 0.1V and the
. P
. P
corresponding
w w
base
B

• The readings
w
wwware taken till V reaches a constant value. www
noted.
w
ww

CE

• The same procedure is repeated for different values of VCE. The readings are tabulated.
• A graph is plotted by taking VBE along x-axis and IB along y-axis for both the values of

NNeet tV . N N e ett
l a
l i
a .i. • The curves thus obtained are called thelinput
CE

ala i.characteristics
i. of a transistor.
l a
l i
a
assaa (ii) Output
• The reciprocal of the slope of these
a a d a as acurves
s a gives the input impedance of the transistor. aassaa
Vdvs I (I constant) ad
a d
w
• The base current
w . P
characteristic curve:
I . P CE

is kept constant.
C B

w w . P
. P
• V is ww w win steps of 1V and the corresponding collector current
varied
CE
B

w w wwI is noted.
C

The readings are taken till the collector current becomes almost constant.

N Neett N N ee tt
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .
i . 21 | P a g e
l a
l i
a
assaa dda assaa
daassaa
Kindly send me yourPPa a
questions and answerkeys to us : PP d
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NNeett NN eett
lalai .i. • Initially I is kept at 0 mA and the corresponding
l a
l ai .i. collector current is noted. This l a
l i
a
assaa aaI . aa
B

aa s s
current is the reverse saturation current
• The experiment is repeated d d
CEO

d a
d s
a s
. P
. P a afor various values of I . The readings are tabulated.
B

. P
. P aa
w w
• A graph is drawn by
w taking V along x-axis and I along y-axis for
w
w thus obtained is called the output characteristicswwof w
CE
w w
various
C values of
I.
wof curves
• The set w
B

a transistor.
• The reciprocal of the slope of the curve gives output impedance of the transistor.

N Nee t tTransfer characteristic curve: IB vs IC (VCE Nconstant)

(iii)
Neett
lalai.i. l a
l ai .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa • The collector-emitter voltage V s
• The base current I is variedd
a a inda a sa
CEa
is kept constant.
steps of 10 µA and the corresponding collector currentd
aa Ida as sa
is noted.
a
P P the value of V . The readings are tabulated.ww.P
B

• This is repeated by.changing

. . P
C

.N
w w w w
characteristics is a plot between the input current IB w
CE

w
w
• The transfer
w
current I along y-axis keeping V constant.
C CE
ww along x-axis and the output

lai
• The slope of the transfer characteristics plot gives the current gain β can be calculated.

N Neet
(i)
tInput characteristic curve: V vs I (V constant) t (L\S)
BE

N Nee B
t CE

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
sa
assaa a ad daassaVa= 1V V = 2V
aaddaassaa
P P
CE CE

w w . P
. S. No V I w w. . P
w w
da

www w(μA)w
I
(V) w
BE V B
BE
B

(V) (μA)

1 0.1 0 0.1 0
Pa

N Neett N Neet0.2t
l a
l i
a .i. 2
l a
lai .
i . 0.2 0 0
l a
l i
a
assaa 3 d
a daassaa 0 0.3 0
a ddaasaa
s
w.

. PP a 0.3
. 4 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.1www. . P
P a
www
www www
ww

5 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.8

N Neett N Neet0.6t 4.1

l a
l i
a .i. 6
l a
lai.i. 0.6 4.1
l a
l i
a
assaa a
7
addaassaa 23.8 0.7 25.4
0.7
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P P
. 8 0.8 81.5 0.8 84.3 w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www
9 0.9 159.5 0.9 174

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
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a aa
s
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N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaassaa
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w .P.P
w
www w
www

N Nett
e N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P

.N
w w
w www
www www

lai
(ii) Output characteristic curve: VCE vs IC (IB constant) (L\S)

N Neett N NeetIt = 40 μA
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i.
IB = 20 μA B
l a
l i
a
sa
assaa S.
No d
a a a
dV ss
a aa ICCE
(mA)
V I CE

aadda
C
assaa
ww. P
. P (V) (V)
(mA)
w
w . P
. P
w w
da

www 1 0.1 1.4 0.1 ww3.1w

Pa

N Neett 2 0.2
N Ne t
0.2
e t2.8
7

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .
i . l a
l i
a
assaa 3
addaas
0.3
aa 3.0 0.3 7.7
s
a ddaasaa
s
w.

. P
. P a . P
. P a
www w w
w
www 4 0.4 3.0 0.4 ww7.8w
ww

N Neett 5 0.5
N Neet
0.5t3.0
7.9

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P 23 | P a g e

w
www w
www

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa a s
a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa
Kindly send me yourP
questions P d aa
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.
wwww w
www
Prepared by gokulnath alagesan

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. 6 0.6
l 3.0i.i.
a
l a 0.6 7.9
l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaas aa
s
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P
7 0.7 3.0 0.7 8
w
w .P.P
w
www 8 0.8 3.0 0.8 ww8 w w

N Nett
e N Neett 8
lalai.i. l
9
a
l i
a .i.0.90.9 3.0
l a
l i
a

et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P

.N
w w
w www
www IC ( www

l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
lai l a
l i
a NNeett
.i. Slope = ∆I l a
l i
a
sa
assaa aa aa
C

ddaass ∆V
dd
CE
aass
. P
. Paa . P P aa
= .slope
∆IC

www w ww 1
da

www www
Output impedance

V (V)
Pa

N Neett 0 ∆V

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa addaassaa
a ddaasaa
s
w.

1mA.P. P a . P
. P a
=w w w
w
∆I
∆V w w
C
Slope =
www
CE 0.5V
www
ww

N Neett
Output Impedance =
0.5V
1x10-3 eett
= 0.5x103 = 500 Ω
N N
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
24 | P a g e
a
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a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa
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NNeett N N e ett
lalai .i. iii) Transfer characteristic curve: I vs I l(Valai.constant)
i . (L\S) l a
l i
a
assaa a=1V
a aa
B C CE

dda a sVs CE V =2V CE

ddaass
. P
. P a
S.No a I I
.P.Paa
w w w I
C
I
w ww
C

www 1 10(μA) 2.4(mA) 10(μA) w w

B B

w
(mA)
2.4

N Nett
e N Ne t t 4.8
e
lalai.i. 2
l a
l i
20
a .i. 20 4.8
l a
l i
a

et
assaa 3 aadda s
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P 30 7.2 30 7.2
. P
. P

.N
w w
w www
www 4 40 9.6 40 w w
9.6
w

l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
lai 5
l a
l i
50
a N
.i. Ne
50
t t 12
e 12
l a
l i
a
sa
assaa 6 aadda s
a aa
s
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P 60 14.4 60 14.4
w
w . P
. P
w w
da

www 7 70 16.8 70 www

16.8
Pa

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa addaassaa
a ddaasaa
s
w.

.
IC (

P
. P a )

. P
. P a
www w w
w
www www
ww

∆I
Slope = ∆ICC

N Neett NNeett ∆
∆IIB

l a
l i
a .i. ∆IC

l a
lai.i. Current gain = slope l a
l i
a
B

assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
ww.P. P w w . P
. P
w
www0 ∆IB wwww I ( )

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
25 | P a g e

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a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa
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N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa aad a
d assaa
aaddaassaa
w w . P P
. ∆I 6mA 6000 w
w .P.P
Current w C
B
-6
w
wwgainwβ = Slope = ∆I = 25x10 A = 25 = 240 www
RESULT
i)t The input, output and transfer characteristics of the NPN
t
N Nee t N N ee tjunction

lalai.i. in common emitter mode are drawn.

l al ai .
i . l a
l i
a

et
assaa s aa s aa
Ω
ii) (a) Input impedance = 5555
dd aa s d a
d a s
. P a a
(b) Output impedance = 500
P Ω
β =.240 (no unit) . P
. Paa

.N
w w w www
www www
(c) Current gain

9. VERIFICATION OF TRUTH TABLES OF LOGIC GATES

lai
USING INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
N Neett
AIM
N N e
To verify the truth tables ofet t OR, NOT, EX-OR, NAND and
AND,

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l ai .i. circuits l a
l i
a
sa
NOR gates using integrated

assaa aad
COMPONENTS REQUIRED ANDd a as s aa
gate (IC 7408), NOT gate (IC 7404), OR gate (IC d
a a a
d s
a aa
s
ww . PP
. OR gate (IC 7486), Power supply, DigitalwICw
7432), NAND gate (IC 7400), NOR gate (IC
w .
7402),P P
. kit,
E-
w
da

www connecting wires. www trainer

BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS
Pa

(i)t t (iv) Ex OR gate Y = A̅B + t t̅

i NNee AND gate Y = A.B
N
.i. (ii) OR gate Y = A+B (v) NAND gatelalaiY.i=.𝐴. 𝐵 N ee AB
i
l a
l a l a
l a
assaa (iii) NOT gate Y = A̅
a
(vi) a
d d as
NOR
aa Y = 𝐴 + 𝐵
s
gate
a ddaasaa
s
w.

. P
. P a . P
. P a
w ww w w
w
www www
ww

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
26 | P a g e
a
assaa a s
a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa
Kindly send me yourP
questions P d aa
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NN ett
DIAGRAM (L\S)
e NN ee tt
lalai .i. AND GATE : l a
l i
a .i. OR GATE : l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaassaa
aaddaassaa
w
w . P
. P w
w .P.P
www w A
B 3
w
www
1

3
V 2

N Nett
e N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. A

l a
l i
B

et
assaa s aa
s s aa
s
0 0 0 0 0 0

aaddaa
0 1 0
ad
a a
d a
0 1 1

. P
.P . P
. P

.N
w w
w
1 0 0

www
1 0 1

www 1 1 1
www 1 1 1

l a
l i
a .
i N
. Neet t
NOT GATE :

lai l a
l i
a .
iN. Neet t X-OR GATE :

l a
l i
a
sa
assaa aaddaasaa
s
aaddaassaa
w
w . P
. P A
w w. P
. P
w w
da

www www
1 14

2 13

3 12
Pa

N Neett 4 11

N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. 5 10

l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa ssaa saa
s
6 9

addaa a ddaa
w.

.
8

P
. P a . P
. P a
www w w
w
www www
ww

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
27 | P a g e
a
assaa a s
a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa
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questions P d aa
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NNeett NNeett
lalai .i. NAND Gate: l a
l i
a .i. NOR Gate: l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaassaa
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w .P.P
www w A www w A
1
1 14
B 14

tt tt
13
2 13

i N
.i. Nee 3 12

i N
.i. Nee i
12
B

lala l a
l a l a
l a

et
assaa aa aa 11

s s
0

s s
4 11

a a
1
5 10

aadd a 1
ad
a d a 10
0

. P
.P . P
. P 1 0

.N
6

w w
w
9 1

www
www www
1
7 8
0

lai
PROCEDURE

N Neett N Neett
• To verify the truth table of a logic gate, the suitable IC is taken and the connections are given
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
sa
using the circuit diagram.

assaa aadd asaa

s
aadd assaa
• For all the ICs, 5V is applied to the pin 14 while the pin 7 is connected to the ground.
a a
• The logical inputs of the truth table are applied and the corresponding output is noted.
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
• Similarly, the output is noted for all other combinations of inputs.
w w
da

www www
• In this way, the truth table of a logic gate is verified.
RESULT
Pa

N Neett N N ett
The truth table of logic gates AND, OR, NOT, Ex-OR, NAND and NOR using integrated
e
l a
l i
a .i. circuits is verified.
l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa addaassaa
a ddaasaa
s
w.

. PP a
. OF DE MORGAN’S THEOREMSwww. . P
P a
w w w
www
10. VERIFICATION
www
ww

AIM: To verify De Morgan’s first and second theorems.

N Neett
COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Power Supply (0 – 5V),e
NN ICet7400,
t 7408, 7432, 7404, and
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. kit, connecting wires.
7402, Digital IC trainer
l a
l i
a
assaa aad d a a s saa
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
FORMULA
w .P P
De Morgan’s
w . first theorem 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴. 𝐵
w w. P
. P
w
wwwDe Morgan’s second theorem 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴+𝐵 www w

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
28 | P a g e

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a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa
Kindly send me yourP
questions P d aa
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N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: (L\S) a d
a a
d s
a aa
s
aaddaassaa
ww . P
. P w
w .P.P
w
wwfirstwtheorem
De Morgan’s
w
www

N Nett
e N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P

.N
w w
w www
www www
De Morgan’s second theorem

l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
lai Aa
l l i
a N
.i. Neett
l a
l i
a
sa
assaa aaddaasaa
s
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w w
da

www www
PROCEDURE:
Pa

N Nee
i)t tVerification of De Morgan’s first theorem NNeet t
l a
l i
a .i. l alai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa • The connections are mades
a d da a fora
s a [ 𝐴 + 𝐵 ] of the theorem as shown in the aassaa
LHS
a d d
w.

P P a
circuit diagram using
. .
appropriate ICs.
. P
. P a
w w w w w w
•w ww is noted and tabulated for all combinations ofww
The output winputs of the
logical
ww

truth table.

• The same procedure is repeated for RHS [ 𝐴. 𝐵 ] of the theorem.

N Nee t t N Nee tt
l a
l i
a .i. l a
• From the truth table, it can be shown
lai.i.𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴. 𝐵.
that
l a
l i
a
assaa aad
ii) Verification of De Morgan’s d a as sa a
second theorem
a ad a
d s
a a
s a
• Thew w w .P P
. are made for LHS [ 𝐴. 𝐵 ]of the theoremwas w w. PP
.in the
wwdiagram using appropriate ICs.
wcircuit
connections
www shown

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
29 | P a g e
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assaa a s
a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa
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www

NNeet•t N eett
The output is noted and tabulated for all combinations of logical inputs
N
lalai .i. • of the truth table.
l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa ssaa ssaa
The same procedure is repeated for RHS [ 𝐴 + 𝐵 ] of the theorem.
•
aaddaa aadd
From the truth table, it can be shown that 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴+𝐵aa
ww. P
. P w
w .P.P
w
www
OBSERVATION (L\S)
De-Morgan’s first theorem
w
www
Truth Table
A B
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴.𝐵

N Nett
e 0 0
N Neett
1 1

lalai.i. l a
l i
a
0 .i.
1 0 0
l a
l i
a

et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s 1 0 0 0

ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P 1 1 0
. P
.
0
P

.N
w
w
De-Morgan’s second theorem
w www
www Truth Table
A B
𝐴. 𝐵
www 𝐴+𝐵

lai
0 0 1 1

N Neett 0 1
N Neett
1 1

l a
l i
a .i. l a
l
1
i
a .i.
0 1 1
l a
l i
a
sa
assaa saa
s ssaa
1 1 0 0
RESULT
aaddaa aaddaa
ww. P
. P
De Morgan’s first and second theorems are verified.
w
w . P
. P
w w
da

GRAPH (B\S) www www

6. voltage-current (V-I) characteristics of PN junction diode.
Pa

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa aa aa
∆VF 2mA

ddaass F

ddaass
Slope = ∆I = 0.025V

a a
w.

. P
. P a . P
. P a 1 0.025
Forward resistance = Slope = 2x10-3 Ω

www w w
w
www www =
0.025x103
Ω
ww

2
25
= 2

N Neett N Neett = 12.5 Ω

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaasaa
s d a
d s
a aa
s
Knee Voltage = 0.5 V
aa
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa a s
a aa
s
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daassaa 30

Kindly send me yourP

questions P d aa
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wwww w
www
7. characteristics of a NPN Junction transistor in common emitter

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaassaa
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w .P.P
w
www w
www

N Nett
e N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
. P
.P . P
. P

.N
w w
w www
www www

l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
lai l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
l a
l i
a
sa
assaa saa
s ssaa
8. The voltage-current characteristics of Zener diode.

aaddaa
i) Input characteristic curve: VBE vs IB (VCE constant)
aaddaa
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w w
da

www www ∆IB

Slope =
∆VBE
Pa

N Neett N Neett 9µA

= 0.05V

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa addaassaa
a ddaasaa
s 0.05
w.

. P
. P a . P
. P aInput impedance = 9 x10-6 Ω

www w w
w
www www =
0.05x106
9 Ω
ww

50000
= Ω

N Neett N Neett 9

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a = 5555.556 Ω

assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www

N Neett N Neett
lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a
assaa s aa
s ssaa 31
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aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] daa
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wwww
ii) Output characteristic curve: VCE vs IC (IB constant)
w
www

N Neett N Neett
lalai .i. l a
l i
a .i. Slope =
∆IC
∆VCE
l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaassaa
aaddaassaa
ww. P
. P w
w .P.P
= mA

w
www 1 www w 0.5V

Output Impedance = 0.5V-3

N Nett
e N Neett 1x10

lalai.i. l a
l i
a .i. l a
l i
a

et
assaa aaddas
a aa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s = 0.5x103

. P
.P . P
. P

.N
w w
w www
www www = 500 Ω

l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
lai l a
l i
a N
.i. Neett
l a
l i
a
sa
assaa saa
s ssaa
iii) Transfer characteristic curve: IB vs IC (VCE constant)

aaddaa aaddaa
ww. P
. P w
w . P
. P
w w
da

www www
Current gain β = Slope
Pa

N Neett N Neett =∆
IC
∆IB

l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai .i. l a
l i
a
assaa aa aa 6mA
6 ‘

ddaass ddaass = 25x10-6 A

a a
w.

. P
. P a . P
. P a 6000

www w w
w = 25

www www = 240

ww

N Neett N Neett
l a
l i
a .i. l a
lai.i. l a
l i
a
assaa aaddaasaa
s
ad
a a
d s
a aa
s
w
w .P. P w
w. P
. P
w
www w
www

N Neett N Neet t“DON’T WATSE TIME,

lalai.i. l a
l i
a .
i . IT WILL WASTE YOURS AIM”
l a
l i
a
assaa a s aa
s a s saa
32
a
aaddand answerkeys to us : [email protected] d a
Kindly send me yourP
questions P d aa