1

1.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

Essential Definitions

- Element:
- Pure substance consisting of only one type of atom, represented by a chemical symbol.
- Cannot be broken into simpler substances via chemical means.
- Example: Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H).

- Compound:
- A pure substance formed by chemically combining two or more elements in a fixed ratio.
- Example: Water (\(H_2O\)), Carbon Dioxide (\(CO_2\)).
- Properties of compounds differ significantly from their constituent elements.

- Mixture:
- A combination of two or more substances physically combined but not chemically bonded.
- Retains the physical properties of individual substances.
- Examples: Air (homogeneous mixture), salad (heterogeneous mixture).

Types of Mixtures

- Homogeneous Mixtures:
- Uniform composition throughout.
- Example: Salt dissolved in water.

- Heterogeneous Mixtures:
- Non-uniform composition; components can be visually distinguished.
- Example: Oil and water, sand in water.

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States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas

Properties of Each State

Phase Changes and Energy

- Melting: Solid → Liquid (heat absorbed; particles overcome some
intermolecular forces).
- Freezing: Liquid → Solid (heat released; particles lose kinetic energy).
- Boiling: Liquid → Gas (heat absorbed; occurs throughout the liquid at
boiling point).
- Evaporation: Liquid → Gas (occurs at the surface, below boiling point).
- Condensation: Gas → Liquid (heat released).
- Sublimation: Solid → Gas (e.g., dry ice sublimates to carbon dioxide gas).

Heating and Cooling Curves

- Flat regions on the graph represent phase changes.
- Heat energy is used to overcome intermolecular forces rather than increasing kinetic energy.
 1.2 The Structure of the Atom

Subatomic Particles

Structure of the Atom

- Nucleus:
- Contains protons and neutrons.
- Positively charged.
- Contains most of the atom’s mass.

- Electron Shells:
- Surround the nucleus.
- Electrons occupy energy levels (quantized energy states).

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

- Atomic Number (\( Z \)):

- Number of protons in the nucleus.
- Determines the identity of the element.

- Mass Number A \)):

- Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
- \( A = Z + n \), where \( n \) = number of neutrons.
- Isotopes:
- Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
- Example: isotopes of carbon.
- Have identical chemical properties but may vary in physical properties (e.g., density, melting point).

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Isotopes in Detail

Definition
- Isotopes are forms of an element with the same atomic number but different mass numbers due to
varying numbers of neutrons.

Representation
- Isotopes are written as … , where:
- A = Mass number (protons + neutrons).
- Z = Atomic number (protons).
- X = Element symbol.

Properties of Isotopes

1. Chemical Properties:
- Identical for all isotopes of the same element (determined by electron configuration).

2. Physical Properties:
- May vary due to differences in mass (e.g., density, rate of diffusion).
Examples of Isotopes

Applications of Isotopes in IB SL Chemistry

1. Medical Uses:
- 131 I : Diagnosing and treating thyroid disorders.
- 60 Co: Cancer radiotherapy.
2. Industrial Uses:
- 14 C : Carbon dating for archaeological artifacts.
- 235 U : Fuel in nuclear reactors.

1.3 Line Spectra

Continuous vs. Line Spectra

1. Continuous Spectrum:
○ Contains all wavelengths of visible light without any gaps.
○ Produced by incandescent solids, liquids, or densely packed gases (e.g., sunlight passing
through a prism).
○ Appears as a rainbow-like spectrum.
 2. Line Spectrum:
○ Contains only specific wavelengths or frequencies of light, separated by dark regions.
○ Produced by excited atoms or ions emitting or absorbing energy.
○ Unique to each element (acts as a fingerprint).

Emission and Absorption Spectra

1. Emission Spectrum:
○ Created when electrons in an atom absorb energy and move to higher energy levels
(excited state), then release energy as they fall back to lower levels.
○ Energy is emitted as photons, each with a specific wavelength.
○ Appears as bright lines on a dark background.
○ Example: Hydrogen emission spectrum.
2. Absorption Spectrum:
○ Created when electrons absorb specific wavelengths of light to jump to higher energy
levels.
○ Appears as dark lines on a continuous spectrum background (wavelengths absorbed by
the atoms are missing).
○ Example: Used to identify elements in distant stars.

Convergence of Energy Levels

● As electrons move to higher energy levels, the energy gap between levels decreases.
● Lines in the spectrum converge (get closer together) at higher energy levels.
● At n=∞, the energy levels merge, corresponding to the ionization of
the atom (electron completely removed).
● Hydrogen Spectrum:
○ n=1: UV region (Lyman series).
○ n=2: Visible light (Balmer series).
○ n=3 and above: Infrared region (Paschen series).

Principal Quantum Number (n) and Sublevels

Principal Quantum Number (n)

● Represents the main energy level or shell an electron occupies.

● n=1,2,3,….
● Higher n means:
○ Higher energy.
 ○ Larger distance from the nucleus.
○ More capacity for electrons.

Sublevels

● Each energy level (except n=1) is divided into sublevels corresponding to the shape and type of
orbital.
● Sublevels are labeled as s,p,d,Number of sublevels = n.

Maximum Electrons in Each Sublevel

Electron Configuration Principles

1. Aufbau Principle:
○ Electrons fill the lowest available energy levels first before occupying higher ones.
○ Order of filling:
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle:
○ No two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
○ Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons with opposite spins.
3. Hund's Rule:
○ Within a sublevel, electrons occupy orbitals singly with parallel spins before pairing up.
○ Minimizes electron repulsion and increases stability.

Orbital Shapes and Characteristics

Atomic Orbitals

● Orbitals are regions around the nucleus where electrons are likely to be found.
● Each orbital has a characteristic shape and orientation.
1. s-Orbital:
○ Spherical shape.
○ One s-orbital per energy level.
○ Can hold 2 electrons.
 2. p-Orbital:
○ Dumbbell-shaped.
○ Three p-orbitals per energy level (
○ Can hold 6 electrons (2 per orbital).
3. d-Orbital:
○ Cloverleaf-shaped (some exceptions).
○ Five d-orbitals per energy level.
○ Can hold 10 electrons.
4. f-Orbital:
○ Complex shapes.
○ Seven f-orbitals per energy level.
○ Can hold 14 electrons.

Shapes Summary Table

Summary Table for Quantum Numbers

 1.4 mole
The Mole Concept

1. Definition of a Mole:
○ A mole is the unit for the amount of substance in chemistry.
○ One mole contains Avogadro's number (6.022 × 10²³) of particles (atoms, molecules,
ions, etc.).
○ It relates the macroscopic world to the microscopic world.
2. Molar Mass (M):
○ The mass of one mole of a substance (in grams per mole, g/mol).
○ Numerically equal to the relative atomic/molecular mass but with units.
3. Key Formulae:
Number of Moles (n)=Mass (m)/Molar Mass (M)
4. Avogadro’s Constant:
○ NA=6.022×10^23 mol−1.
○ Used to find the number of particles:

Number of particles=Number of moles×NA

Relative Atomic Mass (ArArAr)

1. Definition:
○ The weighted average mass of an atom of an element compared to 1/12 of the mass of a
carbon-12 atom.
○ No units because it is a relative measure.
2. Calculation:
Ar=[Sum of (isotopic mass × abundance)]/100

Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)

1. Definition:
○ The sum of the Ar values of all the atoms in a molecule.
○ Example: For H2O
○ Mr=(2×Ar(H))+Ar(O)=(2×1.01)+16.00=18.02\

2. For Ionic Compounds:

The term used is Relative Formula Mass, calculated in the same way as Mr.

Empirical Formula

1. Definition:
1. The simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.
■ Example: 6C6H12O6 → Empirical Formula: CH2O
2. Steps to Determine:
1. Find the mass or percentage composition of each element.
2. Convert masses to moles using: Moles=Mass/Molar
3. Divide all mole values by the smallest mole value to get the simplest ratio.
4. If necessary, multiply the ratios by an integer to obtain whole numbers.

Molecular Formula

1. Definition:
1. The actual number of atoms of each element in a compound.
■ Example: Empirical Formula: CH2O, Molecular Formula: C6H12O6
2. Relationship with Empirical Formula:
1. Molecular Formula = (Empirical Formula)×n , where
n=Molar Mass of Compound/ Empirical Formula Mass
3. Steps to Determine:
1. Determine the empirical formula.
2. Calculate the empirical formula mass.
3. Use n to scale up the empirical formula.
2
 2.1-ionic bonds
Definition of Ionic Bonding
1. Ionic Bond:
○ The electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions formed by the
transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal.
○ Metals lose electrons to form cations (+), and non-metals gain electrons to form
anions (-).
2. Key Characteristics:
○ Involves a large difference in electronegativity (>1.8 on the Pauling scale).
○ Creates a giant ionic lattice structure.

Structure of Ionic Compounds

1. Giant Ionic Lattice:
○ Ionic compounds form a three-dimensional repeating arrangement of ions.
○ Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl) has a cubic lattice structure where
each Na+ is surrounded by six Cl−and vice versa.
2. Features:
○ High coordination number (e.g., in NaCl, the coordination number is 6).
○ Strong ionic bonds throughout the lattice result in high stability.

Factors Affecting the Strength of Ionic Bonds

1. Charge of Ions:
○ Greater ionic charge increases electrostatic attraction and bond strength.
■ Example: Mg2++ and O2−− form stronger bonds than Na+ and
Cl−.
2. Ionic Radius:
○ Smaller ions have stronger bonds due to closer proximity of charges.
■ Example: Li+ forms stronger bonds than Cs+with the same anion.
3. Lattice Energy:
○ A measure of the energy released when one mole of an ionic lattice forms from
gaseous ions.
○ Higher lattice energy indicates stronger ionic bonds.
4. Polarizing Ability:
○ Small, highly charged cations (e.g., Al3+) can distort the electron cloud of large
anions, introducing covalent character and influencing bond strength.

Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds

 1. High Melting and Boiling Points:
○ Due to strong electrostatic forces in the lattice.
○ Example: NaCl melts at 801°C.
2. Hardness and Brittleness:
○ Hard because of the strong ionic bonds.
○ Brittle because shifting layers of ions cause like charges to repel, breaking the
structure.
3. Solubility in Water:
○ Many ionic compounds dissolve in polar solvents like water because the polar
water molecules surround and stabilize the ions.
○ Solubility depends on lattice energy and the ion-dipole interaction strength.
4. Electrical Conductivity:
○ Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state (ions are fixed in
the lattice).
○ Conduct electricity in molten or aqueous states because the ions are free to
move.

Worked Example
Why does magnesium oxide (MgO) have a higher melting point than sodium chloride
(NaCl])?

1. Charge:
○ MgO: Mg2+ and O2− have charges of ±2.
○ NaCl: Na+ and Cl− have charges of ±1.
○ Higher charges in MgO lead to stronger electrostatic attraction.
2. Ionic Radius:
○ Mg2+ and O2− are smaller than Na+ and Cl−, bringing charges closer
and strengthening the bond.
3. Result:
○ MgO has a higher melting point due to the combination of higher charge and
smaller ionic radii.

2.2 - Covalent Bonding:

Definition of Covalent Bonding

 1. Covalent Bond:
○ A bond formed by the sharing of electron pairs between atoms to achieve a full
outer shell (stable electronic configuration).
○ Typically occurs between non-metal atoms with similar electronegativities.

Structure of Covalent Compounds

1. Molecular (Simple Covalent):
○ Discrete molecules held together by strong covalent bonds within molecules and
weak intermolecular forces between them.
○ Example: H2OH_2OH2O, CO2CO_2CO2.
2. Giant Covalent (Macromolecular):
○ A continuous network of covalently bonded atoms.
○ Example: Diamond, graphite, silica (SiO2SiO_2SiO2).

Physical Properties of Covalent Compounds

1. Simple Molecular Structures:
○ Low Melting/Boiling Points: Weak intermolecular forces (e.g., London
dispersion forces, dipole-dipole).
○ Poor Electrical Conductivity: No free ions or electrons.
○ Solubility: Depends on polarity:
■ Polar molecules dissolve in polar solvents (e.g., H2O).
■ Non-polar molecules dissolve in non-polar solvents (e.g., benzene).
2. Giant Covalent Structures:
○ High Melting/Boiling Points: Strong covalent bonds throughout the structure.
○ Variable Electrical Conductivity:
■ Diamond: Non-conductive (no free electrons).
■ Graphite: Conductive (delocalized electrons).
○ Insolubility: Insoluble in most solvents due to strong bonding.

Single, Double, and Triple Bonds

1. Bond Strength and Length:
○ Single Bond: One shared pair of electrons (e.g., H−H, C−C).
■ Longest and weakest.
○ Double Bond: Two shared pairs of electrons (e.g., O=O, C=O).
■ Intermediate length and strength.
○ Triple Bond: Three shared pairs of electrons (e.g., N≡N, C≡CC).
■ Shortest and strongest.
2. Bond Characteristics:
○ More bonds increase bond energy but decrease bond length.
Coordinate (Dative Covalent) Bonds
1. Definition:
○ A covalent bond where both shared electrons come from the same atom.
○ Example: NH4+, CO.
○ Shown with an arrow pointing from the donor atom to the acceptor.

VSEPR Theory and Molecular Shape

1. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR):
○ Predicts molecular shape by minimizing repulsion between electron pairs.
○ Key Principles:
■ Electron pairs around a central atom repel each other.
■ Lone pairs repel more strongly than bonding pairs.
2. Common Shapes:

Electron Bonding Lone Shape Bond

Domains Pairs Pairs Angle

2 2 0 Linear 180°

3 3 0 Trigonal planar 120°

4 4 0 Tetrahedral 109.5°

4 3 1 Trigonal pyramidal 107°

4 2 2 Bent (V-shape) 104.5°

Bond Polarity and Molecular Polarity

1. Bond Polarity:
○ A measure of how equally electrons are shared in a bond.
○ Determined by electronegativity difference (Δ\DeltaΔ):
■ Δ=0: Non-polar covalent.
■ 0<Δ<1.8: Polar covalent.
2. Molecular Polarity:
○ Depends on the symmetry of the molecule:
■ Non-polar molecule: Symmetrical, dipoles cancel out (e.g., CO2, CH4).
 ■ Polar molecule: Asymmetrical, dipoles do not cancel (e.g., H2O, NH3).

Intermolecular Forces (IMF)

1. Van der Waals Forces (VDW):
○ London Dispersion Forces (LDF):
■ Present in all molecules, stronger in larger/heavier molecules.
■ Temporary dipoles due to momentary electron distribution.
○ Dipole-Dipole Forces (PD-PD):
■ Between permanent dipoles in polar molecules.
2. Hydrogen Bonding (H-Bonds):
○ A strong type of dipole-dipole interaction.
○ Occurs between HHH bonded to highly electronegative atoms (F,O,N) and lone
pairs on these atoms.
○ Example: Water (H2O) and ammonia (NH3).
3. IMF Strength Comparison:
○ H-Bond > Dipole-Dipole > London Dispersion Forces.

Worked Example
Why does water (H2O) have a higher boiling point than methane (CH4)?

1. Water:
○ Polar molecule with strong hydrogen bonding.
2. Methane:
○ Non-polar molecules with only London dispersion forces, which are much
weaker.
3. Result:
○ Stronger IMFs in H2O\ lead to higher boiling points.
 2.3 - Metallic Bonding:

Definition of Metallic Bonding

1. Metallic Bond:
○ A bond formed by the electrostatic attraction between positively charged metal
ions and a delocalized sea of electrons.
○ This bonding occurs in metals and alloys, where electrons are not fixed to any
specific atom but are free to move across the structure, contributing to the
conductivity of metals.
2. Key Characteristics:
○ The metallic bond is non-directional, meaning that the force of attraction is
spread uniformly throughout the metal.
○ The presence of delocalized electrons makes metallic bonds flexible and
conductive.

Structure of Metallic Compounds

1. Metallic Lattice:
○ Metals are arranged in a regular, repeating three-dimensional lattice structure.
○ The metal ions (positively charged) are surrounded by a "sea" of delocalized
electrons that move freely throughout the lattice.
○ Example: In a simple metal like copper (Cu), copper atoms are arranged in a
close-packed structure with delocalized electrons.
2. Types of Metallic Lattices:
○ Body-Centered Cubic (BCC):
■ Each unit cell has one atom in the center and eight atoms at the corners.
■ Example: Na, Fe at certain temperatures.
○ Face-Centered Cubic (FCC):
 ■ Atoms are arranged with one atom at each corner and at the center of
each face.
■ Example: Al, Cu, Au.
○ Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP):
■ Atoms are arranged in two layers with atoms at the corners of the
hexagonal base and additional atoms filling the center of the faces.
■ Example: Mg, Zn.

Factors Affecting the Strength of Metallic Bonds

1. Charge of the Metal Ion:
○ The higher the charge on the metal ion, the stronger the electrostatic attraction
between the metal ions and the delocalized electrons.
■ Example: Mg2+ has a stronger metallic bond than Na+ because Mg2+
has a higher charge.
2. Size of the Metal Ion:
○ Smaller metal ions allow for a more compact arrangement of ions, which
increases the strength of the metallic bond.
■ Example: Cu2+ has a smaller radius than Na+, leading to stronger
metallic bonding.
3. Number of Delocalized Electrons:
○ More delocalized electrons in the "sea" enhance the strength of the metallic bond
because there is more electrostatic attraction between the electrons and the
metal ions.
○ Example: Transition metals like iron (Fe) and copper (Cu) have more delocalized
electrons than alkali metals like sodium (Na), making their metallic bonds
stronger.

Physical Properties of Metallic Compounds

1. Electrical Conductivity:
○ Metals conduct electricity because the delocalized electrons are free to move
throughout the lattice and carry charge.
○ Electrical conductivity is maintained in solid, liquid, and molten forms of metals.
2. Thermal Conductivity:
○ Metals are good conductors of heat because the delocalized electrons quickly
transfer energy across the metal structure.
○ This is why metal pans, for example, heat up quickly.
3. Malleability and Ductility:
○ Malleable: Metals can be hammered into thin sheets without breaking because
the layers of metal ions can slide past each other while the delocalized electrons
keep the lattice intact.
○ Ductile: Metals can be drawn into wires because the electron sea allows the
atoms to shift without breaking the structure.
○ This is due to the non-directional nature of metallic bonding, where metal ions
are not held rigidly in place.
 4. High Melting and Boiling Points:
○ Metals generally have high melting and boiling points due to the strong
attraction between metal ions and delocalized electrons, which requires a lot of
energy to overcome.
○ The exact melting point depends on the strength of the metallic bond (e.g., Fe
has a higher melting point than Na).
5. Luster:
○ Metals have a characteristic shiny appearance due to the delocalized electrons
that reflect light.
○ The interaction of light with the electron cloud on the metal’s surface causes this
lustrous effect.

Worked Example
Why does magnesium (Mg) have a higher melting point than sodium (Na)?

1. Charge on Ions:
○ Mg2+ has a higher charge than Na+, which results in a stronger electrostatic
attraction between the ions and delocalized electrons in magnesium.
2. Size of Ions:
○ Magnesium has a smaller ionic radius than sodium, allowing the ions to pack
more closely, increasing the strength of the metallic bond.
3. Result:
○ Magnesium’s stronger metallic bonds give it a higher melting point compared to
sodium.
 2.4 - Bonding Triangle and Alloys:

Bonding Triangle
The Bonding Triangle represents the three main types of bonding: ionic, covalent, and
metallic. It helps visualize the relationships and trends in the bonding of different elements and
compounds.

1. The Triangle:
○ Ionic Bonding: Occurs between metals and non-metals with a significant
electronegativity difference (Δχ>1.8).
○ Covalent Bonding: Occurs between non-metals with small to no
difference in electronegativity (Δχ≤1.8).
○ Metallic Bonding: Occurs between metal atoms with a sea of delocalized
electrons, common in elements with low electronegativity (e.g., alkali and
transition metals).
2. Electronegativity and Bonding:
○ Ionic Bonding: The greater the difference in electronegativity, the more likely
ionic bonding will occur.
■ Example: Na+ and Cl− in NaCl (electronegativity difference =
2.1).
○ Covalent Bonding: Occurs when the electronegativity difference is small or
zero, leading to shared electrons.
■ Example: H2 (electronegativity difference = 0).
○ Metallic Bonding: Metals with low electronegativity form metallic bonds, where
electrons are shared freely between atoms.
■ Example: Fe, Cu, Al.
3. Intermediate Bonding:
○ Polar Covalent Bonds: Occur when the electronegativity difference is between
0 and 1.8, resulting in an unequal sharing of electrons.
○ Coordinate Covalent Bonds: Where both electrons in a bond come from the
same atom, common in complex ions like NH4+ or CO.

Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements, where at least one is a metal. Alloys are
designed to have improved properties compared to their constituent metals.

1. Formation of Alloys:
 ○ Alloys are formed by mixing metals or mixing a metal with a non-metal, resulting
in a mixture where the metal atoms are bonded with each other in a metallic
bond.
○ Alloys can be formed by either melting and mixing the components or
dissolving one metal in another.
2. Types of Alloys:
○ Substitutional Alloys: The atoms of one metal replace atoms of another metal
in the lattice.
■ Example: Brass (copper and zinc), Sterling silver (silver and copper).
○ Interstitial Alloys: The atoms of a smaller element fit into the spaces
(interstices) between the atoms of a larger element.
■ Example: Steel (iron and carbon).
3. Properties of Alloys:
○ Improved Strength: Alloys often have increased strength, hardness, and
durability compared to pure metals. This is due to the disruption of the metal
lattice structure, which makes it more difficult for layers of atoms to slide past one
another.
○ Corrosion Resistance: Many alloys have enhanced resistance to rust and
corrosion.
■ Example: Stainless steel (iron, chromium, and nickel) is resistant to
corrosion.
○ Improved Conductivity: Some alloys maintain or improve the electrical or
thermal conductivity of the base metal, though this can vary depending on the
alloy composition.

Common Examples of Alloys:

1. Brass (Copper + Zinc):
○ Properties: Stronger, more durable, and more resistant to corrosion than pure
copper.
○ Uses: Musical instruments, coins, plumbing fittings.
2. Steel (Iron + Carbon):
○ Properties: Increased strength compared to pure iron. The amount of carbon
affects the hardness and brittleness of steel.
○ Types of Steel:
■ Carbon Steel (low carbon content): Used in construction and machinery.
■ Stainless Steel (contains chromium and sometimes nickel): Highly
resistant to corrosion, used in kitchenware, medical instruments, and
architecture.
3. Bronze (Copper + Tin):
○ Properties: More durable and corrosion-resistant than pure copper.
○ Uses: Statues, coins, ship hulls.
4. Aluminum Alloys (Aluminum + Other Metals like Copper, Magnesium, Manganese, or
Zinc):
○ Properties: Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and strong.
○ Uses: Aircraft, automotive industry, packaging.
Worked Example
Why is stainless steel stronger and more corrosion-resistant than pure iron?

1. Addition of Chromium:
○ Chromium in stainless steel forms a thin protective oxide layer on the surface,
preventing rust and corrosion.
2. Effect on Strength:
○ The inclusion of chromium and sometimes nickel strengthens the lattice by
disrupting the structure, making it harder for dislocations (which cause
deformation) to move.
3. Result:
○ Stainless steel is both stronger and more resistant to corrosion compared to pure
iron, making it suitable for applications where both properties are required, such
as in kitchen appliances or medical instruments.