MECA0525: Performance and Dynamics of Vehicle

Homework 3 : Steady State Cornering

Question 2

ARNAUD STRAPART
S2304916

Academic year : 2023-2024

 1 Question statement
[1]: import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

Let’s consider a new Shell eco marathon prototype equipped with torque vectoring control system
able to control independently the e-motor torques applied at the two front wheels (See Fig. 2).
Applying different tractive/ braking forces enables to take a turn while keeping steering wheels in
straight position. The new facility is available in addition to the classic steering mechanics of the
vehicle.

The wheelbase L of the vehicle is 1,58 m and the distance between the rear axle and the center of
mass of the vehicle with its driver is estimated as c = 0,88 m. The front track is measured as t=0,50
m. The effective rolling radius of the wheels is Re=0,24 m.
The total mass of the vehicle including the driver is estimated by m=100 kg.
The cornering stiffness of the race tires is given by Cα = 200000 N/rad

[2]: L = 1.58 #[m]

c = 0.88 #[m]
b = L-c #[m]
t = 0.5 #[m]
Re = 0.24 #[m]
mtot = 100 #[kg]
Calpha = 20000 #[N/rad]

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2 To develop an augmented theory of the steady state cornering of
the vehicle equipped with steering system and electronic torque
vectoring system
2.1 Draw the sketch of the equivalent bicycle / single track model of the vehicle
with all its features and define the appropriate parameters
In the case of the Eco Shell Marathon Prototype, we have one wheel at the rear and we will consider
that behaviours of the left and right hand front wheels are not that much different. We can model
the vehicle as a single track vehicle known as the bicycle model or single track model.
Assumption of the single track model :
• Negligible longitudinal load transfer
• Negligible roll and pitch motion (= stiff vehicle)
• The tires remain in linear regime (valid if lateral acceleration < 0.4 g : linear behaviour of
the tire, roll behaviour and lateral load transfer is negligible)
• Constant forward velocity V
• Aerodynamics effects are negligible
• No compliance effect of the suspensions and of the body ( smooth ground to neglect the
suspension motion)
• Small steering angle at wheel δ << 1
• Symmetry plane in y = 0 : Jyx = Jyz = 0
• Small side slip angles αi << 1
The 2D model imply that :
V
tan(β) ≈ β = because β <<
u
We impose that V is constant :
p
V = (u2 + v 2 ) = u ⇒ v << u

The prototype is equipped with torque vectoring control system able to control independently the
e-motor torques applied at the two front wheels. we can define the torque on the center of the mass
in function of the torque applied on each wheel :

t Mf ront,lef t Mf ront,right
M= ( − )
2 Ref f Ref f
where t is the track at the front wheels and Ref f is the effective rolling radius.

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We are in a circular motion, which leads to V = ωz R :
• ωz = rotation speed about vertical axis
• V = tangent velocity
• R = radius of the turn
We have a linearized model with 2 DOF : - body side slip angle β ≈ tan(β) = v
R (form the small
angle assumption) - yaw velocity r = ωz = VR
The dynamic equations of motion are :
X
Fy = m(v̇ + ru)
X
Mz = Jzz ṙ = 0
The operating forces are the tires forces (aerodynamic forces can be neglected here)
We will use the physical representation, that means we will work with the modulus of the side slip
angles for next questions.

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2.2 Write the equilibrium equations of the vehicle
In the case of the additional steering effect by the application of different tractive/breaking forces
on the front tire, we have to take it into account in the equilibrium equation along Fy and Mz :
X V2 π
Fy = m cos(β) = Fyr + Fyf sin( + δ) + Fxf sin(δ)
R 2

π
M = cFyr − bFyf sin( + δ) − Fxf sin(β)b
2

By the assumption of the single track model : δ << and β << :

V2
m = Fyr + Fyf
R
M = cFyr − bFyf

2.3 Write the behavior equations of the tires and axles

We can define the behavioural equations of tyres by the link of the cornering forces and side slip
angles by supposing linear relationship (due to small slip angles):

Fyf = Cαf αf and Fyr = Cαr αr

where
∂Fy X
Calpha = − |α=0 > 0 and Cα = Cαi
∂α
i∈axle

The lateral forces depend only on the side slip angle apply on the tire. The tire forces are positive
in the schema, and in the equation Cα > 0 and α > 0 (from the modulus).

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2.4 Give the expression of the slip angles under the wheels in terms of the
geometrical parameters and of the velocity components
We can write the compatibility equation which shows the relations between velocities and angles
vf −vr
tan(δ − αf ) = and tan(αr ) =
uf ur

The sign - on the expression of the side slip angle for the rear wheel is because of assumption αr < 0
By the small angle assumption, we have that : tan(ϕ) ≈ ϕ
We can evaluate the velocity thanks to the Poisson transport equation : vp = vCG + ω × rP/CG

uf = u ≈ V and vf = v + br

ur = u ≈ V and vr = v − cr

By the hypothesis of small side slip by the single stack model ( V = rR) :
v + br b
δ − αf ≈ ⇒ δ − αf = β +
V R
−v + cr c
αr ≈ ⇒ αr = −β +
V R
This gives the correction due to side slip on the Ackerman angle :
L
δ= + αf − αr
R

2.5 Give the expression of the applied torque (and the related tractive forces)
to be developed as a function of the turn radius and of the vehicle velocity
We can apply the Cramer’s rule on the equilibrium equations to find the expression of Fyf and Fyr

c V2 M
Fyf = m −
L R L
b V2 M
Fyr = m +
L R L
Let’s insert the expression of the side slip angles in terms of lateral forces and cornering stiffness
(Remark : Cα < 0)
Fyf mc V 2 M
αf = = −
Cαf LCαf R LCαf
Fyr mb V 2 M
αr = = +
Cαr LCαr R LCαr

Inserting the values of the side slip angles as a function of the velocity and the cornering stiffness
of the wheels sets yields :

L M M mc mb V 2
δ= −( + )+( − )
R LCαr LCαf LCαf LCαr R

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 In the case of they are no steering angle, only the modification of the difference of speed on the
front tire can change the trajectory of the car (command by M)

M 1 1 L mc mb V 2
( + )= +( − ) −δ
L Cαf Cαr R LCαf LCαr R

By the definition of the effective cornering stiffness Cα∗ = ( C1αf + C1αr )−1 , we can define the steering
torque :
L mc mb V 2
M = (Cα∗ L)( + ( − ) − δ)
R LCαf LCαr R

2.6 Define the equation of the understeer gradient for this new kind of vehicle.
The understeer gradient is
mc mb Wf Wr
K= − = −
LCαf LCαr gCαf gCαr

• Weight on the front axle : Wf = mg Lc

• Weight on the rear axle : Wr = mg Lb
We have the same understeer gradient as for the steered wheel vehicle because it is a characteristic
of the vehicle and not of the steering/command system.

3 For the following numerical data and a speed V=10 m/s and turn
radius of R= 50 m, calculate the numerical value of
[3]: V = 10 #[m/s]
R = 50 #[m]

3.1 The understeer gradient

[4]: Calphaf = 2 * Calpha
Calphar = Calpha
K = mtot*c/(L*Calphaf) - mtot*b/(L*Calphar)
print(f"Understeer Gradient K = {round(K,5)} [rad/(m/s2)] = {round(K*(180/np.
,→pi)*9.81,3)} [°/g]")

Understeer Gradient K = -0.00082 [rad/(m/s2)] = -0.462 [°/g]

We have K < 0, which means that the vehicle is oversteer :

αf < αr

There are a larger directional factor of the front wheels

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 3.2 The steering angle to take the turn if it is applied alone
By supposition, it means that when the torque is null M = 0

[5]: delta_STR = L/R + K * (V**2/R)

print(f"Steering Angle = {round(np.degrees(delta_STR), 3)}°")

Steering Angle = 1.716°

3.3 The torque to be applied to take the turn using torque vectoring alone
That means that the steering angle is nul : δ = 0

[6]: C_eff = (1/Calphar + 1/Calphaf)**(-1)

print(f"Effective cornering stiffness = {round(C_eff,2)} [N/rad] ")
M = L*C_eff*(L/R + K * V**2/R)
print(f"Torque Applied without steering on CM = {round(M,2)} [Nm]")

Effective cornering stiffness = 13333.33 [N/rad]

Torque Applied without steering on CM = 631.04 [Nm]

t
M= ∆Mwheel
2Ref f

[7]: DeltaM = M*2*Re/t

print(f"Torque difference at the front wheels = {round(DeltaM,2)} [Nm]")

Torque difference at the front wheels = 605.8 [Nm]

We should have a difference of torque of 605.8 Nm between the left and the right front wheel.

3.4 The side slip angles under the wheels and the float angle at the center of
mass of the vehicle for the steering input
In this case, we consider that we don’t use the torque vectoring (M = 0) but only the steering angle
mechanism.

[8]: Fyf = (c/L) * mtot* (V**2/R)

Fyr = (b/L) * mtot* (V**2/R)
print(f"Lateral force at rear wheel : {round(Fyf, 2)} [N]")
print(f"Lateral force at front wheel : {round(Fyr, 2)} [N] \n")
alphaf = Fyf/Calphaf
alphar = Fyr/Calphar
beta = c/R - alphar
print(f"Side Slip Angle at front wheel : {round(np.degrees(alphaf),4)}°")
print(f"Side Slip Angle at rear wheel : {round(np.degrees(alphar),4)}°")
print(f"Drift angle at center of mass : {round(np.degrees(beta),4)}°")

Lateral force at rear wheel : 111.39 [N]

Lateral force at front wheel : 88.61 [N]

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 Side Slip Angle at front wheel : 0.1596°
Side Slip Angle at rear wheel : 0.2538°
Drift angle at center of mass : 0.7546°
We can check the result with the understeer gradient.
We have αr > αf , that verify the previous result : we have an oversteer vehicle

3.5 The side slip angles under the wheels and the float angle at the center of
mass of the vehicle for the torque input
In this case, we consider that we don’t use the steering mechanism : δ = 0 . The torque applied on
the center of mass is M = 631.04 N

[9]: Fyf = (c/L) * mtot* (V**2/R) - M/L

Fyr = (b/L) * mtot* (V**2/R) + M/L
print(f"Lateral force at rear wheel : {round(Fyf, 2)} [N]")
print(f"Lateral force at front wheel : {round(Fyr, 2)} [N] \n")
alphaf = Fyf/Calphaf
alphar = Fyr/Calphar
beta = c/R - alphar
print(f"Side Slip Angle at front wheel : {round(np.degrees(alphaf),4)}°")
print(f"Side Slip Angle at rear wheel : {round(np.degrees(alphar),4)}°")
print(f"Drift angle at center of mass : {round(np.degrees(beta),4)}°")

Lateral force at rear wheel : -288.0 [N]

Lateral force at front wheel : 488.0 [N]

Side Slip Angle at front wheel : -0.4125°

Side Slip Angle at rear wheel : 1.398°
Drift angle at center of mass : -0.3896°
We can check the result with the understeer gradient.
We have αr > αf , that verify the previous result : we have an oversteer vehicle
In this case, we have Fyf < 0, the force is directed to the left and αf to the right (also β).

3.6 The yaw and acceleration gain for the torque vectoring alone
[10]: Gay_STR = (V**2/R) / (M *9.81)
Gr_STR = V/(R*M)
print(f"Lateral acceleration gain {round(Gay_STR,5)} [g/Nm]")
print(f"Yaw velocity gain {round(Gr_STR,4)} [1/sec]")

Lateral acceleration gain 0.00032 [g/Nm]

Yaw velocity gain 0.0003 [1/sec]

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 3.7 The yaw and acceleration for the steering input alone
[11]: Gay_STR = (V**2) / (R*np.degrees(delta_STR) *9.81)
Gr_STR = V/(R*delta_STR)
print(f"Lateral acceleration gain {round(Gay_STR,5)} [g/deg]")
print(f"Yaw velocity gain {round(Gr_STR,4)} [1/sec]")

Lateral acceleration gain 0.11879 [g/deg]

Yaw velocity gain 6.6768 [1/sec]

4 Since the friction coefficient between the tire and the road is
bounded by μ=0,8 and the tractive torque is developed by a small
e-motor, comment and discuss the feasibility of using a steering
system based solely on the torque vectoring compared to a pure
steering mechanism. Discuss additional features to improve the
situation.
The torque transmitted by the engine to the two front wheels depends on their ability to adhere to
F
the ground. Given that µ = Fyz < 0.8, the lateral force cannot exceed 80% of the weight applied to
the front axle. The vehicle’s mass is minimized to meet the Eco Shell constraint, resulting in a low
capacity to resist to vertical force.
This mass factor impacts the ability to turn at low speeds. Indeed, at low speeds, the lateral force
can be approximated as:
c V2 M M
Fyf = mtot − ≈−
L R L L
Thus, the torque must be very high to achieve a sufficient slip angle for maneuvering. This demon-
strates that it is impossible to rely solely on this system at low speeds due to the vehicle’s low mass
and consequent lack of wheel adhesion.
Now, at higher speeds, as observed in point C, the torque required to be applied at the center
of mass is 681.01 Nm, and this involves a torque variation between the front left and front right
wheels of 605.8 Nm to turn at 36 km/h on a curve with a radius of 50 meters. It is clear that the
torque values are high for a relatively small turn, and a small electric motor would be incapable of
generating such torque. Considering that the goal is to minimize the system’s mass to save as much
fuel as possible, this steering choice is not ideal because it would require a large electric motor.
Furthermore, the vehicle’s architecture imposes that there is only one rear wheel. Assuming µ = 0.8,
the lateral forces on the rear wheel should not be too high to avoid wheel slip (from the small mass of
the vehicle). For the same turn as previously, a force of 488 N was found. This value is significantly
higher than the maximum capacity dictated by the vehicle’s mass, and represents almost 4 times
the value found for a system with a steering wheel.
The solution would be to combine the two systems to reduce the lateral forces on the front axle,
thereby allowing for better control of the vehicle. However, adding this steering system would result
in the lateral forces being handled solely by the rear wheel, increasing the likelihood of rear wheel
slip due to lack of adhesion.

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One solution could be to add another wheel at the rear to distribute the forces over two tires instead
of one, but this would significantly increase the vehicle’s weight. In my opinion, a simpler approach
would be to control the rear tire slip angle and adjust it according to the speed. By reducing αr ,
the cornering coefficient would be lowered, thus reducing the lateral forces.

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