Maath Mohammad et al.

, Cogent Engineering (2023), 10: 2283343

https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2023.2283343

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING | RESEARCH ARTICLE - REPLICATION

STUDY
Study of welding parameters’ effects on residual
stress and hardness in 316 stainless steel pipes:
Experimental and analytical investigations
Received: 18 June 2023
Accepted: 09 November 2023 Haider Maath Mohammad1, Usama J. Naeem2 and Nuha Hadi Jasim Al Hasan1*
*Corresponding author: Nuha Hadi
Jasim Al Hasan, Department of Abstract: During service, residual stresses are generated as a result of plastic
Materials Engineering, College of deformation induced by mechanical loads, thermal loads, or variations in the
Engineering, University of Basrah,
Basrah, Iraq applied welding. Despite extensive research on welding processes, there remains
E-mail: [email protected]
a significant gap in understanding the combined effects of different welding para­
Reviewing editor: meters on the residual stresses and hardness of welded 316 stainless steel pipes.
D T Pham, School of Mechanical
Engineering, University of This study addresses this gap by systematically examining parameters of welding
Birmingham, United kingdom
currents (90, 100, 110, 120, 140, and 160A), metal wire types (6010, 6013, and
Additional information is available at 7018), and wire diameters (3.2 and 2.25 mm), to provide a comprehensive analysis
the end of the article
of their impact on mechanical properties. As part of the experimental work, arc
welding, hardness tests, and X-ray diffraction tests were conducted. In different
welding conditions, residual stresses increase as the hardness decreases, according
to theoretical calculations based on X-ray diffraction analysis. It is observed that as
residual stresses increase, hardness levels decrease, providing valuable insight into
the relationship between these factors. In this systematic investigation, existing
knowledge is extended.

Subjects: Metals & Alloys; Mechanical Engineering

Keywords: residual stresses; hardness; welding joint; welding parameters

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Haider Maath Mohammad was born in Basrah, Iraq, on 1976. He was graduated from the department
of mechanical engineering, University of Basrah, College of Engineering. His areas of interest are
material selection design, corrosion, fracture mechanisms related topics. His publications in the field
of applied mechanics in the different journal. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0957-1980

Haider Maath
Mohammad

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribu­
tion, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on
which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in
a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.

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1. Introduction
In some of manufacturing processes, the residual stresses result from exiting heat and mechanical
forming process. Changes in geometrical shapes and properties have often produced residual stresses
in materials (Akinlabi et al., 2018). To investigate the influence of various manual welding process
parameters on the mechanical and microstructural properties of 316 stainless steel pipes, both
experimental and theoretical studies have been carried out. Shielded metal arc welding, also known
as stick welding, has involved melting and metals being joined by heating them using an electric arc
formed between a rod-like metal and electrode. A welding cable has established a connection
between the electrode holder and a terminal of the power source, and another cable has established
a connection between the workpiece and the remaining terminal. Welding has involved three primary
concerns: A solidified weld metal (W.M.) has consisted of base metals or base metals and filler metals,
Heat-affected zone (HAZ) has been a region wherein the base metal has undergone heating at high
temperatures but below the melting point, A base metal (B.M.) has been subjected to moderate
heating or has remained unheated altogether (Handbook, 1993; Series, 1988).

In the realm of experimental investigation, Karadeniz et al. (2007) have underscored the
significance of welding parameters on the depth of penetration in Erdemir 6842 steel, highlighting
the direct correlation with welding current and the influence of arc voltage. The practical applica­
tion of these findings is crucial for selecting optimal welding parameters to enhance penetration
levels and overall weld quality in similar steel applications. Tseng and Hsu (2011) directed their
study toward the effects of the activated tungsten inert gas welding process on 316 L stainless
steel, exploring the impacts of various oxide fluxes on weld morphology, angular distortion, delta-
ferrite content, and hardness, thereby providing a comprehensive overview of weld quality deter­
minants. The investigation by Ranjbarnodeh et al. (2015) on dissimilar TIG welds between low
carbon steel and ferritic stainless steel has shed light on the importance of understanding residual
stress origins to manage them effectively during welding, with special focus given to a thermo-
mechanical model for prediction and control.

When it comes to modeling and theoretical insights, the relationship between welding parameters
and residual stresses has been thoroughly explored. Wang et al. (1999) have documented how
residual stresses can alter thermal expansion behavior, while Li (2016) utilized in-situ deflection
and X-ray diffraction to investigate these stresses in oxide scale formation. Bastola et al. (2023)
brought attention to the generation of residual stresses in metal additive manufacturing due to
thermal energy and thermal cycling, emphasizing the complex interplay between thermal dynamics
and material behavior. Kumar and Nagamani Jaya (2023) have added to this narrative by discussing
the significant role of residual stresses in material reinforcement, indicating how these stresses
induce compressive states that influence the mechanical behavior of reinforced materials.

The connection between welding parameters, residual stresses, and material hardness in 316
stainless steel pipes is a critical aspect that has been meticulously investigated in the present study.
By utilizing shielded metal arc welding and varying welding currents and wire diameters, the study has
examined how these parameters affect the residual stresses and hardness, using a combination of arc
welding, hardness tests, and X-ray diffraction. The findings underscore the intricate relationship
between welding conditions and the resultant mechanical properties of the welded components.

Furthermore, factors such as electrode type, welding technique, welder skill, and joint design are
highlighted as determinants of weld quality. The implications of SMAW in producing high-quality
welds are evident in its application in industries that demand impeccable welding standards, such
as submarine hull construction and high-pressure pipeline fabrication. Cruz et al. (2020) have
provided insights into the corrosion characteristics of SLM-316 L specimens under residual stresses,
while Wu et al. (2020) leveraged machine learning algorithms to untangle the complex variables
affecting residual stresses in different alloys. Chao et al. (2021) have examined the effect of heat
treatments on residual stress in 316 L steel produced by selective laser melting, establishing
a correlation with microstructural changes, which aids in optimizing structural designs.

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In the quest for enhancing the microstructure and mechanical properties of 316 stainless steel,
Guan et al. (2021) have implemented laser shock peening, revealing its efficacy in improving micro­
defects, microhardness, and introducing beneficial compressive residual stress. Conversely, Sander
et al. (2021) found that rapid heating and cooling-induced residual stresses could lead to corrosion
and pitting in 316 L stainless steel, although not affecting the passivity of the material. Finally, the
study points to the essential nature of further research into the specific effects of activated welding
parameters on SS 316, a material widely used across numerous industries, which informs subsequent
practical applications and contributes to the broader knowledge base in welding science.

2. Methodology

2.1. Preparation of welding samples

The samples of stainless steel 316 pipes were cut to exact dimensions 100 mm for each pipe diameter
and thickness 8 mm, as shown in Figure 1, ground with a 45-degree angle with a grinder machine, and
tested for fit or matching. Welding process was done according to AWS standard (American Welding
Society Committee on Piping and Tubing, 1986), using arc welding. Wire types (6010, 6013, and 7018)
and welding currents (90, 100, 110, 120, 140, and 160A) during the welding process.

2.2. Hardness test

The Rockwell test is conducted at an ambient temperature of 10°C to 35°C and is used to
determine the depth of penetration of a 1/16-inch steel ball into the specimen. Initially, a minor
load of 10 kg is applied for a duration of 10 s. Subsequently, a major load of 100 kg is employed to
deepen the indentation, which is maintained for 15 s to ensure consistent results. Detailed
information about the measured hardness can be found in ASTM E18 (ASTM, 2003)

2.3. X-ray diffraction and residual stresses calculations

Williamson-Hall (W-H) plots, which are also known as Warren-Averbach plots, are used to analyze
broadening of diffraction peaks in X-ray or neutron diffraction data. It provides information about
the material’s microstructural parameters, such as the size of crystallites and microstrain.

The W-H plot is constructed by plotting the integral breadth (β) of the diffraction peak as
a function of the scattering vector (4πsin(θ)/λ), where θ is the diffraction angle and λ is the
wavelength of the incident radiation. Integral breadth represents the angular range over which
the peak is observed and is related to the full width at half maximum (FWHM). In the W-H plot, the
integral breadth is plotted against the scattering vector squared (s^2) on a linear scale. The plot
typically exhibits a linear relationship. A linear relationship is represented by a slope equal to the
inverse of crystallite size and an intercept equal to microstrain according to the Williamson-Hall
equation. The Williamson-Hall equation is given by (Prabhu et al., 2014):

Where:
β is the integral breadth of the diffraction peak.
θ is the diffraction angle.
K is a shape factor related to the sample and instrument geometry.
λ is the wavelength of the incident radiation.
D is the crystallite size.
ε is the microstrain.

3. Results and discussions

Residual stresses can be caused by the thermal expansion behavior of a uniform material under
a gradient temperature (Ericsson, 1986; Kruth et al., 2010). Different thermal expansion coeffi­
cients in a multiphase material (Uebing et al., 2021) and different densities change due to phase

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Figure 1. Flow chart of stainless

steel 316 pipe welding.
Collect Stainless Steel 316 samples

Cut samples (100 mm pipe diameter

and thickness 8 mm)

Ground with a 45-degree angle with a

grinder machine,

Set up arc welding equipment:

- Welding currents (90A, 100A, 110A,

120A, 140A, 160A)

- Metal wire types (6010, 6013, 7018)

- Wire diameters (3.2mm, 2.25mm)

welded sample result

Sample of
stainless steel
316 pipe
welding

Conduct hardness tests and X-ray

diffraction on the welded samples

Data Analysis

transitions in the metal, leading to residual stresses. So that external and internal oxidation may
cause growth stresses (Bertali et al., 2016; Jasim, 2007; Mohammad et al., 2022; Ochał et al., 2021;
Tewari et al., 2010). An X-ray diffractometer was used to perform X-ray diffraction (XRD) with Cu Kα
radiation at 1.5406 Å wavelength. The dimensions for the sample inspection are (50 mm long, 50
mm wide, and 8 mm thick), angles of incidence ranged from 10° to 90°. Results of XRD analyses are
based on scattering angles, wavelengths, and incident angles of X-ray beams on crystalline
specimen surfaces. Figure 2 illustrates the X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of eight samples that
were exposed to varying welding parameters at welding magnitude (W.M.). Specifically, the
analysis includes the following configurations: Sample A with wire 6010 at a diameter of 3.2 mm
and a current of 90A, Sample B with the same wire and diameter at a current of 100A, Sample

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Figure 2. XRD analysis for

A-(wire 6010, d = 3.2 mm, cur­
rent = 90A), B-(wire 6010, d =
(011) A-wire 6010, d=3.2mm,
3.2 mm, current = 100A), C-(wire
6010, d = 3.2 mm, current =
current=90A
110A), D-(wire 6013, d = 2.25
mm, current = 90A), E-(wire
6013, d = 2.25 mm, current =
110A), F-(wire 6013, d = 2.25
mm, current = 120A), G-(wire
7018, d = 3.2 mm, current =
140A) and H-(wire 7018, d = 3.2
mm, current = 160A).

(011) B-wire 6010, d=3.2mm,

current=100A

(011) C-wire 6010, d=3.2mm,

current=110A

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Figure 2. (Continued)

(011) D-wire 6013, d=2.25mm,

current=90A

(011) E-wire 6013, d=2.25mm,

current=110A

(011) F-wire 6013, d=2.25mm,

current=120A

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Figure 2. (Continued)

(011) G-wire 7018, d=3.2mm,

current=140A

(011) H-wire 7018, d=3.2mm,

current=160A

C using the same wire at a current of 110A, Sample D employing wire 6013 at a diameter of 2.25
mm and a current of 90A, Sample E with wire 6013 at the same diameter and a current of 110A,
Sample F with wire 6013 at a current of 120A, Sample G utilizing wire 7018 at a diameter of 3.2
mm and a current of 140A, and Sample H with wire 7018 at the same diameter but a higher
current of 160A. As you can see from the chart, the samples were welded under the specified
conditions, which resulted in the crystallographic structure and phase composition of the samples.
A single peak detected in an X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern, particularly in stainless steel 316 (SS
316), can indicate a few scenarios. SS 316 is an austenitic grade of stainless steel, meaning its
primary crystal structure is face-centered cubic. As indicated, the peak between 40 and 50 degrees
could correspond to the (011) plane, which is typically the most intense peak for BCC structures.
The reasons for observing only one peak could be the orientation of the crystals: If the sample has
been subjected to processes such as welding, the grains may have a preferred orientation (tex­
ture), leading to an enhancement of certain peaks in the XRD pattern. The distance of 1 cm
separates between (B.M.), (HAZ), and (W.M.) in Figures 3, 4 and 5. Figure 3 shows the hardness
distribution of welded joint for the currents (90, 100, and 110 A), which clearly shows a broadening
of hardness on wire 6010, even in the same wire. When the hardness was increased to 230 HR in
W.M. with the currents 90A and 100A, compared to the current 110 A, the hardness distribution

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changed slightly. When using 90 A current in wire 7018, joints cannot be welded. This is shown in
qryyigure 3, where wire 6013 has a maximum hardness of 302 HR, W.M., As shown in qryyigure 4,
there are different hardness results for (B.M.), (HAZ), and (W.M.). Hardness 260 HR in (W.M.) at 120
A, but in qryyigure 5, (W.M.) hardness is obtained at 242 HR and 260 HR, at 140A and 160A,
respectively.

It is crucial to acknowledge that the correlation between hardness and residual stresses
exist in a welded joint is complex and can vary depending on the specific welding conditions
and material properties. Experimental measurements, such as hardness testing and non-
destructive evaluation techniques, are typically conducted to assess the presence and distribu­
tion of residual stresses present in welded joints, according to the resultant for different
welding current, welding wire types, and wire diameters, Figure 6 shows that when the hard­
ness increase the residual stresses decrease. Welding currents ranging from 90A to 160A
require an understanding of residual stress measurements. X-ray diffraction analysis was
used to measure residual stress. A consistent relationship was observed between residual
stresses and hardness in welded components. Stress distribution and structural implications
are provided by these measurements.

Temperature-induced precipitation-hardened overaging can dissolve precipitates or coarsen

their microstructure over time. This phenomenon can reduce the material’s strength but may
also increase its hardness. Welded joints also experience residual stresses that can be reduced as
they age. There are several factors that influence the relationship between residual stress and
hardness. To understand the behavior of residual stresses and hardness in welded joints, it is
crucial to consider the specific circumstances and conduct appropriate testing or analysis.

Figure 3. The distribution of

hardness in welding joints
made with wire 6010.

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Figure 4. The distribution of

hardness in welding joints
made with wire 6013.

Figure 5. The distribution of

hardness in welding joints
made with wire 7018.

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Figure 6. An analysis of the

relationship between residual
stress and hardness in welded
joints.

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(011) A-wire 6010, d=3.2mm,

current=90A

(011) B-wire 6010, d=3.2mm,

current=100A

(011) C-wire 6010, d=3.2mm,

current=110A

XRD analysis for A-(wire 6010, d = 3.2 mm, current = 90A), B-(wire 6010, d = 3.2 mm, current = 100A),
C-(wire 6010, d = 3.2 mm, current = 110A), D-(wire 6013, d = 2.25 mm, current = 90A), E-(wire 6013, d =

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2.25 mm, current = 110A), F-(wire 6013, d = 2.25 mm, current = 120A), G-(wire 7018, d = 3.2 mm, cur­
rent = 140A) and H-(wire 7018, d = 3.2 mm, current = 160A).

(011) D-wire 6013, d=2.25mm,

current=90A

(011) E-wire 6013, d=2.25mm,

current=110A

(011) F-wire 6013, d=2.25mm,

current=120A

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(Continued)

(011) G-wire 7018, d=3.2mm,

current=140A

(011) H-wire 7018, d=3.2mm,

current=160A

(Continued)

4. Conclusions
This study presents novel findings on the impact of welding parameters on the hardness
distribution of 316 stainless steel weldments. Our results indicate that a welding current of
100A results in notable changes in hardness, albeit less pronounced than at 110A. We have
discovered that the hardness in the weld metal (W.M.) can reach 230 HR at 90A and 100A
currents, contrasting with the minor changes observed at 110A. Significantly, at 140A and
160A, hardness levels escalate to 242 HR and 260 HR, respectively, underscoring the strong
influence of welding current. With wire type 6013 and a 90A current, there is a marked
hardness increase, peaking at 302 HR. Additionally, using wire type 6010, an extensive hardness
distribution becomes evident, especially at 90A, revealing a hardness upsurge in the W.M. up to
230 HR. Contrarily, the combination of 90A current with wire type 7018 either yields unsatis­
factory results or proves to be infeasible, emphasizing the challenges of this specific parameter
set. The study elucidates a clear inverse correlation between residual stress and hardness,
offering critical insights for optimizing the welding process to tailor the mechanical properties
of welded components.

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Funding Jasim, A. H. (2007). The influence of curing residual stress on

The authors received no direct funding for this research. the strength and fracture rotating speed of composite
disc. Basrah Journal for Engineering Sciences, 7(1).
Author details Karadeniz, E., Ozsarac, U., & Yildiz, C. (2007). The effect of
Haider Maath Mohammad1 process parameters on penetration in gas metal arc
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0957-1980 welding processes. Materials & Design, 28(2), 649–656.
Usama J. Naeem2 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2005.07.014
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4073-5389 Kruth, J.-P., Deckers, J., Yasa, E., Wauthlé, R., Zhao, W.,
Nuha Hadi Jasim Al Hasan1 Ye, J., & Zhu, D. (2010). Assessing influencing factors
E-mail: [email protected] of residual stresses in SLM using a novel analysis
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1306-5893 method. Proceedings of the 16th International
1
Department of Materials Engineering, College of Symposium on Electromachining, Shanghai, China.
Engineering, University of Basrah, Basrah, Iraq. Kumar, B., & Nagamani Jaya, B. (2023). Thermal stability
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of and residual stresses in additively manufactured
Engineering, University of Basrah, Basrah, Iraq. single and multi-material systems. Metallurgical and
Materials Transactions A, 54(5), 1808–1824. https://
Disclosure statement doi.org/10.1007/s11661-022-06928-3
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). Li, N. (2016). Study the oxidation behavior and residual stres­
ses of AISI 430 alloy in air with water vapor [Doctoral
Citation information dissertation]. Université Paris Saclay (COmUE).
Cite this article as: Study of welding parameters’ effects Mohammad, H. M., Lieth, H. M., & Jabbar, M. A. (2022).
on residual stress and hardness in 316 stainless steel Estimation of residual stresses in quenched 4140 low
pipes: Experimental and analytical investigations, Haider alloy steel using X-ray diffraction (XRD). Journal of
Maath Mohammad, Usama J. Naeem & Nuha Hadi Jasim Southwest Jiaotong University, 57(3), 373–380.
Al Hasan, Cogent Engineering (2023), 10: 2283343. https://doi.org/10.35741/issn.0258-2724.57.3.31
Ochał, K., Filip, R., & Wierzba, B. (2021). The analysis of the
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