GEODESY

Instructor: Assist. Prof. Dr. Nevin Betül Avşar

 Week (Date) Course Plan
Introduction.
1. (4.10.2024) The definition of geodesy. The objective of geodesy.
The history of geodesy.

The shape of the Earth.

2. (11.10.2024)
The Spherical and Ellipsoidal Earth Model. Three and four dimensional geodesy.
The shape of the Earth.
3. (18.10.2024)
The Spherical and Ellipsoidal Earth Model. Three and four dimensional geodesy.
4. (25.10.2024) Reference systems. Time systems.

5. (1.11.2024) International reference systems and reference frames.

6. (8.11.2024) The gravity field of the Earth and its components.

7. (15.11.2024) Reference Surfaces: Geoid and Ellipsoid.

Criteria Subject Presentation: 20% Midterm Exam: 30% Final/Makeup Exam: 50%

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 Distance to Horizon
Horizon: The apparent curve that separates the surface of a celestial body from its sky when
viewed from the perspective of an observer on the surface of the relevant body. For an observer on
the Earth, the higher the observer's eyes are from sea level, the farther away the horizon is from the
observer. For instance, in standard atmospheric conditions, for an observer with eye level above sea
level by 1.70 m, the horizon is at a distance of about 5 km.

For the calculation of distance to horizon, the Earth's surface is

assumed to be perfectly spherical, with its radius (R) equal to
about 6371 km; and the observer is at sea level. A triangle is
formed with the center of the Earth (C) as one point, the horizon
point (H) is a right angle and the observer (O) the third corner.
Using Pythagoras's theorem we can calculate the distance from
the observer to the horizon (OH=d) knowing CH is the Earth's
radius (R) and CO is the Earth's radius (R) plus observer's height
C (h) above sea level.

d = (R + h)2 −R2 ≈ 4.65 km

o For an observer at the top of Mount Everest (8848 m in altitude), the horizon is at a distance of about 336 km.
o The reverse is also true, whilst rowing across the Atlantic, the very top of a mountain range 400 m high could be
seen on your horizon at a distance of 71.4 km assuming the air was clear enough.
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In the 16 and 17th centuries, new observations and ideas from astronomy and physics

influenced the perception of the figure of the Earth and its position in space.

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 ▪ Copernicus (1473–1543)’s “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543)”
mentioned transition from the geocentric universe of Ptolemy (Batlamyus,
about 150 A.D.) to a heliocentric system, which Aristarchos of Samos
(about 310–250 B.C.) had already postulated.

▪ Kepler (1571–1630) discovered the laws of planetary

motion (1609: “Astronomia nova”, 1619:
“Harmonicesmundi”), in which the planets followed
elliptical orbits in a systematic manner.

▪ Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)’s observations with the newly invented telescope

were strengthened him of the truth of Copernicus' sun-centered the idea of a
heliocentric world system. In 1595, Galileo found evidence he felt proved the
theory that Earth orbits the Sun. According to Galileo, the tides were a direct
result of Earth's inconsistent motion around the Sun.
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The Ellipsoidal Earth Model
❑ In 1672, Richer found the first evidence that gravity was
not constant over the Earth (as it would be if the Earth
were a sphere); he took a pendulum
clock to Cayenne, French Guiana and found that it
lost 2.5 minutes per day compared to its rate at Paris.
This indicated the acceleration of gravity was less at
Cayenne than at Paris. It was discovered that gravity
increases smoothly with increasing latitude,
gravitational acceleration being greater at the poles
than at the equator.
❑ British physicist Newton explained this in his Principia Mathematica (1687) in which he outlined his theory
and calculations on the shape of the Earth. Newton theorized that the Earth was not precisely a sphere
but had an oblate ellipsoidal shape, slightly flattened at the poles due to the centrifugal force of its
rotation. Since the surface of the Earth is closer to its center at the poles than at the equator, gravity is
stronger there. Newton computed the flattening value of the Earth as f = 1/230.
❑ Christiaan Huygens was of the opinion of Newton, concerning the figure of the Earth. In fact, Huygens
considered that the particles constituting the Earth were submitted at the same time to the force of
attraction and to the centrifugal force due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis. He concluded that, in
order to reach in equilibrium under these two forces, a flattening of the Earth towards the poles was
necessary. He also gave an estimate of this flattening, which was different from the estimate that Newton
gave (f=1/576). 6
The Ellipsoidal Earth Model

❑ This was disputed by some, but not all, French scientists. In order to determine a figure of the
Earth, meridian arcs were measured.

❑ The results from measurements by Cassini Family (1684-1718) indicated that the Earth was a
prolate spheroid (with an equatorial radius less than the polar radius) (f=-1/95).

❑ To resolve the issue, the French Academy of Sciences undertook expeditions to Peru (1.5°
latitude) (1735-1744) and to Lapland (66.3° latitude) (1735-1736). The resulting measurements at
equatorial and polar latitudes confirmed that the Earth was best modelled by an oblate spheroid.

❑ Clairaut, who is in Lapland team, showed that Newton's

theory that the Earth was ellipsoidal was correct, but
his calculations were in error (f=1/304). In 1743, he
promulgated a theorem known today as the Clairaut’s
theorem. This theorem explains the relationship
between the geometric parameters and gravity values
of a rotational ellipsoid, in other words, it shows that the
flattening of the ellipsoid can be calculated not only with
geometric parameters but also with physical
parameters (that is the computation of the flattening
from two gravity measurements at different latitudes).
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 Which is the surface for the geodetic applications (Bektaş , 2010)?

Today, geometric surfaces that facilitate measurement and calculations are used in geodetic
applications. In general, the geodetic study area,

• If it is smaller than 500 km2, the shape of the Earth is assumed as a plane for plan and detail studies,
• Sphere is used for areas between 500-5000 km2,
• For areas larger than 5000 km2, the shape of the Earth is considered as a rotational ellipsoid.

Whichever the reference surface will be used in the geodetic calculations, all the calculations are
performed with geometry and trigonometry rules of that surface. In summary, the reference surface to
be selected as the shape of the Earth is determined by the accuracy required from the study and the
size of the study area. In this context;
• In the conducting of large-scale maps, city maps, and engineering measurements; the shape of the
Earth is assumed as a plane. The majority of practical geodetic studies are based on a plane model
for the Earth.
• For the making of small-scale maps and medium-accuracy geodetic calculations, the shape of the
Earth is considered as a sphere.
• For geodetic studies covering very large areas (country, continental-scale) and requiring high
accuracy, the shape of the Earth is taken as ellipsoid.
• In determining the vertical position (heights) precisely, the geoid should be considered.

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Remember!!! Geodesy is the science of measuring the size and shape of the Earth as functions of time.

Three-dimensional geodesy Four-dimensional geodesy

➢ The three-dimensional concept of ➢ The inclusion of time into geodetic
geodesy consists of the common models.
treatment of horizontal and vertical
positioning within the same mathematical
model.
➢ Three-dimensional computations were not
carried out in practice due to the
problems associated with the inclusion of
height measurements into the model.

SATELLITE/SPACE
GEODESY

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▪ Today, the temporal variations of the Earth’s rotation, its surface, and its gravity field are regularly monitored by a
multitude of institutions and agencies. Extraterrestrial radio sources (e.g. quasars) and a large number of artificial
satellites have been, and are, employed for this purpose including dedicated satellite missions for gravity field
recovery and for sea level and ice caps changes.
▪ Based on continues observations at a great number of globally/regionally distributed stations, the
International/National Reference Systems (Control Networks) is now realized for certain time intervals.
▪ Striving for mm-accuracy, the frame’s control points mainly provide the geodetic effects of plate tectonics, glacial
melting, sea level change, and large-scale ground water variations. More local variations due to earthquakes and
volcanism are – among other geophysical techniques –especially investigated through terrestrial geodetic
methods.
▪ The time-variability of geodetic products also increasingly forces geodetic practice to take temporal changes into
account and to present geodetic products, accordingly.
▪ A long-term enterprise for “advancing our understanding of the dynamic Earth system by quantifying our planet’s
changes in space and time” is the Global Geodetic Observing System (GGOS) developed and established by the
International Association of Geodesy (IAG), at the beginning of the twenty-first century (Plag and Perlmann, 2009).
It provides the observations needed to monitor, map, and understand changes in the Earth’s shape, rotation, and
mass distribution, as well as the global geodetic frame of reference for interpreting global change processes.
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