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1 FUNCTIONS
1 Functions
Denition. A mapping is dened as a function f : A B where rule is y = f (x)
such that
1. (for every) x A
2. there exists a unique y B
Violates for every Violates uniqueness
The mappings above are not functions since both violate one part among
the two parts stated in the denition.
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1.1 Domain,Range and Codomain of function 1 FUNCTIONS
1.0.1 Plotting graphs of functions
x
f(x)
f(x) = sin x
(x
0
, f(x
0
))
Givenfunction y = f (x) we canplot the graphof the functionby plotting the
x val ues along x axi s and y val ues along y axi s. Such that any point
on the graph of y = f (x) will be coordinate of the form (x, f (x))
Fact. Vertical line test : If a vertical line intersects the graph of a mapping in
exactly one point then graph represents a function else its not a function.
1.1 Domain,Range and Codomain of function
1.1.1 Domain(D
f
) of f : A B
For a given function f : A B, D
f
={x : x A such that f is well-dened}
Example. Find the domain of the function f : R C where f is real valued
function and given by the rule
f (x) =
1

x
2
1
The function f cannot exist if x
2
1 0 = x
2
1 = 1 x 1
So D
f
={x|x >1 or x <1 where x R}
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1.1 Domain,Range and Codomain of function 1 FUNCTIONS
1.1.2 Range(R
f
) of f : A B
For a function f : A B, R
f
={y = f (x)|x D
f
}
Example. Inthe above example, f : RRwhere f is real valuedgivenby f (x) =
1

x
2
1
R
f
= {y = f (x)|x (, 1) (1, )}
= (0, )
Since f (x) is always positive (since root) and it produces all positive real num-
bers except 0.
Example. State the Domain and range from the adjoining graph
-1
-1
-2
-2
0
0
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
Hint: Domain is projection (or shadow) of the function (as if a torch of light
comes from innite top and bottom of y axi s) onto the x axis. and similarly
for Range, is the shadow formed by torch of light falling onto the y axi s.
Solution : D
f
=[1, 4) (4, 6] and R
f
=[1, 2) (4, 6] {3}
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1.2 Inverse of a function 1 FUNCTIONS
1.1.3 Hints for nding Range
If the function is composition of continuous functions then the resulting com-
posite is also continuous and hence its easy to nd the range by just trying to
nd the max and min of the function in the given domain.
1.2 Inverse of a function
1.2.1 Types of functions
Objective of this section is study characteristics of functions that are having an
inverse. For that we need to investigate the kinds of functions.
Denition. One-One or Injective functions
A function f : A B is one-one if for any x
1
, x
2
A, f (x
1
) = f (x
2
) = x
1
=
x
2
Below is an example of one-one function.
Both are one-one functions
Denition. Many to one function
A function f : A B such that there exists atleast one y B which has more
than one preimage in A
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1.2 Inverse of a function 1 FUNCTIONS
Many-to-one function
Fact. Horizontal line Test : If a horizontal line cuts a graph of a function in one
point then the function is one-one else its many to one function.
Denition. Onto or Surjective function
A function f : A B is onto if for every element y B is related to some
element in A
Not an Onto function (into)
No preimage
Denition. Into function
A function f : A B is into if there exists atleast one y B which has no
preimage in A. Above example is an into function. So we can say that not into
means onto and not onto mean into.
Denition. Bijective function
A function f : A B is bijective if its both injective and onto. Observe why
should it be bijective.
So we have attained our objective (though partially since we will be study-
ing characteristics of inverse in a separate section) of understanding what a
function requires for its inverse to exist.
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1.3 Algebra of functions 1 FUNCTIONS
1.2.2 Problems
Problem1. Total number of functions f : A B where n(A) =m and n(B) =n
Solution : Every element of B can be related to an element of A in m ways.
And in all we have n elements in set B hence total ways =m
n
Problem2. Total number of one to one functions from A to B as dened above.
First element of B can be related to an element of A in m ways. Second
element of B can be related to an element of A in m1 ways. And so on the n
t h
element of B can be related to an element of A in m(n1) ways. So total one
one functions
= m (m1) (m[n 1])
=
m!
n!
1.3 Algebra of functions
1.3.1 Basic operations on function
1. Addition of functions :
( f +g)(x) = f (x) +g(x)
2. Subtraction of functions :
( f g)(x) = f (x) g(x)
3. Multiplication of functions :
( f g)(x) = f (g(x))
4. Division of functions :
_
f
g
_
(x) =
f (x)
g(x)
(where g(x) =0)
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2 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
1.3.2 Composition of functions
If f : A B and g : B C be two functions, then we dene composite of f and
g as
(g f )(x) =g( f (x))
D
g
R
g
g(x)
D
f
R
f
f(x)
Rg Df
f g
R
fg
D
fg
A B C
D
fg
R
fg
Note here,
D
gf
={x|g(x) D
f
}
and
R
gf
={ f (x)|x R
g
}
1.3.3 Domain-Range
1. D
f g
=D
f
D
g
2. D
f g
=D
f
D
g
3. D
f /g
=D
f
D
g
{x|g(x) =0}
2 Important functions
2.1 Algebraic functions
Denition. Function consisting of nite number of terms involving powers
and radicals of the independent variable, constants and fundamental mathe-
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2.1 Algebraic functions 2 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
matical operations +, , ,
2.1.1 Constant function
A function that takes same value for all x D
f
given as f (x) =k
2.1.2 Identity function
Function dened as f (x) =x is called identity
2.1.3 Signumfunction
Signum is dened as
f (x) =
_

_
1 , i f x >0
0 , i f x =0
1 , i f x <0
6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
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2.1 Algebraic functions 2 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
2.1.4 Modulus function
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2
1
1
2
3
4
0
y = |x|
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = |(x 1)(x 2)|
2.1.5 Greatest Integer function
Greatest integer function of x is dened as greatest integer among all integers
less than or equal to x i.e.
[x] =max{n|n x, n Z}
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2.1 Algebraic functions 2 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
We can also say that on truncating the fractional part of x we get the greatest
integer of any x
e.g. 3.2 =3+0.2 = [3.2] =3
[3.2] =30.2 =4+0.8 =4
(Note that the fractional part of a real number always need to be positive)
Example 3. Graph of y =[x]
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = [x]
Example 4. Graph of y =[x
2
]
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2.1 Algebraic functions 2 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = [x
2
]
Example 5. Graph of y =[sinx]
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = [sin(x)]
2.1.6 Properties of greatest integer function
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2.1 Algebraic functions 2 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
1. x 1 <[x] x or [x] x <[x] +1
(rst comes fromdenition of []
and second pure rearrangement
of previous)
2. [x +n] =[x] +n where n Z
3. x =[x]+{x} where {x} is the frac-
tional part of x
4. [x] =
_
[x] 1 , i f x Z
[x] , i f x Z
5. x 1 <[x] x
6. x +y [x +y] [x] +[y]
Proof : x =[x] +{x} and y =[y] +
{y} and hence
x +y =[x]+[y]+({x}+{y}) [x +
y] as this can happen : {x}+{y}
1
Also [x + y] = [[x] + [y] + {x} +
{y}] =[x] +[y] +[{x} +{y}] [x] +
[y]
7.
_
x
n
_
+
_
x +1
n
_
+
_
x +2
n
_
+
+
_
x +n 1
n
_
= [x] or
[x] +
_
x +
1
n
_
+
_
x +
2
n
_
+ +
_
x +
n 1
n
_
=[nx]
8.
_
x
n
_
=
_
[x]
n
_
if x Z
+
9. Inequalities
(a) [(x)] I = (x) < I +1
(b) [(x)] I = (x) I
2.1.7 Fractional Part of x
Denition. Fractional part function of x denoted as {x} and dened as
{x} =x [x]
and hence 0 {x} <1.
i.e. {x} =
_

_
.
.
.
x +2 ; 2 x <1
x +1 ; 1 x <0
x ; 0 x <1
x 1 ; 1 x <2
.
.
.
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2.1 Algebraic functions 2 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
Graph of {x}
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = {x}
2.1.8 Properties of fractional function
1. 0 {x} <1 which generalizes to 0 { f (x)} <1
Proof. {x} =x[x] we knowthat [x] x = x[x] 0 and x <[x]+1 =
x [x] <1. Hence proved.
2. {x} =
_
1{x} , x Z
0 , x Z
Example 6. Graph of {sinx}
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2.1 Algebraic functions 2 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = {sin x}
Example 7. Graph of {logx}
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = {log x}
Example 8. Graph of {|x|}
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3 TRANSFORMATIONS
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = {|x|}
3 Transformations
3.1 Basic Transformations
1. y = f (x +)
2. y = f (x )
3. y = f (x)
4. y = f (
x

)
5. y = f (x) +
6. y = f (x)
7. y =f (x)
8. y =
f (x)

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3.2 Characteristics of functions 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
3.2 Characteristics of functions
3.2.1 Equal functions
Denition. f and g are two equal functions from A to B if
1. D
f
=D
g
2. f (x) =g(x) x D
f
Denition. If f and g are equal functions then
1. D
f
=D
g
2. f (x) =g(x) x D
f
3. R
f
=R
g
x D
f
3.2.2 Odd functions
Denition. A function f : A B is odd function if
f (x) =f (x)
for all x D
f
Geometrically
1
, An odd function is symmetric about origin.
3.2.3 Even functions
An function f : A B is even if
f (x) = f (x) x D
f
Geometrically
2
, evenfunctionare reectionin yaxi s or we cansay symmetric
about y axi s
1
Given y = f (x),
replacing x x we get y = f (x) which is produced by reecting y = f (x) in y axis.
replacing f (x) f (x) we get y = f (x) which is produced by reecting y = f (x) in x
axis.
Now odd function has both these graphs coinciding as given above (in the denition of
odd function).
2
Note: f (x) is produced by reecting f (x) in y axi s and the denition claims that both
these graphs are same, or coincide hence we get that on ipping a graph about the y-axis we
get the same graph this implies that the function is symmetric about y axi s.
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3.2 Characteristics of functions 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
3.2.4 Periodic functions
Denition. A function f : A B is periodic with period T if
f (x +T) = f (x) x D
f
Moreover if we are able to nd the smallest T R
+
which satises the de-
nition of periodicity above then such a period T is termed as the fundamental
period of f
3
1. Functions sin
n
x, cos
n
x, csc
n
x, sec
n
x are periodic with period
(a) if n is even
(b) 2 if n is any real number except even integer.
2. Functions tan
n
x, cot
n
x, | sinx|, | cosx|, | secx| and| cscx| are periodic with
period
3. If function f (x) is periodic with the period T then the function (x) =
af (bx +c) +d is periodic with period
T
|b|
4. If function z(x) is periodic with period T then the composite function
function
(x) = f (g( (y(z(x +))) ))
is periodic functionirrespective of whether other outside functionfrom f
to y are periodic or not. Note but the outside functions f to y may change
the fundamental period of (x). So the fundamental period if changes
will be less than T.
Proof. y =z(x) is periodic = z(x +T) =z(x) and similarly
(x) = f (g(h( (y(z(x))) )))
= (x +T) = f (g(h( (y(z(x +T))) )))
= f (g(h( (y(z(x))) )))
= (x)
Hence z(x) is periodic = (x) is periodic.
3
Note : T is a real number, so ? is independent of x and that is what we can use, if we are
never able to free (or get one) T free of x then the function is not periodic or aperiodic.
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3.2 Characteristics of functions 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
Example 9. Function sin(x
2
) is not periodic while sin(2x +3) is periodic
with period . sin(tan(cos(

x))) is not periodic.

Example 10. Function e

sinx
is periodic with periodic with period 2
though the function e
x
,

are not period functions

Note the converse is not true, if the function (x) is periodic, still z(x)
might be not period.
Example 11. (Counter example) y =tan
_

2
[x]
_
is a periodic functionthough
the inner most function [x] is not a periodic function.
Lets rst prove that this function is periodic with some fundamental pe-
riod. Let T be that fundamental period.
tan
_

2
[x +T]
_
= tan
_

2
[x]
_

2
[x +T] = n+

2
[x]
[x +T] = 2n +[x]
The smallest value for which this is true is T =2 at n =1
Example 12. Which of the following functions are periodic
(a) e
x
2
(b) e
2x+3
(c) e
sin(2x+3)
(d) e
[2x+3]
(e) e
[2x
2
+3]
(f ) e
{2x+3}
(g) e
2{x}+3
(h) e
{2x
2
+3}
(i) e
2[x]
2
+3
(j) e
2{x}
2
+3
(k) e
sin{2[x]+3}
(l) e
sin(2{x}
2
+3)
(m) e
sin(2{x
2
}+3)
5. If f (x) is periodic with period T then the functions
1
f (x)
,
_
f (x) and
1
_
f (x)
are all periodic.
6. If functions f and g are periodic with period T
1
and T
2
then the period
of linear combination of these functions (x) =f (x) +g(x) is periodic
with period LCM(T
1
, T
2
) provided
4
T
1
=T
2
and T
1
and T
2
are both ratio-
nals or irrationals of the same form (read the note below).
4
In this LCM-method the way we call this method,
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3.2 Characteristics of functions 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
Else if they are both irrationals of different form (say and

2 ) or one
rational and other irrational (say and 1 ) then the linear combination
(x) is not going to be periodic.
7. If functions f and g are periodic with period T
1
and T
2
such that T
1
=T
2
then you should followalgebraic or graphical approach to nd the period
of linear combination (x) =f (x) +g(x)
Example 13. Function y =| sinx| +| cosx| is periodic with period

2
(But
LCM method gets us , which is wrong since T
1
=T
2
here)
| sinx| +| cosx| =
_
1+| sin2x|
which has period

2
due to | sin2x| while +1 or

dont effect the period of

the function.
Example 14. Function y =sec
2
xcsc
2
x is periodic with no fundamental
period though with the LCM method we get the period as . Hence we
should not use the LCM method when T
1
=T
2
3.2.5 Illustrative Problems
Discuss periodicity and if periodic state the period
1. f (x) =(sin2x)
2
and g(x) =

sinx
Both are periodic with periods and 2 respectively. Since f (x +2) =
f (x) and g(x +2) =g(x) x in its domain.
2. f (x) =2
This function satises the period function denition
f (x +T) = f (x) x D
f
LCM(a, b) exists if they are both rationals or irrationals of the same form. Irrationals of
the same form means say 3

2 and 7

2 are of the same form and LCM exists while 3

2
and 2

3 are not irrationals of the same form, hence their LCM doesnt exist.
LCM
_
a
b
,
c
d
_
=
LCM(a, c)
HCF(b, d)
where a, b, c, d Q
e.g LCM(2, 3) =6 while LCM
_
2
3
,
5
6
_
=
LCM(2, 5)
HCF(3, 6)
=
10
3
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3.2 Characteristics of functions 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
f (x +T) = 2 = f (x) for any x D
f
. Hence the function is periodic with
period T. Now we need to nd the smallest positive T. But such a T
doesnt exist hence we say that constant function are periodic but with no
fundamental period.
3. f (x) =2sin(3x +4) 5
We learned tranformations, and from there we see that period is only af-
fected by change in the structure of the funciton along x axi s. Can you
guess which of 2, 3, 4, 5 is deforming the structure of sinx function to get
us change along x (expansion or contraction) right! 3
Hence the period of the function f is
Period of sinx
|3|
=
2
3
4. f (x) =| sinx|
The period of sinx is 2 and | | transforms sinx such that the part below
x axis is reected above x axis symmetrically. Hence the period halves.
i.e. T
| sinx|
=
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = | sin(x)|
5. g(x) =| sinx +cosx|
We canwrite | sinx+cosx| =
1

2
| sin(x+

4
)|. Hence the periodremains the
same (thinking interms of transformations, that we have already learnt.
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3.2 Characteristics of functions 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
6. f (x) =| sinx| +| cosx|
This problemis interesting, Note here we might feel that both these func-
tions are periodic, with period for each. Note but the period of f is not
LCM of both the periods. If we think using denition then we see that
f (x +

2
) = f (x) to make

2
the period. But graphically that is more evi-
dent.
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = | sin(x)| + | cos(x)|
7. h(x) =

sinx +cosx

1
2

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3.3 Algebra of functions and characteristics 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
2
h(x) =

sin x+cos x

2

1
2

Here h(x) =. If we think graphically then the function sin(x +

4
) moving
down by
1
2
and then modulus getting the negative part reect up. But the
part above and below are not identical hence the period wont get half.
will remain the same, as 2
8. h(x) =| sinx| +| cosx| +| sinx +cosx|
Period of | sinx| and | cosx| is and that of | sinx +cosx| is 2, hence the
resultant period of h(x) is LCM(, 2) =2
9. f (x) =[x] {x} +tanx
Period of [x] {x} is 1 and that of tanx is , so their is no way both added
would be period since the is no LCM of 1 and
3.3 Algebra of functions and characteristics
f g f g f g or f /g f g
Even Even Even Even Even
Even Odd - Odd Even
Odd Even - Odd Even
Odd Odd Odd Even Odd
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3.4 Other transformations 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
3.4 Other transformations
1. y = f (x)
The function y = f (x) is produced by the transformation of replacing
x x which geometrically is met by reecting y = f (x) in y axi s
2. y = f (x)
(a) The function y =f (x) is produced by the tranformation of replac-
ing y y which geometrically is met by reecting y = f (x) in
x axi s.
Example 15. Produce y =(x +1)(x +2) from the graph of y =(x 1)(x 2)
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = (x 1)(x 2)
y = (x +1)(x +2)
Example 16. Produce y =(1x)(x 2) from the graph of y =(x 1)(x 2)
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3.4 Other transformations 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = (x 1)(x 2)
y = (x 1)(x 2)
3.4.1 Transformations based on above two transformations
1. y = f (|x|)
= even in variable x
= Hence symmetric about y-axis
= Draw y = f (x) on the positive x axis (note : only positive x-axis part
of the plane) and then take the reection of this part onto the negative x
axis to complete the graph of y = f (|x|)
Example 17. Draw the graph of y =log|x|
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3.4 Other transformations 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = log|x|
2. y =| f (x)|
(a) Here we see that f (x) is feeded to the | | function and hence mod
would act on the graph of f (x) to invert the part that is below x
axi s above x axis.
Example 18. Draw the graph of y =| logx|
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = | log x|
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3.4 Other transformations 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
3. y =| f (|x|)|
= Even variable in x
= Draw the graph of y =| f (x)| on the positive half of x axi s
= Reect the part on positive x-axis onto negative x-axis, and graph of
y =| f (|x|)| is complete.
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = | log |x||
4. |y| = f (x)
= Even in y variable
= Symmetric about y axi s
= Draw the graph of y = f (x) above y - axis
= Later get the reection of the graph above y axi s to below y axi s
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3.4 Other transformations 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
=
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
|y| = log x
5. |y| = f (|x|)
= is even in x and y variable
= hence symmetric about the x and y axis
= Draw the graph of the function y = f (x) in the rst quadrant (where
x, y >0)
= Then get the reection going from rst quadrant to the rest of the
quadrant about x and y axis to get the complete graph
6. |y| =| f (x)|
= is even in y variable
= hence symmetric about y axis
= draw the graph of the function y =| f (x)| above x axi s
= Reect the graph about y axi s to complete the graph
7. |y| =| f (|x|)|
= is even in x and y
= hence symmetric about x and y axis
= draw the graph of y =| f (x)| in the rst quadrant
= Reect this graph from rst quadrant to rest of the quadrants about
x and y axis to get the complete graph.
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3.4 Other transformations 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
3
2
1
1
2
3
0
y = | log |x||
Problem19. Draw the graphs of the following functions
1. y =logx , y =(x 1)(x 2)
2. y =log|x|, y =(|x| 1)(|x| 2)
3. y =| logx| ,y =|(x 1)(x 2)|
4. y =| log|x||, y =|(|x| 1)(|x| 2)|
5. |y| =logx, |y| =(x 1)(x 2)
6. |y| =log|x|, |y| =(|x| 1)(|x| 2)
7. |y| =| logx|, |y| =|(x 1)(x 2)|
8. |y| =| log|x||, |y| =|(|x| 1)(|x| 2)|
Problem 20. Draw the graphs of the following functions. Also nd the do-
main,range, Points of discontinuity,non differentiability if any
1. f (x) =[sin(x)]
2. f (x) =[sin(cosx)]
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3.4 Other transformations 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
3. y =[arcsin(x)] , along with arcsinx
(a) Solve [sin
1
x] =2 and [sin
1
x] =1
4. y =[arccos(x)] along with arccosx
5. y =tan{x} and y ={tanx} and state the periods of these functions.
6. y =sin{x} and y ={sinx} and state their periods
7. y =log{x} and y ={logx} and state their periods if exists
Problem21. Find the domain and range of the following functions
1. f (x) =
_
cos
1
x sin
1
x
2. f (x) =
sin
1
x
x
3. f (x) =sin
1
(|x 1| 2)
4. g(x) =cos
1
_
63x
4
_
+csc
1
_
x 1
2
_
5. h(x) =
_
csc
1
_
2|x|
4
_
6. f (x) =tan
1
(

x
2
2x +2)
Problem 22. Periodicity of functions (see both graphically and algebraically
whatever is possible)
1. f (x) =sin
4
x +cos
4
x +sin
2
x cos
2
x : Ans :

2
2. g(x) =sin
4
x +cos
4
x +sinx cosx : Ans :
3. h(x) =sin|x|
4. Solve {secx} =secx
5. lim
x0
{sinx}
x
(doesnt exist)
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3.4 Other transformations 3 TRANSFORMATIONS
6. lim
x

2
[sinx]
x
(exists and equal to zero)
7. f (x) =[sinx] then is f (x) is differentiable at x =0, x =

4
and x =

2
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