HEAT TRANSFER ‘Theos ete FIGURE 1-1 We are normally interested in how long it takes for the hot coffee in a thermos 10 cool to a certain temperature, which cannot be determined from a thermodynamic analysis alone, Si Heat the direction of decreasing temperature. Coot ae = THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER We all know from experience that a cold canned drink left in a room warms up and a warm canned drink left in a refrigerator cools down. This is accom- plished by the transfer of energy from the warm medium to the cold one. The energy transfer is always from the higher temperature medium to the lower temperature one, and the energy transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same temperature. You will recall from thermodynamies that energy exists in various forms. In this text we are primarily interested in heat, which is che form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a result of temperature dif- ‘ference. The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such en- ergy transfers is heat transfer. ‘You may be wondering why we need to undertake a detailed study on heat transfer. After all, we can determine the amount of heat transfer for any sys- tem undergoing any process using a thermodynamic analysis alone. The rea- son is that thermodynamics is concemed with the amount of heat transfer as @ system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another, and it gives ‘no indication about how long the process will take. A thermodynamic analysis simply tells us how much heat must be transferred to realize a specified change of state to satisfy the conservation of energy principle. In practice we are more concerned about the rate of heat transfer (heat trans fer per unit time) than we are with the amount of it. For example, we can de- termine the amount of heat transferred from a thermos bottle asthe hot coffee inside cools trom 90°C to 80°C by a thermodynamic analysis alone, But a typ- ical user or designer of a thermos is primarily interested in ow long it will be before the hot coffee inside cools to 80°C, and a thermodynamic analysis can- not answer this question, Determining the rates of heat transfer to or from a system and thus the times of cooling or heating, as well as the variation of the temperature, is the subject of heat iransfer (Fig. |-1), ‘Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes from one equi- librium state to another. Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals with systems that lack thermal equilibrium, and thus itis a nonequilibrium phenomenon Therefore, the study of heat transfer cannot be based on the principles of thermodynamics alone. However, the laws of thermodynamics lay the frame- work for the science of heat transfer. The first law requires that the rate of energy transfer into a system be equal to the rate of increase of the energy of that system, The second law requires that heat be transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature (Fig. 1-2). This is like a car parked on an inclined road that must go downhill in the direction of decreasing elevation when its brakes are released. It is also analogous to the electric current flowing in the direction of decreasing voltage or the fluid flowing in the direction of de- creasing total pressure. ‘The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence of a temperature dif ference. There can be no net heat transfer between two mediums that are at the same temperature. The temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer, just as the voltage difference is the driving force for clectric current flow and pressure difference is the driving force for fluid flow. The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction depends on the magnitude of the temperature ‘gradient (the temnperature difference per unit length or the rate of change oftemperature) in that direction. The larger the temperature gradient, the higher the rate of heat transfer. Application Areas of Heat Transfer ‘Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engincering systems and other as- pects of life, and one does not need to go very far to see some application ar- cas of heat transfer. In fact, one does not need to go anywhere. The human body is constantly rejecting heat to its surroundings, and human comfort is closely tied to the rate of this heat rejection. We try to control this heat trans- fer rate by adjusting our clothing to the environmental conditions. Many ordinary household appliances are designed, in whole or in part, by using the principles of heat transfer. Some examples include the electric or gas ‘range, the heating and air-conditioning system, the refrigerator and freezer, the water heater, the iron, and even the computer, the TY, and the VCR. Of course, energy-efficient homes are designed on the basis of minimizing heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer. Heat transfer plays a major role inthe design ‘of many other devices, such as car radiators, solar collectors, various compo- nents of power plants, and even spacecraft. The optimal insulation thickness in the walls and roofs of the houses, on hot water or steam pipes, or on water heaters is again determined on the basis of a heat transfer analysis with eco- nomic consideration (Fig. 1-3). Historical Background ‘Heat has always been perceived to be something that produces in us a sensa- tion of warmth, and one would think that the nature of heat is one of the first things understood by mankind, Butt was only inthe middle of the nineteenth “The human body ‘Air conditioning Wikerout Car radistrs Power plants rail Refhigertion systems FIGURE 1-3 Some application areas of heat transfer