UNIT VI

' CHAPTER
-.. \

Controllers and Digital

~

12
" Control Systems

Syllabu1
essing, Any one appUcatlon of PLC
Introduction to PLC : Btock schematic, PLC addr
using Ladder diagram.
PIO charaoteristics and concept of
Introduction to PIO controller : P, Pl, PD and
Ziegler-Nichols method.
digttal control systems, Neoeutty of
Dlgftal control 1y1t1m1 : Speclal features of
rol, z-transform and pulse transfer
sample and hold operations for computer cont
s stems.
function, Stabili and res onse of sam d-data

12.1 Introduction to Controllere

c or u set of devices that manage, control
ControJJer is the heart of any controJ system. It is u dtvk
given control system.
and regulate the behaviour of other components of the
Consider o simplified block diagram of a process,
e(t) m Prooe11 to
be oontrolled o(t)
r(t) ---- -- ControHer 11--- M

b(t)

.___ _ ~eedback elemenf

Fig. 12.J.1
whkh is the difference between input signal
ControJler is u device wbkh accepts the error signaJ,
action that needs lo be taken so os to ,get the
r(t) und feedback sJgnaJ b(t), wad decides the corrective
controls the output of the entire system. Accuracy
oppropriate output. Controller, ag the name suggests,
.
of tbc system depends on the sensitivity of the controJJer
ler
Syllabu1 Top ic: Introduction to PID Control

12.2 Types of Controller,

The ba.~ic type~ of controller~ thpt we use In process

systems aro :
l. ON-OFF controllers
r
t
Control Systems (SPPU
Controllers and O1g1tal Con roIs stems
12-2 . t

z. Proportional controllers (P)

3. Propo~onal + Inte~nll controllcts (Pl)
4. Proporuonal +_Derivative controllers (PD)
S• Proportional + Integral + D • i
. envut ve controllers (Pit>)
We shall discuss each one in detail.

12.2.1 ON-OFF Controllers

ON-OFF controllers are the simplest nnd the most common type of controllers used in the
industry.
The ON-OFF controll.er _has only two modes. If the error signal, c(t), to the controller is 0, the
control!er output tn(t) = O. Sinularly if the error signal to the controller is greater than 0, the controller
output 1s I 00%. ,
:. m(t) = 0% . 1'f
e(t) ~ 0
= 100% _if e(t) > 0
A common example of a ON-OFF controller is an air conditioner system. Suppose we set the
desired temperature at 24°C. When the temperature of the room rises above 24°C, the thermostat detects
this rise and the compressor switches ON thereby cooling the room. As soon as the room cools and the
temperature drops below. 24°C, the thermo.stat again sends a signal to the compressor to stop. This
ON-OFF of the compressor maintains the temperature of 'the room at around 24°C. The thermostat
which is the sensing device, is corinected to the feedba~k loop.
In a practical set up, the rise in the ambient temperature of the room and switching ON of the
compressor will not occur at the same time as some time will pass before this happens. This time is
called dead time. Because of this dead time, an error is introduced in the regulation of the temperature.
This is shown in the Fig. 12.2. l.

Dead band
I• -1
6
eom ~ssor 100~
I
I
I
I
I ~
Ir I
I
I
I
Compressor O% ________ .&.-....,.,__._:_!"'___,
OFF -...J-----+--+---+-----+ 0
c
23.5 24 24.5

Fig. ll.2.~

Inste• d 0 f maintaining the temperature exactly at 24°C, in a practical system, the temperature
. h
nug t be ~ • ed 1-.otween 23 5°c and 24.5°C, This error of 1°C is called as the dead band
mamt.aln ,.A, • •

•From 1·1g.
ri-·
1,,~- 2 • 1 1·t. becomes obvious that the compressor remains OFF till the actual rooin
telllpCrature increases beyond 24.S°C, • . ·
ON-Off controllers are economical and are used tn systems where relatively slow rate~ an:
. .
~ptable.
 Control S terns (SPPU) 12-3 Controllers and DI Ital Control S stem,

Syllabus Topic : P-Controller

12.2.2 Proportional Controller (P-Controller) ~

-
SPPU - Dec. 2011. Mn 2012. Dec. 2012. Mn 2013. Dec. 2014. Mr1 20 15 f
We have discussed how a ON-OFF controller operat~s. In the ON-OFF controller, all or nothing f
controller correction is applied. We have also seen that there exists a dead zone in which no action takes f
place.
It would be advantageous if the control signal, m(t), were proportional to the magnitude of the
error. This is what the proportional con~ller achieves. In a proportional· co~troller, the output of the
controller is proportional to the error. The relationship between the error sign~ and the controller output
is determined by a constant known as the proportional gain constant ~-
:. m(t) - ~ e(t) + mo . ... (12.2.1)
Here, m(t) is the controller output,
e(t) is the error,
~ is the proportional gain constant,
1Do is the controller· output at zero.error.
From the Equation (12.2.1) it is clear that the output of the controller is proportional to the error.
A simple proportional controller is shown in Fig. 12.2.2.
~~~~
e(t) • m(t) tn¾il;l#'.': •2 \'
{-,.,;,tJr •cnn "
...!!..~;,.,.--. C(s)
R(s)--- ❖
--t•;,;;. ,-.;;;...;....,·

:1.°'s ~-+ 2;ron·

·)~~ ,,. .
,:::
·""·

b(t)

Fig.12.2.2
2
. 0)
Here ,.,,: is a standard second order system.
' s (s :+- ""',ron) • .
Using block diagram red~ction techniques, •we obtain the tran_sfer function of a proportional
controller 2
_ 1S,ro0

: C(s) G(s) _ s (s + 2;ro )

1
• • R(s) - 1 + G(s) H(s) - 5,ro
0
l + s(s + 2;ron)

. C(s)
•• R(s)
, .
Let us understand the significance of fflo·
• In the absence of mo, Equation ( 12.2.1) would be
m(t) = K., e(t)
,Now, if the error in the system becomes iero, e(t) = 0. This would make m(t) = 0.
g Control Systems (SPPU)
12
◄ Controuers and Digital Control s:re::
This would imply that the out
the entire system would simply ,bu t'::! ~ COntroJ.ler is zero
i.e., input to the plant is ttJ"O. Hence
cc,ouolJcr output when c(t) = 0. fflo ensures !. Therefore
Dlo is essential in the equation as mo is ~
. that the system keeps running at steady state when ~ JS
160
51gnlftcance of Kp
.
K, is the proportional gain constant. If K•.., is desig
s· ned to be large, the controUcr output would be
1arge even for a small values of error
controller output even if the error val· ~lar•arly if ~ is kept
1 small. there would be a small change in the
. UC IS gc.
The impo rtanc e of the value of K •
. --, can be visua liud in the Fig. 12.2.3.
A large value of K.,. mcrcases the Speed 0 f the response. The proportional band ic mathematically
defined as,

PB • .!QQ
K,
Controller outpu t

High l<p
100% ------~------·-- --• -- -- -
I
•I
: ~
• _.,.
lowlC _
--~---I
• _______ _• '"P
I
I I
I I
. '
j
I
I
a

0-4 +------~-------4----+--------
•
I
I
I
I
a
I I I % Error
I •I f

',.
I ••I
I
•
I
I
SmaU •
I
error I
•
I
I

Large error

Fl&- 12.1.3
of the controller increases. However
From the figure it is obvious that as K, increases, the speed
increasing the value of K. has its own disadvantages.
le negative feedback system acts as a
We shall now discuss the effect of increasing K, . A simp
proportional control system. Consider a simple proportiona
l controller system shown in Fig. 12.2.4.
1
R(a) .__.. . i(a+ 2) C(a)

Fla- 1~24

Hen, 0(1) • s(s ~ l) , H (s) • 1 and K, is the proportiona

l gain const anL

Pn,m the chapter of Time response analysis we know

that the closed loop transfer function is
~ rbe formula.
 M Con7trol Systems (SPPU) 12-5 Controllers and Digital Control sre::
K.,
C(s) G(s) s(s + 2)
R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s) = IS,
1 + s(s + 2)

. C(s) __
2
IS,
• • R(s) - s + 2s + K.,
. 2
00
0
We compare this with the standard second order equation 2 2
• . s + ~ro.s + oo•
..• (1)
ft
2
-~
... con - vKp
and 2~coa -2
1 1
:. ~ - 1 (l)n :. ~ = ~
If~= 1, then
We notice that~, which is the damping factor, is inversely proportional to~-
=
~ 1 which indicates a critically damped system.
As K., increases, the damping factor ~ reduces, thereby making the system under-d
amped. I
, it lowen
Therefore, though increa sing~ increases the speed of the system (Refer Fig. 12.2.3)
response. This further
the damping of the system which in tum increases the peak overshoot <Ms,) of the
atmost care to match
threatens the stability of the system. Hence the value of ~ has to be chosen with
our requirements.
OFFSET : An important drawback of the proportional controller is the OFFSET.
Consider a simple setup shown in Fig. 12.2.5.

Fla.12 .2.5

Hae
Z. ➔ Input valve which allows the liquid to flow into the tank
➔ 0.llpUt valve which allows the liquid to ftow out of the tank.
~ IAWI &rlnlmitter which aenw the level in the tank baled on the liquid
preuure.
t111111• Iba inltt.Uy tbe tank contains a certain amount of liquid and dw valves Za and Za 119
. _ , A Ill poJac la fed to tbe proportional coatroJJer.
 12-6 Controllers and Ofg;tal Cc,rtJrJ s
~
(SPPU)
s tern
~ . red 10 be the steady state•
wo uld be a drop in the level of the WJ1. Tbi
J
lv e~ is op ene d, the re
....i, ii c005'~ u·on ' as va
1...-- ._ .. , s1tua
J ·
e Jev eJ cha nge would be conveyed to the
lev e tran.s nut ter . Th
,o j ~ be sensed by the pro por tiO llil to error to valve Zi 111d opta it Ihm by
sen d a sig nal
:~'/Cl w :~ er which would
·o,i,l ~ ·nal level in the tank.
• 1dJC Of1gl b w it happens in'dpra
ctice though.
Ho n instant.uJeou.ily. As
ouL wever z, doe, DO( ope
. hi
• is not o ened, the liq w sta rts gu s ng
'f1liS is op el. Th is is detected by the level rrwmiaer and
.is
al cha ng e in the lev
WJiell Zi 111, there is a gradu controller gives a ,ignal ro valve z, . ZJ opem gradually based
li4uid ttoW~IJer. The proportional bas ed oo the height of the liquid.
itself is gra du ally cha ng ing
ro dJe c~n nal which fmal level in the tank will always
be
the
-,:nor c!e when the system
ine d ear
is
lie
res
r. Th
tor
is
ed
err
to
or
equ
is
ilib
cal
riw n,
Jed OfFSET. It is sbown Jn Fig.
J2.2.6.
fbe:C set point def
~tball
Output

-- -- '- OffNt
Setpolnt ... ... .•• •• •• ·--

-f -- -- -- -- -- -. t

Fla-12.2.6
ller is iaafa.\Cd.
red uced if the gai n (hence the speed) of the proportioaaJ contro
Offset can be pina ~ • and the
hav e already discus sed that as the gain is incrused. the dam
However we . .
lfllem becom es und erdam ped .
b« au se of which a proportJO OAJ control
reased bey ond a point
Thc~fore gain ~ cannot be inc
till always have an offset.

-
12.2.3 Proportional + Integ
Syllabua Topic : P· I Cont

ral Controller (P-1 Controll

roller

.De c . 201 2 M.t

er) *
2tJ 1 i lh..·L LU \-1 t,1J
lu 1 ~
Dec. 2011 r.t.i , 2U 12
~P PU
ac~ known as o~fset One wa y of eUminuting the
tro llcn suf fer fro m a dra wb tro .
ller
Proportional coo J con tro ller along with the proportional con
oratina an inteara
offset is by incorp
formula.
The integral action ls liven by the
I
m. (t) • ~ e(t) dt + m(O)
en the integral action starts.
m(O) is the controller output wh the curve. Hence an
the inte gral of a fun ctio n bas ically calculates the area under
As we know, signal e(t),
which is the integral of the error
integral controller gives out a signal ilgnal proportional
tro ller. the pro por tion al uni t tri~ a to co ~t the error by giving I ues to give a
In the P-1 con
cee d com ple te!Y • ~ inte gra l_ urut of the P-1 controller contin the increase in
to the error but docs not suc is
r (of fse t. m this cas e) exists. Larger the eJTOr, faster
COntrot signal as long as the eno rrcnt \o the
lon g as the off set exi sts, the integral action provides cx tn cu.
the controller output Hence as
w: Control 8re (SPPU) 12•7 Contro1en1 and D1gtta1 Control

property , the integral

8r-::
control valve. The integral action eventually removes the offseL Due to this
control action is also known as automatic reseL
The rnadlematical expression for a P-1 controller is given below.
t
m(t) f
= K., e(t) + Kt e(t) dt + m(O)
0
A block diagram of a P-1 controller is shown in Fig. 12.2.7.
P-1 Controller
~------------------------
' I
2- ,.
m(t):• - '-• -
- -
--
I
I
: a,
n ,..___. C(e)
R(s)- .., t--+-.-.. Kpt-- -.a
-, I
8(1+ ~,J
e(t) •I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
-------------------------
Fig.12.2.7
2
(1)

Here, ( ..,~ • ) is a standard second order system.

S S + ~(l)D •
that an integral
Comparing this with the block diagram of a proportional controller, we realize
action is added.
An integral action is equivalent to adding a pole to the transfer functio
n in the Laplace domain.
,.
( Since L [ jtt J = ¾).
,
:. The block diagram can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 12.2.8.
2 ..
M(s) ·-' o,n .__... C(s)
R(s)--111
8(s+~ ,.)
E(s)

-a
Fig. U.2.8

m(t) = K., e(t) + JG fe(t) dt + mo

Computing the Laplace transform we get,

M(s) = K, E(s) +~E( s) + Mo R(s) ---

:. M(a)• [ K,+~ ] E(s)+M o

We use block diagram reduction

_,.,fquee on Pia. 12.2.8 to obtain Fig. 12.2.9. Ff&.12.2.9
 12-8
SPPU) ~ Ind UIOlal

(K,+~co:
£!!l - G(s) _ s (s +lqoJ
R(s) -
1 + G(s) H(s) - (i +!i~ m2
K,
1+ I •
s (s +29a,.)
the tran5fer function of a P-1 controller is
fleOCC
C(s) - J ('£s+ Ki> co;
' R(s) - s + 2q»i + K,m! s+ Kim!
the system.
1be s3 term is due to the integral action. Hence a PI controller increases the order of
e unstable.
aet,ds to be designed carefully otherwise a third order system has a tendency to becom
~ Awell designed P-1 controller has the following features : ·
O) Improved damping and reduced overshoot
(%) 'kro offset
'" Increased rise time hence slow response
slow. It cbanga irl
The drawback of the P-1 controller is that the integral action is relatively
time to build up and
.,q,ut depending on the integrating time constant Kt· The integral action takes
response of a P-1
adinues to act till the offset error disappears. This makes the system slow. The
amtroller is shown in Fig. 12.2.10.
Output

Setpoint -------------------::.------.... .- - Offset • O

Flg.12.2.10

Syllabus Topi c: P-D Controller

,12.2.4 Proportional + Derivative Controller (P-D Controller) Jr

SPPU - Dec 2011 Mil 2012 OC'c 2012 r.1.t 2013 DPc 2U1-l U,1, ,:'/J1r,

We have observed that the proportional controller is slow. as increasing

K, would reduce the
unstable.
damping and thereby produce overshoots. It could also tend to make the system
A derivative action could help increase the speed of the response.
of error.
The derivative action gives an output which is proportional to tbcnt e of change
d
~ (t) = Kct dt e(t)
(A large current to the
As the error initially is large. the derivative action gives a large value
action lwornes zero u
~llve). ·As the error eventually becomes constant (offset), the derivative
i (eoostant) =0.
 ..
(IC Control Systems (SPPU) 12-9
Controllers and Digital Control Srterna
a
When combined with a proportional controller, the derivative controller increasea the
proportional action initially (a1 the r.~or is high) and decreases the proportional actioQ to its normal
value as error reduces and becomes constant.
The P-D controller henc~ inc~ases the speed of the controller output, 1ne mathematical
expression for a P-D controller iR given below,
d
m(t) = K., e(t) + ~ dt t(l) + ffio
Computing the Laplace transform, we get
M(s) .= K.,E(s}+KdaE(s)+M0

It is important to reali~ that as the error becomes constant (offset), Kd !~(t) = Oand the above
equation reduces to a simple proportional controller. Hence the P-D controller does not eliminate
OFFSET, A block diagram of the P-0 controller is shown in Fig. 12.2.1 l.
r··------------------im(t) '
. A(s) 1
K .__.., ....,._... mn ...___. C(s)

e(t)
-I P a(a + 2~.J '

!I d
K~dt _____ Jt
t _______________

Fig. 12.2.11

A derivative action is equivalent to addjng n zero to the transfer function int~ Laplace domain
(Siru:~ J.. [ft] = s). Therefore fig. 12.2.11 can be redrawn as shown in Pig. 12.2.12.
M(s) a
R(s) mn --c(s)
8(a +2~0 )
E(s)

Fl1. 12.2.12
l
(I)

He~ 1
<• + iQl>j is a standard second order system. We now solve this to obtain the P-P
tranlfer runction,
a
R(a) .,..___.. l<p + K.ie...,._--- mn • ---...... C(a)
'-<•+2~,.)

.. Fl1-12.2.13
 control systems (SPPU) 12-10
Controllers and 'Digital C .
ontrol Systems·

we know

...(12.2.2)

C(s) _ (~+s~)c,/
R(s) -
2 2 • (1: K4 cool 2
S + (J)n ':> + 2 ) S + K., 0),,
We compare this ~ith the standard second order equation without any controller ie
. 2 . ..,
(J)
p

.
S
2
+ 2~':>(J)nS + COn2
We not~ce that due to the derivative controller the original ~ of the system gets modified to
~O) •
(~ + 2 ° ). 1:Jence the derlva~ve action increas~s the damping factor. This in tum also reduces the
maximum overshoot. It also reduc~s rise time thus making the response fast. It is important to note
however that the P-D controller does not remove offset. A P-D controller is anticipatory as it is sensitive
l<? the rate of.change of error. •

Syllabus Topic : P-1-D Controller •

12.2.5 Proportional-Integral-Derivative
. .
Controller (P-I-D Controller} __A-
SPPU: Dec. 2011. Ma· 2012. Dec. 2012. Ma ;.21n3,
Mc1 2014. Dec. 2014. Mil 2015. Dec. 2015. Ma 2016
. . .
We have discu!ised the advantages of each of the modes. The proportional control gives a control
signal proportional to the error signal e(t). However proportional controllel;' suffer from offset. The
integral control calculates the integral of error thereby giving out u control signal as long as there is a
error. Hence the integral uction eliminates offset. The integral uction however slows down the system.
The derivative action computes the rate of chunge of error nnd gives out u control signal which increases
the speed of the respon_8e. •11ence u P-1-D controller, which. combine~ all the three modes, is the most
superior. A mathematical expression for P-1-D controller ls given below:

m(t) • l
t
K, e(I) + Ki e(t) 1\t + Kd ¼i e(t) + m,,
Computing the Lupluce trnnKform, we get
M(") • KP E(s) + ~ li(ai) + K.. 11 B(s) + M 0
w: Control Systems (SPPU) 12-11 Controllers and DigitaJ Control Systems

A simplified block diagram of a P-1-D controller is shown in Fig. 12.2.14.

K.,e-----

2
• R(s)-...- con . _... C(s)
+ a(a+2~•n>

Fig.12.2.14

Using block diagram reduction techniques we get,

R(s)-

I
Fig. 12.2.15
C(s) G(s)
Weknow R(s) = 1 + G(s) H(s)

C(s) (K,+~s+~(~(s+ro:~ro.J (K,+~+~)ro:

R(s)
=. 1+(TC +~s+.!l'I(
--.,
ro
s) \~ (s + 2~ ro.))
1= s(s+~o>J+(K,+~+~002•

C(s)
••• R(s)

This is the transfer function of a P-1-D controller.

12.3 Effect of Proportional, Integral and Derivative Control on the nme

Response of the System

The Table 12.3.1 will help us understand the effect of each of these on the Time response of the
system.
, eooDOI w:181111 (SP PU)
12-12
Controa.r. and 2 ' Control syatame
Table 12.3.J

---.~ De dm e(T ,)
Dec reas es
Pea k ovenhoot (M J Sea. . . . (T.> SS .t,a 1t1 enw e..
Increases No specific trend Decreases
-
~

-
-
JC.,
Kt
~
Hence
Dec reas es
No spec ific tren d
Increases
Decreases ~.
Increases Eliminates
No specif1e Tren d

use K., to decrease the Rise time.

1.
2.
use ~ to eliminate Stea dy state error.
3. use Ket to reduce over shoo t and Settling time.
ich ols Me tho d
Syl lab us Top ic : Co nce pt of Zie gle r-N

thod
12.4 PID Tu nin g usi ng Ziegler-Nichols Me
chapter, fmding the right vaJues of JC,. X. and
~ is
• As is evid ent from the earl ier sections of the a
ing satisfactorily. This is known as tuning of
very important to obta in a system that is work but is still very
e which was developed in the 1950's
controller. One approach is to use a techniqu od of
lar. This is kno wn as the Zieg ler Nich ols tuning method. The Ziegler-Nichols meth
popu
we shall discuss this method now.
tuning a PID controller is extremely simple and onal
Method), the controller is set to the poporti
• In the Zieg ler Nichols method (Closed loop slow ly incr ease d
modes off. The proportional gain is
mode by turning the Integral and Derivative
starts oscillating with constant amplitude. We
note
till the syst em becomes marginally stable and
down the value of the gain (Kailical).
12.4.1.
• The output of such a system is shown in Fig.
Output

Fl~ ll.4 .1
aine d
as critical period or ultimate peri od for sust
• The time period of the oscillation known
oscillations is noted u Tcr1aca1 • the
Nichols Tuning char t given belo w, we com pute
• Using ~ and Tc:ritial. and using the Ziegler
values of JC,. Kt and IC_. •
• T• ]
~ boolca .... t o ~ • K. and T -
I Ki- i.2 >< x_..., T - K.r T_ ,a ]
[,m I K,,•0.6>< ic. .- 0.6>c IC. -><
 M Control Systems (SPPU) 12-13 _Controllers ~-~- Digital ~tro l Systems

Let us write down the steps involved : .

J. Obtain the closed loop transfer. functions.
2. From the closed loop transfer function, obtain the Characteristic equation.
3. Using the Routh array calculate the value of ¾iuca J•
ined oscillation
4. Use the value of ~tica J in the Auxiliary equation to obtain the frequency of susta
wrad/sec. .
Using the value of ro, compute the value of critical period or ultimate period
TaincaJ•
5.
6. Using the values of ~ritic aJ and TaiticaJ calculate ~' ~ and ~.

12.5 Solved Examples -

.
Ex. 72.5.1 : Consider a closed loop~ syste m shown In R(s) w C(s)
... -r T nnrl ot,. I