RADAR

Radar stands for radio detection and ranging. It is based on the principle of
transmission of high power of energy into space and receiving it back after
getting reflected by an object – Aircraft. This is displayed visually on the screen
that gives the direction and distance of the object. The energy transmitted in tiny
bursts of carrier wave in the form of pulses modulating a sine wave carrier. The
energy received back is called “Echo”

Classification of Radar – Primary and Secondary

Primary Radar - With primary radars EM waves are beamed from the
transmitter via the aerial into the atmosphere. In the event that these pulses
strike a target, a small portion of the transmitted energy will hopefully be
reflected back to the aerial and fed into the receiver.

The direction in which the aerial is pointing at this time denotes the bearing of
the target, while the time between transmission and reception of each individual
pulse is used to determine target range from the radar head.

EM waves be transmitted in pulses (pulse radar) or continuously (Continuous

wave radar)

Example: Airport surface movement indicator (ASMI), Weather Radar, Airport

Surveillance Radar (ASR)

Advantages:
Ø It works independently. i.e. The active co-operation from the target is not
required.
Ø It engages several targets at the same time and generally does not get
saturated
Ø It only requires one set of transmitter and receiver

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
Disadvantages:

Ø Poor efficiency as the size of depends upon the size of the target
Ø Transmitting power has to be high, as the same energy has to return after
getting reflected.
Ø Receiver has to be very sensitive as the strength of the echo is weak.
Ø The transmitter and receiver have to be critically aligned for the
frequency.
Ø Fixed targets give permanent echoes and hamper in detecting moving
targets.

Secondary Radar – In this system interrogating pulses are transmitted y the

transmitter, know as “interrogator” these pulses are received by the equipment
fixed in the target, known as Transponder that then sends back the signal on a
different frequency.

Example – DME (Distant Measuring Equipment) and SSR

(Secondary Surveillance Radar)

Advantages:

Ø Distance range increases, as the radar transmission has to travel the

distance between the transmitter and the target one way only.
Ø Require low power
Ø Echo is not dependent on the size of the target

Disadvantages:

Ø It can be used for targets having the requisite transponder

Ø All secondary radars are like to get saturated

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
Distance Measuring Equipment:

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is a secondary radar system that enables

an aircraft to establish its range from a ground station. A pilot obtains accurate
magnetic bearings from a VHF Omni-range (VOR) beacon and accurate slant
ranges from a DME. The two facilities are normally co-sited to form the standard
ICAO approved RHO-THETA short range, “Line of Sight” navigation aid.

Principle: Works on Secondary Radar

Frequencies

Channels
DME (emission code P0N) is a secondary radar system operating between 960
and 1215 MHz in the UHF band at 1 MHz spacing; this provides 252 spot
frequencies or channels.

Working:

• When A/C equipment is tuned on a particular frequency, the interrogator

starts transmitting in pair of pulses at a PRF of 150 Pulses/ Sec, which is
called search or scanning mode.

• Ground station replies to each pair of pulse at a fixed delay of 50 micro

sec with a frequency of 63 MHZ remove from it to avoid self-triggering.

• Self-Triggering – which means that the transmitted wave may be reflected

back by clouds/obstacles/ground and received by the interrogator giving
wrong indication.

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
It has 3 modes:

• Lock on Mode – Avg of 27 PPS (Pulses per second)

• Standby Mode-60 PPS
• Search Mode – 150 PPS

Range = {(C xT) / 2}- Tp

C- Speed 3 x 10^8, T = T1+ T2, Tp = Processing Time

DME Paired With ILS Localizer Transmitter

DME is also frequency paired with the ILS localizer frequencies. These DME
supplement or replace the range information provided by the Marker Beacons.
The range information is zero referenced to the ILS runway threshold. DME is
obtained by selecting the ILS frequency.

Uses of DME

• Provides very accurate slant range,

• Integrates the change of slant range into groundspeed and elapsed times when
the aircraft is fitted with an appropriate computer.
• Permits more accurate flying of holding patterns and DME arcs.
• Provides range and height checks when flying non-precision approach
procedures, e.g. locator only and VOR letdowns.
• Indicates accurate ranges to the runway threshold, and heights for range, when
flying an ILS/DME procedure.
• Facilitates radar identification when the pilot reports his VOR/DME position.

Accuracy:

+/-0.25 NM +/-1.25% of range (+/-0.2 NM for precision systems). Slant range

error significant when aircraft range < 3 × height. Ground speed error increases
as aircraft goes higher and closer to station.

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
Secondary Surveillance Radar:

• Positive, individual aircraft identification is required for adequate safe

control by ATC, particularly in crowded airspace. This is accomplished
with the help of SSR, which uses secondary radar principle.

• SSR requires an aircraft to be fitted with a transmitter/receiver, called a

transponder. The pilot will set a four- figure code allocated by ATC and
the transponder will transmit information automatically, in pulse-coded
form, when it is interrogated by the ground station called the
interrogator. The transmissions are therefore only one way from
transmitter to receiver.

Frequency: Interrogator -1030 MHZ and Transponder - 1090 MHZ

Band – UHF
Principle: Mode and code pulse

Working:

The ground station transmits/interrogates on 1030 MHz and receives on 1090

MHz. The aircraft receives on 1030 MHz and transmits/transponds on 1090 MHz
after a delay of 50 microseconds. The SSR ground antenna transmits a narrow
beam in the horizontal plane while the aircraft transmits Omni-directionally i.e.
the radiation pattern is circular around the aircraft.

Mode A – Position and Identification

Mode B- Same as Mode A, not used anymore
Mode C – Position+ Altitude ( given in steps of 100’)
Mode S – Position + Altitude ( Given in steps of 25” )+ Additional data
transponder through A/C Flight Management System.

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
Codes with Specific Meaning:

7500- Unlawful Interference (Hijack)

7600-Communication failure
7700- Emergency on board
2000- No code allowed / Exiting FIR
0000- Transponder failure

Transponder Controls:

When Set OFF – the transponder is off

When set to SBY – the transponder is switched on but will not reply to
interrogation. The position is commonly used after engine start up and prior take
off, when operating in a controlled circuit and after landing
In ON position – The transponder will reply to interrogation but will send only
Mode A information only.
When ALT is selected – the transponder is on and will reply to interrogation.
Both Mode A and Mode C altitude information will be sent. When this mode is set
the controller is able to see your altitude in hundreds of feet as well as your
position
The test position - is a transponder test function

Occasionally the radar controller will instruct you “squawk” “ident”. This means
you must press the transponder IDENT button (Just once). This causes your
aircraft symbol on the radar screen to flash so that the controller can readily
identify your aircraft. You must not push the IDENT button till instructed.

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
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Instrument Landing System (ILS):

The Instrument Landing System (ILS) has been in existence for over 40 years
and is still the most accurate approach and landing aid in current use. The
system provides pilots with an accurate means of carrying out an instrument
approach to a runway, giving guidance both in the horizontal and the vertical
planes. It even enables aircraft to carry out automatic landings. ILS is a precision
approach system because it gives guidance in both the horizontal and the
vertical plane.

ILS provides the pilot with visual instructions in the cockpit to enable him to by
the aircraft down a predetermined glide path and extended runway center line
(localizer) to his Decision Height (DH). At decision height the pilot decides to
land (if he has the required visual references and sufficient room to manoeuvre
the aircraft for a safe touchdown) or he goes around (overshoots) and carries out
the published missed approach procedure.

Principle: Bearing by lobe comparison or DDM

ILS Frequencies

Localizer

VHF band between 108 and 111.975 MHz to provide 40 channels, e.g. 108.1
108.15; 108.3 108.35; 108.5 108.55 -111.95 MHz.
This part of the frequency band is shared with VOR: the frequencies allocated are
odd decimals and odd decimals + 0.05 MHz.

Glide Path

UHF band between 329.15 and 335 MHz to provide 40 complementary channels.
e.g. 329.15, 329.3, 329.45, 329.6 - 335 MHz.

Markers

All markers transmit at 75 MHz. There is no interference problem as the

radiation pattern is a narrow fan-shaped vertical beam.

Frequency Pairing
The GP frequency is paired with the localizer and selection of the frequency is
automatic.

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
ILS Principle of Operation

The Localizer

The localizer antenna produces two overlapping lobes along the runway
approach direction. The lobes are transmitted on a single VHF ILS frequency. In
order that an aircraft’s ILS receiver can distinguish between the lobes:

• the right hand lobe (the blue sector) has a 150 Hz modulation.
• the left hand lobe (the yellow sector) has a 90 Hz modulation.

The depth of modulation (DoM) increases away from the centre line i.e. the
amplitude of the modulating signal increases away from the centre line. An
aircraft approaching the runway centre line from the right will receive more of
the 150 Hz signal than the 90 Hz modulations. This difference in depth of
modulation (DDM) relates to the angular displacement of the aircraft from the
centre line; it energizes the vertical needle of the ILS indicator, i.e. Go Left .

Similarly an aircraft approaching the runway centre line from the left will
receive more of the 90 Hz signal than the 150 Hz modulation; the DDM energizes
the vertical needle, i.e. Go Right.
A DDM of zero indicates a balance between modulations, a zero needle-
deflection and hence the runways centre line.

ILS Coverage:

Vertical Coverage = -1˚ to +7˚

Horizontal Coverage= 10˚- 25nm either side and 35˚- 17nm Either Side

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
Back Course IL
There is a mirror image behind the localizer aerial so ILS indications are received
on aircraft equipment. Back Course ILS is used in some countries but is not
permitted in the United Kingdom. Ignore any back course indications in the
United Kingdom. Back course ILS does not provide vertical guidance

Glide Slope

The glide slope UHF transmitter is located to one side of the runway
approximately 200 m from the runway edge, 300 m upwind of the threshold.
The same principle is used as for the localizer, but a UHF carrier wave is used
and the lobes are in the vertical plane.

The upper lobe (large lobe) has a 90 Hz modulation, and the bottom lobe (small
lobe) has a 150 Hz modulation. The glide path, usually 3° (ICAO require glide
path angle between 2° and 4°), is defined where the DDM of the overlapping
lobes is zero and the ILS indicator’s glide path needle will indicate zero
deviation.

Glide Slope Coverage: 10 NM (18.5 km) in sectors of 8° in azimuth on each side

of the centre line.

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
False Glide Slope(s)

These are defined as the paths of points, in the vertical plane, containing the
runway centre line at which the DDM is zero; other than that path of points
forming the ILS glide path. The twin lobes are repeated due to:
• Metallic structures situated at the transmission point, and ground reflections.
• The height and propagation characteristics of the aerial.
The first false glide slope occurs at approximately twice the glide path angle, 6°
above ground for a standard 3° glide path. False glide slopes always occur above
the true glide slope and should not constitute a danger but pilots should be
aware of their presence.
It is advisable to always confirm the aircraft height in relation to distance to go
by reference to DME, markers, locators etc.

Marker Beacons:

These are used to alert the pilot that an action e.g. the altitude check is needed.
The information is presented to the pilot by audio and visual cues.

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
ILS Categories (ICAO)

ILS Facility Performance Categories (Ground Installation)

Category I
A category I ILS is one which provides guidance information from the coverage
limit of the ILS to the point at which the localizer course line intersects the ILS
glide path at a height of 200 (60 m) or less above the horizontal plane
containing the threshold.

Category II

An ILS which provides guidance information from the coverage limit of the ILS to
the point at which the localizer course line intersects the ILS glide path at a
height of 50 (15 m) or less above the horizontal plane containing the threshold.

Category III

An ILS, which with the aid of ancillary equipment where necessary, provides
guidance information from coverage limit of the facility to, and along, the runway
surface.

Operational Performance Categories

The improvement in the ground installations allows guidance down to the

surface of a runway and requires a corresponding improvement in the airborne
equipment. An aircraft may be certified to operate to one of the following
classifications:

The acceptance of category II or III operations will depend on whether the

following criteria are met:

• The aeroplane has suitable flight characteristics.

• The aeroplane will be operated by a qualified crew in conformity with laid
down procedures
• The aerodrome is suitably equipped and maintained.
• It can be shown that the required safety
level can be maintained. CAPT. KSHITEEJ SAVARDEKAR
SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
RADIO ALTIMETER

Principle: Reflection of RF pulses (Primary Radar)

• It is an airborne electronic device capable of measuring the height of the

aircraft above terrain immediately below the aircraft.

• It is designed to provide an accurate reference, in some cases within 2ft of

the aircraft above ground.

• In most cases in general and commercial this device is operational

upto2500ft above ground level.

• It works on the frequency shift band of 4200 – 4400 Mhz.

• It transmits FM radio waves on a particular frequency that changes at

particular rate of 60Mhz (Known rate) and receives its echo from the
ground in the reception unit.

• The frequency of the reflected signal is different than that of the

transmitted at that instance.

• Difference in frequency= Rate of change of frequency x time

• The half of the time taken is the height of the aircraft. This is indicated
either by a needle over a dial of meter or by digits

WEATHER / AIRBORNE RADAR

Weather radar is airborne pulse radar designed to locate turbulent clouds ahead
of an aircraft.

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Principle: Reflection of RF pulses (Primary Radar) Ph: +919699303165
For Detection of clouds, conical beam is transmitted which widens with the
distance.

The weather radar has four main functions:

• Locating clouds ahead of the aircraft

• Assisting the pilot to avoid turbulent clouds
• Determining the location and height of cloud tops
• Mapping of the terrain ahead

Weather Radar operates in C and X bands. Range of weather radar is around 360
NM.

C - Freq. 5.5Ghz
X - Freq. 9.4 Ghz

Weather Depiction: Size of the concentration of droplet in a cloud is an

indication of presence of turbulence

The steeper the rainfall gradient greater the likelihood of turbulence

Color codes according to intensity of rainfall are as follows:

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (TCAS)

AKA AIRBORNE COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM

TCAS is a family of airborne devices that provide collision avoidance protection

and airspace situational awareness that is completely independent of the ground
based ATC system. Its primary purpose is to make aware the pilot by display and
aural voice system of the aircraft that comes in close proximity of creating a
collision hazard.

Frequency:- 1030 – 1090 MHZ

Band: UHF

Principle- Works on Secondary Radar Principle

Working

TCAS airborne equipment transmits a radio frequency interrogation signal to

nearby aircraft transponders and then processes the subsequent replies.

It determines Range, bearing and relative altitude of the other aircraft and its
flight distance is determined by the time it takes for the RF signals to go from
TCAS to nearby transponders and back.

Bearing is determined by TCAS directional antennas on the top and bottom of

the aircraft. Altitude of the intruder is determined by decoding the barometric
altitude reported by the transponders Mode C or Mode S reply. The resulting
aircraft targets are displayed on the cockpits display.

TCAS predicts flight paths from the information received and if the flight path of
an aircraft is predicted to penetrate the collision area surrounding a TCAS
aircraft the TCAS issues aural warning like “ Traffic, Traffic”. If the collision
threat increases, then certain type of TCAS issue commands like “ Climb, climb”.

ACAS is Airborne Collision Avoidance System as called by ICAO for TCAS.

Types of TCAS:

TCAS – 1: only Traffic advisory

TCAS – 2 :
• Traffic advisory (TA)
• Resolution advisory (RA)
• Clear of conflict

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM (GPWS)

This system gives visual and as well aural warning signals to a pilot when the
aircraft goes in close proximity to the ground that may be potentially dangerous.
It alerts the pilot only of ground underneath but not that which is ahead like
mountains.

Inputs:

Height of A/C from - Radio Altimeter

Rate of Decent from – Vertical Speed Indicator
Configuration of A/C – Landing Gear and flaps
Deviation from glideslope – ILS equipment

MODES: Remember AS “RENUG”

EGPWS – Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System.

Along with the GPWS function, this will mention the obstacles, which is ahead. It
has its database of ground profile in area towards which A/C is flying. The
database is provided for general terrain worldwide for obstacle in certain area.
But it has to be updated every now and then.

It also gives alerts and warning for Wind shear and Bank angle

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
Inputs:

a) Air Data System (Barometric Altitude and static air temperature)-

Altitude, IAS, VSI
b) Inertial Reference Unit (Inertial Navigation Unit if installed). – For GS,
TRK, HDG
c) Instrument Landing System. – Glideslope deviation
d) Radio Altimeters. – Height

MODES:

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
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GNSS : Global Navigation Satellite System

It a satellite navigation or satnav system is a system that uses satellites to

provide autonomous geo- spatial positioning. It allows small electronic receivers
to determine their location (Longitude, Latitude and altitude) to high precision
(within few centimeters and meters)

Two systems of satellite navigation exist: GPS or Navstar Global Positioning

Service developed by the USA, and GLONASS, the Russian equivalent.

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

It is a satellite based radio navigation system owned by the United States

Government and Operated by the US Space Force.

For civil aviation, GPS is capable of providing users with the following
information:

• Position, in three dimensions

• Velocity determination
• Time

Frequency:

Current satellite signals transmit on two frequencies. These are identified as L1

(1575.42 MHz) and L2 (1227.60 MHz).

This modulation provides Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) sequences that carry
messages and make up two codes. These two codes are known as:

Coarse/Acquisition code (C/A)

This code provides the Standard Position Service (SPS) and is available to all
users.

Precision code (P)

A Precision Position Service (PPS) is provided. The availability of the P code is
limited to users authorized by the US Department of Defense.

L2 ONLY USES P CODE- This is encrypted and only used by US Department of

defense.

BAND: UHF

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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
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Each Satellite has its own unique code. This code consists of

a) Satellite position in its orbit

b) Satellite clock time
c) Satellite clock error
d) Information on Ionosphere
e) Supplementary information

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

GPS uses a similar principle of operation to radar:

• The satellite transmits a signal.

• The receiver notes the time the satellite signal is received.
• Comparing the time of transmission to the time of receipt provides a
distance from the satellite.

Example: Assume that 2 people on the surface of the Earth are a set distance
away from a satellite (also on the Earth’s surface).

Suppose the satellite transmits a sound signal that both people receive 10
seconds after transmission.

If the speed of sound is 340 m/s, each person is 3400 m from the satellite. The
distance measurement depends upon:

• The satellite transmitting at the correct time

• The speed of sound being exactly 340 m/s
• The clocks of the receivers being correct and synchronized to the satellite
clock
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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
The example above provides only one range measurement, indicating only that
each person is somewhere on a circular line of position at a range of 3400 m.

If the pilot of an aircraft receives the same satellite signal 10 seconds after
transmission, the aircraft could be anywhere on a spherical surface with a radius
of 3400 meters from the satellite.

For a person on the ground, one satellite only gives one position line. Three
satellites will give a three-position line fix. As soon as a fix is required in 3
dimensions, a fourth satellite is required.

THE GPS SYSTEM:

The GPS system consists of three segments:

• The Space Segment

• The Control Segment
• The User Segment CAPT. KSHITEEJ SAVARDEKAR
SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
THE SPACE SEGMENT

The space segment consists of a group of satellites known as a constellation,

which provides the navigation signals. GPS consists of 24 satellites, 21 of which
are operational, and 3 operational spares. The constellation is arranged in six
orbital paths with four satellites in each orbit. The orbits are inclined at 55° to
the equator, and are separated from each other by 60° of latitude as they cross
the Equator.

A satellite is considered masked when it is less than 5° above the observer’s

horizon. Masked satellites are not used in the navigation solution.

Orbit Height: Approximately 20 200 km Orbit Time: Approximately 12 hours

THE CONTROL SEGMENT:

The GPS control segment comprises:

• A Master Control Station

• A Back-up Control Station
• 5 Monitoring Stations

The monitoring stations check the SVs’ internally computed position and clock
time at least once every 12 hours.

THE USER SEGMENT:

• GPS receiver identifies a given satellite by matching the unique code from
that satellite.

• Data superimposed on the code gives satellite position (Ephemeris) and

GPS system time at which the signal was emitted.

• Receiver has a clock and it calculates how much time it took the signal to
travel from the satellite to receiver.

• The speed of light 3x10^8 m/s and the distance from satellite to receiver
is computed.

• Corrections are made due to slowing down of signal through atmosphere.

• Using the computed distances to 4 satellites, the receiver computes its 3D

position by mathematical triangulation.
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SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM
MLS is a precision approach and landing system that provides position
information and various ground to air data. The position information is provided
in a wide coverage sector and is determined by an azimuth angle measurement,
an elevation measurement and a range measurement.

The Microwave Landing System (MLS) was designed to replace ILS with an
advanced precision approach system that would overcome the disadvantages of
ILS and also provide greater flexibility to its users. However, there are few MLS
installations in use at present and they are likely to co-exist with ILS for a long
time.

Because of its increased azimuth and elevation coverage aircraft can choose their
own approaches. This will increase runway utilization and be beneficial to
helicopters and STOL aircraft.

Frequency: 5031 - 5090.7 MHz.

Band: SHF

Principle: Works on Time reference Scanning Beam

ILS Disadvantages

• There are only 40 channels available worldwide.

• The azimuth and glide slope beams are fixed and narrow. As a result, aircraft
have to be sequenced and adequately separated which causes landing delays.
• There are no special procedures available for slower aircraft, helicopters, and
Short Take-off and Landing (STOL) aircraft.
• ILS cannot be sited in hilly areas and it requires large expanses of flat, cleared
land to minimize interference with the localizer and glide slope beams.
• Vehicles, taxiing aircraft, low- flying aircraft and buildings have to be kept well
away from the transmission sites to minimize localizer and glide slope course
deviations (bending of the beams).

Components:

• There are 200 channels available worldwide.

• The azimuth coverage is at least ± 40° of the runway on-course line
(QDM) and glide slopes from 0.9° to 20° can be selected. The usable range
is 20-30 NM from the MLS site; 20 NM in the UK.
• Range – DME provides distance information
• There is no problem with back course transmissions; a secondary system
is provided to give overshoot and departure guidance ± 20° of runway
direction up to 15° in elevation to a range of 10 NM and a height of 10000.

CAPT. KSHITEEJ SAVARDEKAR

SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165
WORKING:

1. A fan shaped narrow beam sweeps at very accurate constant speed from
one side of a sector to the other side after specific interval called guard
time.
2. TRSB sweeps to and fro by 80˚ in azimuth and 19˚ in elevation.
3. A/C receiver receives signal twice and time difference between each
received signal relates to angular deviation from required track
4. DME gives distance from touchdown

CAPT. KSHITEEJ SAVARDEKAR

SKYLARK AVIATION SCHOOL
Ph: +919699303165