ELE 4116

Electrical Installation Design

Name: Paul Kyoma Asiimwe
Email: [email protected]

Textbooks:
1. Electrical Installation Designs, by Bill Atkinson
2. Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings by W. Grondzik, A. Kwok

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 1. Electrical Installation Design
1.0 Introduction
• Design:
• a plan or drawing produced to show the look and function or workings of a building, garment, or other object before it is
made.
• A process that involves understanding a problem or need, generating ideas, and developing a solution that is both functional
and aesthetically pleasing.

• Electrical Installation Design:

• process of planning and specifying the electrical systems and components required to safely and efficiently supply power within
a building or structure.
• It involves creation of detailed plans and diagrams that outline how electrical wiring, circuits, outlets, switches, lighting,
and other electrical devices will be installed, connected, and distributed throughout a space.

1.1 Key Aspects of Electrical Installation Design

1. Load Calculation: Determination of power requirements, including total electrical load required to operate all devices, appliances,
lighting and other systems

2. Circuit Design: Planning of electrical circuits, including number and type of circuits needed, circuit brakers and arrangement of
wiring 2
 1. Electrical Installation Design
3. Component selection: Choosing appropriate electrical components such as cables, switches, etc that meet safety standards and
performance requirements.

4. Compliance with standards : Ensuring endurance to relevant codes, standards and regulations to ensure safety and legal
compliance.

5. Safety considerations: e.g. grounding, overcurrent protection, surge protection etc to prevent electrical hazards like fire, shock and
equipment damage.

6. Energy efficiency: This might involve selecting energy efficiency components, planning for load distribution and integrating
renewable energy sources.

7. Documentation: Creation of detailed drawings, schematics, and specifications that electricians and contractors will use to install
the electrical system.

1.2 Why Electrical Installation Design

• Safety: minimise the risk of electrical hazards e.g. fires, shocks, and short circuits.

• Functionality: meet specific needs of the building, for all intended purposes.

• Efficiency: Ensure optimal power distribution and energy efficiency

• Code compliance: Adhere to electrical codes and regulations for legal compliance and building approval. 3
 1. Electrical Installation Design

1.3 Design Team structure

• Electrical installation design falls under building services engineering in the design process of a building structure.

• Building services engineering focuses on the design, installation and maintenance of systems that make the buildings comfortable,
safe and efficient, functional and sustainable.
• It entails mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing (MEP) engineers. i.e.
• Mechanical Engineers: In charge of climate control. They design heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems,
ensuring comfortable temperatures and fresh air circulation. They also design plumbing, fire protection and fuel gas systems.
• Electrical engineers: They design lighting systems and ensure efficient power distribution and communication networks.
• Plumbing engineers: They design water supply, drainage, and wastewater systems.

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 1. Electrical Installation Design
1.4 Electrical Codes and Standards
• These are sets of rules and guidelines for the design, operation and maintenance of electrical systems

• Their purpose is to ensure:

• safety: protection of people and property from electrical hazards such as fire, shocks and electrocution
• Reliability: consistent and dependable electrical performance.
• Efficiency: promotion of energy conservation and optimal system performance
• Compatibility: facilitation of interoperability of electrical equipment and systems
• Compliance: it is often required by law to comply with codes and standards

• Code: Mandatory regulations enforceable by law or regulatory bodies. None compliance can result in prosecution. e.g. BS7671:
Requirements for electrical installations (aka wiring regulations), International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), National Electrical
Code (USA) etc

• Standard: Voluntary guidelines developed by industry experts. Compliance is optional but encourage for quality control. e.g. UNBS
Note: Regulations: These incorporate codes and standards. They must be complied with.
1.4.1 Ugandan Case:
1. The National Building (Standards for Electrical Installations in Buildings) Code, 2019
• Provides guidelines for the design, installation, operation and maintenance of electrical systems in buildings. 5
 1. Electrical Installation Design
2. Electricity (safety code) regulations, 2003.
• Focused on the safety aspects of electrical installations
3. Electricity (primary grid code) regulations, 2003.
• Provides guidelines for operating the Uganda power system.
Reading Assignment: Read section 3 of The National Building (Standards for Electrical Installations in Buildings) Code, 2019
Download link:
https://www.kcca.go.ug/media/docs/The%20National%20Building%20(Standards%20for%20Electrical%20Installations%20In%20Buildings)%2
0Code,%202019.pdf

1.5 General Considerations in Electrical installation design

• In any design, there are always many possible solutions to each problem, some good, some fair, some poor.

• Experience guides designers to a best solution for the problem, given the cost constraints, design intent and criteria.

• The design must meet all requirements for local and national building codes.

• The major considerations in any electrical installation design are:-

1. Safety: Though code adherence ensures initial safe electrical installation, the designer must know the potential for electric
hazards caused by misuse and failure of equipment.
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 1. Electrical Installation Design

2. Flexibility: There should always be enough flexibility in circuitry, feeders and panels to accommodate all reasonably probable
patterns, arrangements and locations of electrical loads.

3. Reliability: The service record of the utility should be studied along with the cost implications of a power outage to
determine whether and to what extent standby power equipment is justified.

4. Economic considerations: This can be divided under initial cost and life cycle costs. Note that low initial costs usually
translates to higher energy costs, higher maintenance costs and shorter life, hence a higher life cycle cost.

5. Energy considerations: These might involve energy codes and budgets, energy efficiency techniques and energy control.

6. Space allocations: It is usually assumed that all electrical equipment is easily concealed. That is true for wires and conduits,
but not panels, switchboards, transformers etc.

7. Special considerations. These depend on the facility, and may include items like security, central/remote control,
interconnection with other facilities, special needs people etc.
1.6 Electrical Wiring Design Procedure
• The steps may be performed in different order, or some steps maybe combined.
1. Estimate the electrical load based on the building area and any building data and information
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 1. Electrical Installation Design

2. Decide on the point of service entrance, type of run, service voltage, metering location in conjunction with the local electric
utility.

3. Determine the proposed usage of all areas and information about all client furnished equipment including their ratings and service
connection requirements.

4. Determine from other consultants (e.g. HVAC, plumbing, elevators consultants) the exact ratings for all the equipment under
their section.

5. Determine the location and estimate the size of all required electrical equipment spaces including switchboards roams, electrical
closets, panelboards etc. (Why is this important early in the design process?)

6. Design the lighting for the facility.

7. On the plans,

• locate all electrical equipment including lighting, receptacles, switches, motors etc.

• Locate data-processing and signal apparatus such as telecommunication outlets, network connections, phone outlets,
speakers, microphones, TV outlets, fire and smoke detectors etc.

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 1. Electrical Installation Design

• Locate data-processing and signal apparatus such as telecommunication outlets, network connections, phone outlets,
speakers, microphones, TV outlets, fire and smoke detectors etc.

• Circuit all lighting devices and power equipment to the appropriate panels and prepare the panel schedules

8. Compute all panel loads.

9. Prepare a riser diagram. This includes the design of distribution panels, switchboards, and service equipment.

10. Compute feeder sizes and all protective equipment ratings

11. Check the preceding work.

Note: Design is a continual process, and adjustments are made as new information is gained.

Assignment 1.1

1. Describe the different types of electrical drawings (design, construction, shop, record, composite, as built)

2. Explain the different electrical design stages (Concept, preliminary, developed, detailed, construction design phases)

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 2. Load Estimation
2.1 Introduction
• Electrical load: Amount of electrical power used by a device, system or facility at a specified point in time. Measured in W, or kW.

• Loads can be:

• Resistive: convert electrical energy to heat e.g. heaters and cookers

• Inductive : use electromagnetic fields e.g. motors and transformers

• Capacitive: store electrical energy e.g. capacitor banks

• Note: The size of your electrical panel is based on this calculation.

• Electrical loads in a building can either be:

• Continuous loads: run none stop and hence require steady and continuous supply of power.

• Non-continuous loads: these run for short periods of time

• Electrical load in any facility can be categorized as:-

1. Lighting: these vary significantly depending on the type of lighting used, number of fixtures and hours of use.

2. Miscellaneous power, which include data processing equipment and peripheral equipment, convenience outlets and small motors

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 2. Load Estimation

3. HVAC equipment, including fuel pumps, boiler motors, air handling units, exhaust fans, refrigeration compressors etc

4. Plumbing and other piping-based systems: Loads associated with water and sanitary systems such as water pumps, air
compressors and vacuum pumps, fire pumps, water heaters and display fountain pumps etc. They also include electrical loads
associated with fixed piping systems such as cooking gas, medical gas piping, distilled water systems etc

5. Mechanized transport equipment and fixed material handling equipment: e.g. lifts/elevators, escalators, moving walkways and
ramps, conveyors etc.

6. Kitchen equipment: e.g. cookers, ovens, dishwashers etc.

7. Special equipment: These are associated with specialized equipment e.g. laboratory, medical and industrial machinery.

2.2 Common terms in load estimation

• Connected load: sum of all loads connected to the electrical system (kW).
• Maximum demand: Maximum load which the consumer uses at any given time.
• Demand factor or Maximum utilization
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

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 2. Load Estimation

• Note: Demand factor is applied to individual loads, especially electric motors as they are rarely operated at full load. For buildings,
it typically ranges between 50-80%

• Diversity factor
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
• Coincidence factor or Factor of simultaneity:
1
𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

• Load factor:
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

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 2. Load Estimation
Example 2.1
A residential consumer has 10 lamps of 40W each connected at his premises. His demand is as follows:
12am – 5am 40W
5am – 6pm No load
6pm – 7pm 320W
7pm – 9pm 360W
9pm - 12am 160W
Plot the load curve. Find the average load, the maximum load, the load factor and electric energy consumption during the day.
Ans:
Total energy consumed during 24 hrs = 5x40 + 1x320 + 2x360 + 3x160 = 1720 Wh
Load factor = 1720/ (360x24) = 19.9% (formula 2 of load factor)
Average load = 1720/24 = 71.7W
Maximum load = 360W
Note: From formula 1 of load factor, Load factor = 71.7/360 = 19.9%

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 2. Load Estimation
Example 2.2
Four customers of electricity have different load requirements at different times. Consumer 1 as a maximum demand of 2KW at 9pm
and a demand of 1.6kW at 8pm and a daily load factor of 15%. Consumer 2 has a maximum demand of 2kW at 12 noon, a load of
1kW at 8pm and an average load of 500W. Consumer 3 has a maximum demand of 8kW at 5pm, a load of 5kW at 8pm and a daily
load factor of 25%. Consumer 4 has an average load of 1kW and a maximum demand is 4kW at 8pm. Determine (i)the diversity factor,
(ii) the load factor and average load of each consumer, (iii) and the average load and load factor of the combined load
Ans:
Maximum demand of the system at 8pm = 1.6 + 1 +5 + 4 = 11.6kW
Sum of individual maximum demand = 2 + 2 + 8 + 4 = 16kW
Diversity factor = 16/11.6 = 1.379
ii)
Consumer 1: Average load = 0.15 x2 = 0.3kW, LF 15%
Consumer 2: Average load = 0.5 kW, LF = 0.5/2 x100 = 25%
Consumer 3: Average load = 0.25 x 8 = 2kW, LF = 25%
Consumer 4: Average load = 1kW, LF = ¼ x 100 = 25%
iii)
Combined average load = 0.3 + 0.5 + 2 + 1 = 3.8kW
Combined LF = 3.8/11.6 x 100 = 32.75%
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 2. Load Estimation
2.3 Methods of load estimation
Preliminary load calculations Final load calculations
Units of load are W/m2 or VA/m2 Units of load are kW or kVA or HP
Unity power factor is assumed Different values of power factors are used
depending on load types
Demand and load factors are selected from Demand and load factors are real values
tables
The connected load will be estimated based Actual demand load will be calculated based
on area or population on summation of the individual loads times
demand and diversity factors
Easy and fast calculation Economical, cost-effective calculations
ensuring equipment and materials are adequate
to serve existing, new and future load
demands

2.3.1 Preliminary load calculations

• These are divided into space by space (functional area method), building area method and Area method.
• A design can sometimes use one, two or all the methods.
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 2. Load Estimation
2.3.1.1 Space by space method (functional area method)

• The building is divided into functional areas. e.g. offices, corridors, shops etc

• The load density in W/m2 or VA/m2 is then used to estimate the load. These values are got from tables.

• The load density can either be grouped (one value covering all the lighting, general power and power load) or individual (individual
values for lighting, general power and power loads)

Example 2.3

You have been hired to design a power supply of a high-rise office building with a shopping arcade. It has:
• 14 levels with each having real floor area approx.. 1350m2
• Utilities area of 210m2

• The area is divided into:

• Parking ( levels -1 to -3)
• Shopping center and bank (level 0)
• Offices (levels +1 to +10)

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 2. Load Estimation
The floor heights of levels 0 to +10 are 4m and -1 to -3 are 3m. Calculate the estimated load and the size of the required transformer.
Solution:
Step 1: calculate areas of each space:
Parking garage + utilities [level -1 to -3] = 3 x 1350 + 210 = 4260 m2
Shopping center/bank [level 0] = 1 x 1350 = 1350 m2
Offices [level +1 to +10] = 10 x 1350 = 13,500 m2
Step 2: Determine grouped loaded density for each space
From the tables, we will assume the highest possible values
Parking garage + utilities [level -1 to -3] = 4260 x 10 = 24,600 W
Shopping center/bank [level 0] = 1350 x 60 = 81,000 W
Offices [level +1 to +10] = 13,500 x 50 = 675,000 W
Step 3: Get the total load
= 780.6 kW
Step 4: Get the capacity of transformer
Assume power factor of 0.85 and maximum transformer loading of 70%
Transformer output rating = 780.6/(0.7 x 0.85) = 1,311.9 kVA.
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 2. Load Estimation

Table 1 table 2
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 2. Load Estimation
Assignment 2.4
Solve 2.3 using individual load densities in table 3. State any assumptions made.
2.3.1.2 Building area method
• The building is divided into different areas based on occupancy or use (residential, commercial, industrial).

• It is much easier but lacks the flexibility of space-by-space method.

• Gross area (area from the outside of exterior walls) is used in this calculation.

Note: Load densities are based on historical data or industry standards.

Example 2.5

An educational building has power densities as follows

Load density (W/m2) for non AC zone Load density (W/m2) for AC zone
15 90

Calculate the preliminary electrical load for transformers feeding an academic building which has 4 floors with floor area 3250 m2
assuming each of the cases. Assume power factor of 0.85 and transformer load level of 70%. (AC : 1967kVA, non AC : 328kVA)
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 2. Load Estimation

2.3.1.3 Area method

• Used for large areas with multiple building e.g. industrial, commercial, military etc

• This method is used to design substations serving these areas.

• Individual building loads are calculated using space-by-space or building area methods.

• A diversity factor is applied to account for unlikely event of all building operating simultaneously at maximum load.

• There are two methods under area method

1. Basic method:

• Used for one level of electrical distribution inside an area. i.e. feeders for individual building originate from the main substation
switch gear

2. Load centers method

• This method is used for multi levels of electrical distributions inside the areas. i.e. group of individual buildings can be connected to
sub-main switchgear far from the main switchgear.

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 2. Load Estimation
• The choice between these three methods depends on:
1. Stage of design:
• Preliminary design or early planning stage: Lower accuracy required, Building area and area methods are okay.
• Detailed design stage: High accuracy required. Used space-by-space method
2. Complexity and functionality of the building:
• Simple or uniform buildings : Use building area method or Area method
• Complex or multi-use buildings : Use space-by-space method.
3. Availability of information
• Limited information: Use Building Area method or area method
• Detailed information: Use space by space method
4. Regulatory and code compliance
• Specific code compliance: Use space by space method
• General compliance: Use building area method
5. Accuracy requirements
• High accuracy: Use space by space method
• Moderate to low accuracy: Use Building area method or area method
6. Time and resource constraints
• Limited time and resources: Use building Area method or area method
• Adequate time and resources: Use space by space method

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 2. Load Estimation
Method Description Advantage Suitability Accuracy Level of detail
Space-by-space Calculates for More accurate and Complex buildings Highest Highest
individual space detailed
functions
Building area Estimate based on Simpler and quicker General estimates Lowest Lowest
entire building type than space-by-space
method
Area method Use floor area to Straightforward and Various building Intermediate Intermediate
estimate loads rapid estimate types

2.4 Actual load estimation (connected load method)

• Involves summing up the rated capacities of all electrical equipment in a building. This can be done by following steps below.

1. Identify all electrical devices and appliances

• List all devices that will be used in the area
• Categorize by type for easier calculation and later, circuit design.

2. Determine the power ratings

• Check the nameplates of the devices
• Use standard values or estimates based on similar devices
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 2. Load Estimation

3. Calculate the load of each device

3. Single phase devices: Load (W) = Voltage x Current
4. Three phase devices 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 3 𝑥 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

4. Estimate the total connected load by summing up all the loads. This gives the total power requirement if all devices were running
simultaneously.

5. Apply demand factor: Demand factor depends on type of building and usage pattern. 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑥 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

6. Account for future expansion. Include a safety margin of about 10-20%

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 3. Illumination

3.1 Introduction
• Good lighting scheme improves work efficiency and reduce chances of accidents. It can also be used for decorative purposes and to
improve mood.

3.1.1 Important Terms

1. Light: Form of radiant energy that is capable of exciting the retina and producing visual sensation.

2. Radiant Efficiency: When temperature of a body is increased, energy is radiated in form of light, heat. Radiant energy is defined as
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

3. Plane angle: Angle made by two straight lines meeting at a point lying in the same plane
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑆
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃 = = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟
4. Solid Angle: The angle subtended at a point in space by an area.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜔 = = 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟

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 3. Illumination

5. Luminous flux: Light energy radiated per second from a luminous body. It is denoted by 𝜙 and measured in Lumens.

6. Luminous intensity: Luminous flux radiated out of a point source per unit solid angle, in a particular direction.
𝑑𝜙
𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎
𝑑𝜔
7. Illuminance or illumination: Total luminous flux received by a surface per unit area.
𝑑𝜙
𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐸 = 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠/𝑚
𝑑𝐴
Note: 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠/𝑚 is also called Lux

8. Luminance or Brightness: Luminous intensity of a source in a particular direction per unit of its projected area.
𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐼
𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿 = = 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎/𝑚
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑚
9. Luminous efficiency: ratio of the total luminous flux radiated by a source to its power intake (𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠/𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡)

10. Glare: Visual sensation caused by excessive and uncontrolled brightness in the field of view.

Assignment: Write short notes on the laws of illumination. i.e. Inverse square law, Lambert’s cosine Law and Cosine cube law.

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 3. Illumination

3.2 Light scheme

• Lighting Scheme refers to the design and arrangement of lighting within a specific space to achieve desired effects, functionality and
aesthetics.

• It involves selection of appropriate types, numbers, placements, and intensities of light fixtures to create a well-lit space that meets
the needs of the users and the purpose of the area.

3.2.1 Key components of a Lighting Scheme

1. Purpose and Function: The purpose determines the design. e.g. task lighting, ambient etc

2. Types of lighting
• Ambient lighting: Provides overall illumination for space ensuring that it is evenly lit. Can be achieved with ceiling fixtures,
recessed lighting or wall mounted fixtures.
• Task lighting: Focuses light on specific areas where an activity e.g. cooking, reading, working, are performed. This includes desk
lamps, under-cabinet lights etc
• Accent lighting: Used to highlight specific objects, features or areas within a space. e.g. artwork, sculpture, or architectural
elements. Spotlights and track lighting are commonly used for this.
• Decorative lighting: Primarily used for aesthetic purposes to add visual interest or drama to a space. Chandeliers and
statement light fixtures fall under this category.
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 3. Illumination

3. Light source types: The choice of lighting bulbs or fixtures (LED, Incandescent, fluorescent etc.) affects the brightness, energy
efficiency, colour temperature and lifespan of the lighting.

4. Placement and distribution: Proper placement of lights ensures even distribution and minimizes glare and shadows.

5. Intensity and control: Adjusting the intensity of lighting creates the right ambiance and ensures functionality. This can be achieved
by using dimmers, smart lighting systems.

6. Colour temperature and color rendering index:

• Color temperature: Measured in kelvins (K), color temperature affects the mood of the space. Warmer temperatures (2700 -
3000K) create a cozy and inviting temperature, while cooler temperatures (5000K – 6500K) are more energizing and suitable
for work environments.
• Color rendering index: Measure of how accurately a light source reveals colors of other objects compared to natural lighting.
A higher CRI (close to 100) implies better color rendering.

7. Energy Efficiency: This is important for sustainability and cost-saving purposes. LED lights, for example, are more energy efficient
than incandescent bulbs.

8. Aesthetics and style: Design and style contribute to the overall aesthetics of a space. Lighting scheme, therefore, should
complement the interior design and architectural style of an area.
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 3. Illumination

3.3 Requirements of good light scheme

1. Illumination level: This depends on the following factors:
• The nature of the work to be carried out.
• Size of the object and its distance from the observer. Smaller and/further objects require higher illumination.
• Moving objects requires more illumination.
• Color contrast. The greater the contrast, the less the illumination required.
• If the object s required to be seen for longer, the level of illumination will be higher.

2. Glare: Glare causes unnecessary eye fatigue. It can be reduced by using diffusing glass screens, suitable reflectors and proper
mounting heights. Reflected glare from polished surfaces should also be avoided.

3. Shadows: Formation of long and hard shadows must be avoided by:

• Using proper mounting heights of lamps.
• Using a greater number of lamps and providing indirect lighting
• Employing wide surface sources of light.

4. Color rendering: Incandescent lamps give out light in all wavelengths in the visible spectrum, hence causes color distortion. Such
lights (including sodium and mercury vapour lights) should be used in street lighting where color distortion doesn’t matter.
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 3. Illumination

5. Lamp fittings: These serve the following functions:

• Diffuse the light.
• Cut-off the light at certain angles to avoid glare.
• Give mechanical protection to light sources against damage.
• Increase the aesthetical requirements of the premises.
• Control colour of the lights.

6. Maintenance: Regular cleaning of light and light fittings is necessary to maintain their efficiency.

3.4 Factors that affect the design procedure of a good lighting scheme

1. Space to Height Ratio:

𝑇ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑀𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠

2. Coefficient of utilization or utilization factor

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠
𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝
29
 3. Illumination

• Utilization factor depends on:

• The height at which the lamps are fitted
• Type of the lighting scheme used
• Shape and size of the room
• Colour of the walls

3. Depreciation or maintenance factor: It considers the effects of aging, accumulation of dirt, dust, smoke on the surface of the lamp
etc.
𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

4. Waste light factor: When more lamps are provided than the actual requirements, there is light overlap. Hence, there is light
wastage. This factor is 1.2 for rectangular areas and 1.5 for irregular surfaces.

5. Beam Factor: Ratio of the lumens in a beam of a projector lamp to total lamp lumens.

6. Absorption factor
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
30
 3. Illumination
7. Reflection Factor:
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡ed 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

3.5 Determination of number of Luminaires

• Some of the methods used to calculate the number of bulbs required include:

1. Lumen method

• Used in spaces with simple geometry e.g. rectangle

𝐸𝑥𝐴
𝑁=
𝑛 𝑥 𝐹 𝑥 𝐷𝐹 𝑥 𝑈𝐹
where:
𝑁 − 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠; 𝐸 − 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑥 ; 𝐴 − 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑡;
n − 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑒; 𝐹 − 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡; 𝐷𝐹 − 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟; 𝑈𝐹 − 𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Example:

An office 8m by 7m requires an illumination level of 400 lx on the working plane. It is proposed to use 80W fluorescent light fittings having a
rated output of 7375 lumen each. Assumimg a utilization factor of 0.5 and a maintenance factor of 0.8, calculate the number of light fittings
required. (8 fittings)
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 3. Illumination

• In its simplest form, the lumen method reduces to

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑁=
𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏
2. Wattage method

• Determines the number of bulbs required based on their wattage and the total wattage required per room. i.e.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑁=
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏

3. Room Index Method

• This considers the shape of the room, reflectance of the walls and ceiling and the type of lighting fixture.

• It is more accurate than lumen or wattage methods but requires more calculations.

Note:
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑚 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝐾 =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ + 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

32
 3. Illumination

Example

An office area has length 20m, width 10m and height 3m. The ceiling to desk height is 2m. The area is to be illuminated to a general
level of 250 lux using twin lamp 32W CFL luminaires with SHR of 1.125. Each lamp has an initial output efficiency of 84 lumen per
watt. The lamps maintenance factor is 0.63 and utilization factor is 0.69. calculate the number of luminaires required and arrange a
suitable layout.

Step 1: Total wattage of the fixtures = Number of lamps x wattage of each lamp= 2 x32 =64 W

Step 2: Lumen per fixture = Lumen efficiency x wattage of each fixture = 85 x 64 = 5440 Lumen

Step 3: Number of fixtures = Required Lux x Room Area /(MF x UF x Lumen per fixture) = (250 x 20 x 10)/(0.63 x 0.69 x 5440)

= 21 fixtures

Step 4: Minimum spacing = SHR x Height to working plane = 2 x 1.25 = 2.25m

Step 5: Number of required rows along the room width = width of room/max spacing = 10/2.25 = 4 rows

Step 6: Number of fixtures in each row = total fixtures / number of rows = 21/4 = 5 fixtures

Step 7: Spacing along the width = 10/4 = 2.5m

Step 8: Spacing along the length = 20/5 = 4m

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 3. Illumination

4. Visual calculation Tools and Software

• This applies light design software such as DIALux, Relux or AGi32. These tools simulate lighting conditions, taking into
consideration factors such as room geometry, surface reflectance, and fixture type and distribution to help create a balanced
lighting scheme.

Example:

A general area requires a lighting level of 500 lx from a regular array of louvred luminaires. Given the following data, calculate the
number of luminaires required and arrange a suitable layout.

Room dimensions: length 8m, width 8m, height 2.8m.

Reflectances: ceiling 0.7, walls 0.5, working plane cavity 0.2

Working plane height = 0.8

Maintenance factor = 0.75

Maximum space to height ratio = 1.75

Ans: RI = 2.0, UF = 0.58, 9 Luminaires, layout 3x3

http://ibse.hk/SBS5312/SBS5312_exercise01_solutions.pdf

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 3. Illumination

3.6 Lamps
• Lamp: A device that produces artificial light. It is used for illumination, decoration or signaling.

• Lamps work u converting different forms of energy into visible light. These include:
• Electricity: When electricity flows through a lamp’s filament, gas or semiconductor, it causes them to emit photons.
• Gas: When gas is heated or exposed to an electric current, it produces light by ionization or excitation of its atoms.
• Solar: When solar energy hits a lamp’s photovoltaic cell, it generates an electric current that powers the lamp.

3.6.1 Types of Lamps

35
 3. Illumination

Assignment:

Write short notes on the following types of lamps giving the advantages, applications, life span and quality of light (Incandescent lamps.
Tungsten halogen lamps, Fluorescent lamps, Compact fluorescent lamps, mercury vapour lamps, Metal halide lamps, neon lamps, high
intensity discharge lamps, LED lamps)

36
 4. Electrical Wiring

4.1 Introduction
• Electrical wiring: A network of conductors and cables and associated devices that help in the distribution of electricity throughout
the building.

• Typical components in an electrical wiring include:

• Wires and cables: A wire is a single conductor whereas a cable is a group of conductors. Conductors are commonly made of
copper or aluminium to carry current. They are usually insulated to prevent short circuits and electric shocks.
• Conduits: Protective tubes or channels that house and protect electrical wires. They help to prevent damage to the wires.
• Circuit breakers and fuses. These are safety devices that protect the wiring system from overload or short circuits by
interrupting the flow of electricity during a fault.
• Switches and outlets: These control the flow of electricity to various appliances and fixtures.
• Junction boxes: Enclosures that protect the wire connections and terminations. They provide safe place for branching of
wiring circuits.

• The choice of wiring system for a particular installation depends on both technical factors and economic viability:
• Electrical Load requirements : current carrying capacity and voltage rating.
• Environmental conditions: Higher temperatures and corrosive environments can degrade insulation.
37
 4. Electrical Wiring

• Type of installation: Outdoor versus indoor wiring: outdoor wiring should be UV-resistant and capable of withstanding
weather conditions; Concealed versus exposed: exposed wiring require protection against physical damage. Underground
versus overhead: Overhead must be resistant to environmental exposure.
• Safety and code compliance: Must provide safety against leakage, shock and fire hazards.
• Flexibility and durability: Stranded wires are more flexible and are used in areas where there is movement or vibration.
• Cost and budget constraints: Higher quality materials require higher upfront costs but offer better performance and longevity.
• Aesthetics and appearance: Wiring should be appealing to the eye

4.2 Types of internal wiring

• These connect various electrical devices e.g. lights, outlets, switches and appliances to the electrical distribution system. The choice
of the type depends on the building type, electrical load, environments conditions and safety requirements. Common types include:

1. Cleat wiring

• Uses insulated wires that are supported on porcelain, plastic or wooden cleats.

• Often used for temporary wiring

• Advantages: Easy to install and modify; cost effective

38
 4. Electrical Wiring

• Disadvantages: Not suitable for permanent installations, less aesthetically pleasing, exposed wiring is prone to damage; not suitable
for damp conditions

2. Casing and capping wiring (Trunking)

• PVC or wooden casing and capping are used to provide a protective cover over insulated wiring.

• Used mainly in residential buildings and is suitable for surface wiring

• Advantages: provides good protection against mechanical damage; neat; easy to install and repair

• Disadvantages: Not suitable for humid or damp locations as moisture can damage the casing; more expensive than cleat wiring;
limited use in modern installations due to better alternatives

39
 4. Electrical Wiring

3. Batten wiring

• Involves laying insulated wires over a wooden batten and securing them with tinned brass clips placed at regular intervals

• Suitable for indoor installations, often used for lighting circuits.

• Advantages: Simple and easy to install; neat appearance; cost effective compared to conduit wiring.

• Disadvantages: Not suitable for outdoor or damp conditions; provides less protection against mechanical damage; limited lifespan
compared to conduit wiring.

4. Conduit wiring

• These can be metallic or PVC. It is the most common type of internal wiring used today. Offered superior protection to the wires
and flexible for various applications. Classified into two types:-

40
 4. Electrical Wiring

i. Surface conduit wiring:

• These are mounted on surface of walls or ceilings.

• Advantages: provides excellent protection against damage; easy to install and modify; good for areas where wiring needs to be
exposed.

• Disadvantages: Not good looking; most expensive; labour intensive to install

ii. Concealed conduit wiring

• Conduits are embedded within walls, floors or ceiling, making the wiring invisible on the surface.

• Used where aesthetic considerations are important.

• Advantages: provides a clean and neat appearance; offer strong protection against mechanical damage and environmental factors;
safe as wires are not exposed.

• Disadvantages: More difficult and expensive to install due to the need for wall chasing and conduit embedding; Difficult to modify
or repair.

41
 4. Electrical Wiring

Assignment:

i. Write short notes on different types of electric conduits, giving the material, applications, advantages and disadvantages of each.
(rigid metal conduit, Intermediate metal conduit, Electrical Metallic tubing, Flexible metal conduit, Liquid tight flexible metal
conduit, rigid polyvinyl chloride conduit, electrical non-metallic tubing)

ii. Describe the factors considered while selecting an electrical conduit. (Environment, mechanical protection, cost and ease of
installation, electrical conductivity, flexibility, code compliance, future modifications)
4.3 Cables
Cables are classified according to:-
• Conductor used (copper and aluminium)
• Voltage grading (240/415/1100V etc)
• Number of cores (single, two, three, four, five core)
• Types of insulation
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 4. Electrical Wiring
4.3.1 Classification according to insulation
1. Rubber cables
• Natural rubber: offer good flexibility, abrasion and chemical resistance.
• Synthetic rubber: Same properties as natural rubber but may offer additional resistance to heat or oil.
• Neoprene (polychloroprene): Has resistance to oils, grease and chemicals.
2. Plastic cables
• PVC (polyvinyl chloride): Have good insulation properties, flexibility and affordability.
• XPLE (cross-linked polyethylene): Offer excellent heat resistance, low water absorption and high dielectric strength.
• PE (Polyethylene): general purpose insulation with good electrical properties
• TPE (thermoplastic elastomer): provide flexibility, durability and chemical resistance.
3. Mineral insulated cables
• MIC (mineral insulated cable): Consists of a conductor surrounded by magnesium oxide powder insulation and a copper or
stainless-steel sheath. Offers excellent head and ire resistance and mechanical strength.
4. Other insulation materials
• Paper: used in older cables. Susceptible to moisture.
• Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR): offers good heat and chemical resistance and flexibility.
• Butyl rubber: provides excellent resistance to ozone and weathering.
43
 4. Electrical Wiring
4.3.2 Electrical cable sizing and selection
• Proper sizing and selection of cables involves determining the appropriate cross-sectional area based on the cable’s current carrying
capacity, voltage drop, temperature rating and environmental conditions.

• This is important to ensure safety, efficiency and reliability of an electrical system

4.3.2.1 Factors that affect size of a cable
1. Current carrying capacity (Ampacity)
• Maximum amount of electric current a cable can carry without exceeding safe temperature limits.
• It is affected by cable material, insulation type, ambient temperature and installation conditions.
2. Voltage drop
• Excessive voltage drop can affect performance of electrical appliances. Recommended values are 2-5% of the supply voltage.
• For single phase,
2𝑥𝐼𝑥𝐿𝑥𝑅
𝑉 =
1000
• For 3 phase,
3𝑥𝐼𝑥𝐿𝑥𝑅
𝑉 =
1000

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉 ∶ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝐼 ∶ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒, 𝐿: 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑚 ,
𝑅 ∶ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
44
 4. Electrical Wiring
3. Conductor material
• Copper is more conductive hence allows for smaller cross-sectional area and is more expensive than aluminium.
• Aluminium is lighter and more cost effective especially for larger installations.
4. Derating factors
• These are adjustments made to current carrying capacity due to various environmental and installation conditions.
• Common derating factors include

i. Ambient temperature: Cables are typically rated for ambient temperature (30oC for most). Higher temperature reduces
current carrying capacity.

ii. Bundling of cables: bundling leads to less than effective heat dissipation, leading to increase in temperature.

iii. Cable installation method: method of installation i.e. underground, conduits, free air, ducts etc., affect how heat is
dissipated.

iv. Altitude: Cooling effect of air decreases with increase in altitude.

v. Soil thermal resistivity (for buried cables): Thermal resistivity of the soil affects a buried cable’s ability to dissipate heat.

vi. Cable type and insulation: Different cable materials and insulation types have different thermal characteristics.
𝐼 =𝐼 𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑓 𝑥…
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 4. Electrical Wiring

5. Short circuit rating

• Maximum current that a cable can carry safely during a short circuit event without damage.
𝑆𝑥𝑘
𝐼 =
𝑡
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼 : 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑘𝐴 , 𝑆 ∶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑚𝑚 , 𝑘 ∶ 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑡
∶ 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑠)

6. Compliance with standards and regulations

• Follow national or local codes and standard in the sizing of cables.

Examples:

1. Calculate the percentage voltage drop for a cable if it is carrying 50A over a length of 100m on a 230V supply. Assume resistance
per kilometer is 0.5 ohms (1.09%)

2. Calculate the short-circuit current of a copper conductor of cross-sectional area 50mm2. Assume a 1 second fault duration and
copper with PVC constant of 115. (5.75 kA)

46
 4. Electrical Wiring

4.3.2.2 Steps for sizing electrical cables

1. Identify the electrical load, including future expansion, in amperes.

2. Select the conductor material

3. Calculate the current carrying capacity. Refer to manufacturer’s tables or use software tools.

4. Calculate voltage drop

5. Check temperature rating of the cable’s insulation

6. Calculate short-circuit rating

7. Select the cable size.

4.4 Fuses and Circuit Breakers

4.4.1 Fuses

• Fuse: A piece of metal in a circuit that melts when excessive current flows through it breaking a circuit.

• It is the simplest current interrupting device for protection against excessive currents.

• A Fusing element should have low melting point, high conductivity, free to deterioration due to oxidation and be of low cost.
47
 4. Electrical Wiring

4.4.1.1 Advantages

• Cheapest form of protection

• Needs no maintenance

• Operation is completely automatic

• Interrupts enormous short circuit currents without noise, flame, gas or smoke.

4.4.1.1 Disadvantages

• Time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse element after operation.

4.4.1.2 Important terms

i. Current rating: current a fuse can normally carry without overheating or melting.

ii. Fusing current: Minimum current at which the fuse element melts and breaks the circuit. It depends on the material of the fuse
element, length and diameter of the fusing wire etc.

Assignment: Explain the principle of operation of a fuse.

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 4. Electrical Wiring

4.4.2 Circuit breakers

• An equipment that can make or break a circuit under normal and fault conditions, either manually or automatically.

4.4.2.1 Main types of circuit breakers in electrical installations

i. Miniature circuit breaker (MCB): These are used in low current applications in residential or light commercial settings. They have
fixed protection settings (trip settings are fixed), are compact in size and have lower cost.

ii. Molded case circuit breaker (MCCB): Designed for higher-capacity applications in industrial and large commercial settings. It has
adjustable protection settings, higher breaking capacity and greater versatility. They can also be operated and monitored remotely.

iii. Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB): Detects imbalances between live and neutral currents, indicating possible leakage
currents and disconnects the circuit to prevent electric shock. They don’t protect against overloads or short circuits.

iv. Residual current breaker with overcurrent protection (RCBO): Combines the functions of MCB and RCCB, providing protection
against overcurrent, short circuits and earth leakage.

v. Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB): Detects earth faults by sensing voltage or current leakage to earth and disconnects the
circuit. They can either be voltage based (vELCB) or current based (cELCB)

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 4. Electrical Wiring
Particular Fuse Circuit breaker
Function Performs both detection and interruption Performs interruption function only. Detection of the fault
functions. is made by the relay system
Operation Completely automatic Requires elaborate equipment (relays) for automatic
operation
Breaking capacity Small Very large
Operating time Very small (0.002s or less) Comparatively large (0.1 to 0.2s)
Replacement Requires replacement after every operation No replacement after operation

MCB MCCB ELCB

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 4. Electrical Wiring

4.5 Sizing of Fuses and circuit breakers

1. Determine the load current:

2. Apply a safety factor: For CBs, use 125% to avoid nuisance tripping. For fuses use 125 – 150%.

3. Consider the load type: inductive loads (e.g. motors) have inrush currents, so, use a time delay breaker or slow-low fuse.

4. Environmental conditions: derate the breaker or fuse depending on environment.

5. Check codes

6. Select the type and size

Example:

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 5. Earthing

5.1 Introduction
• Also known as grounding, earthing is the connection of electrical systems, equipment to the ground (the earth).

• This is to ensure safety and proper functioning of electrical installations.

• It involves connection of metallic (conductive) parts of an electric appliance or installation to the earth plate or electrode buried in
moist soil.

5.2 Purpose of Earthing

• Safety: Protection of people from electric shocks by ensuring exposed conductive surfaces of an electrical installation do no reach
dangerous voltages in an event of a fault.

• Equipment protection: safeguards electrical devices from damage caused by voltage surge or lightning strikes.

• System stability: Helps maintain the voltage stability of an electric system by providing a reference point for system’s neutral.

5.3 Types of Earthing Systems

• Earthing systems are denoted by letters :-

• T (Terre or earth): - Earth connection (direct connection to ground)

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 5. Earthing

• N (neutral): - Neutral connection (Neutral conductor)

• C (Combined): - Combined neutral and earth (PEN conductor).

• S (Separate):- Separate neutral and earth.

• I (Isolated or impedance):- Isolated (neutral is not directly earthed or earthed through an impedance)

• The three earthing systems are :-

1. TN System:

• Here, the neutral point of the power source (transformer or generator) is connected directly to the ground, and
the electrical equipment’s exposed surfaces are connected via a protective earth conductor.

• There is a direct connection between the neutral and the earth at the power source.

• It can e configured in 3 ways:-

i. TN –S System (separate Neutral and earth)

• The neutral is earthed at the transformer or generator and a separate PE conductor is provided.
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 5. Earthing

ii. TN –C System (Combined Neutral and Earth)

• The neutral and earth conductors are combined into PEN (Protective Earth and Neutral) conductor.

• Advantage: Uses few conductors reducing the installation costs and complexity.

• Disadvantage: Lower safety compared to TN-S system, as a breakage of PEN conductor can lead to live parts
of an installation becoming exposed.

iii. TN-C-S system (Combined and separate Neutral and Earth)

• A hybrid of TN-C and TN-S systems

• Initially, the system uses a combined PEN conductor, but at certain points (typically near or inside the building), the PEN
conductor is split into a separate neutral and PE conductors.

TN-S TN-C TN-C-S

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 5. Earthing

2. TT system (Terre-Terre)

• Both power source and electrical installation at the customer premises have independent earthing systems. i.e. Neutral is earthed
at the source while the customer has a separate earth connection.

• Advantages: Simple installation, improved protection in rural areas, independent earth for each customer.

• Disadvantages: Higher earth resistance, dependence on Residual Current Devices (RCD).

3. IT System (Isolated Terre)

• The power source has no direct connection to earth, or it is connected to earth via a high impedance device. However, the
customer has connection to earth via a PE conductor.

TT system IT system

Assignment: Give advantages and disadvantages of the three earthing systems:

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5. Earthing

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 5. Earthing

5.4 Methods of Earthing

1. Plate earthing

• A metal plate of copper and galvanized iron (GI) is buried in at 2-3m in the ground. The plate is connected to the electrical
installation through a conductor.

• It is suitable for areas with high soil moisture or where a large surface area is needed to ensure effective earthing

2. Pipe earthing

• A GI pipe of 2-3m in length is driven vertically into the ground and connected to the electrical system. Moisture is sometimes
maintained around the pipe to improve soil conductivity.

• The pit around the pipe is filled with salt and charcoal or coal mixture to improve soil conductivity.

• It is suitable for areas where soil has good moisture content or low electrical resistance.

3. Rod earthing

• A copper, GI or steel rod is driven into the ground.

• Suitable for areas with compact or rocky soil, as driving a rod is simpler than burying plates or strips.

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 5. Earthing
4. Strip or wiring earthing

• A copper or GI strip or wire is buried horizontally in a trench about 0.5m deep.

• Suitable for soils with low soil conductivity, where other methods are less effective.

5. Water pipe earthing

• The electrical system is connected to a water supply pipe buried underground.

• Suitable for areas with access to metal water pipes.

Assignment: Give advantages and disadvantages of the different earthing methods.

5.5 Measurement of Soil Resistivity

• Soil resistivity is affected by:

i. Soil type: Different soils (clay, sand, gravel) have different resistivities.

ii. Moisture content: Higher moisture content lowers soil resistivity.

iii. Temperature: Soil resistivity increase with lower temperatures, especially near freezing.

iv. Soil composition: Presence of salts, minerals and organic matter affects conductivity.

v. Depth: Soil resistivity decreases with depth due to more stable moisture levels.
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 5. Earthing

• Common methods of measuring soil resistivity include:

1. Wenner (four point) method

i. Place four electrodes in a straight line at equal distances apart. Thy should be driven into the aground to about 1/20th of the
1
distance between them (𝑏𝑦 ≈ 𝑎).
20

ii. Connect the electrodes to the earth resistance tester (MEGGER). The two outer electrodes (C1 and C2) are connected to
the current source and the inner two electrodes (P1 and P2) are connected to the potential measurement inputs of the
meter.

iii. Apply a known current 𝐼 between the outer electrodes CI and C2.

iv. Measure the potential difference 𝑉 between the inner electrodes P1 and P2.

v. Calculate the soil resistivity

𝑉
𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 = 2𝜋𝑎
𝐼
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 a = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑚 .
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 5. Earthing

2. Schlumberger (four point) Method

• The distance between the voltage electrodes "𝑎" and the distance from a voltage electrode to the current electrode "𝑐" are
different.

• If 𝑏 ≪ 𝑎 and 𝑏 ≪ 𝑐 the apparent resistivity is calculated as

𝑐 𝑎+𝑐 𝑉
𝜌=𝜋
𝑎 𝐼
3. Three-point method

• 𝑆1 = 0.62(𝑆1 + 𝑆1)

• 𝑅=

Note: Earth resistance for earthing should be less that 5Ω

Assignment

• Read about the two-point method, slope method and star-delta methods of measuring soil resistivity.
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 5. Earthing

5.5 Improvement of Soil Conductivity

• This is important especially in areas with high soil resistivity (dry, rocky or sandy soils)

• Good soil conductivity ensures that the fault currents are efficiently dissipated to the earth.

• Common methods of improving soil conductivity include:

i. Use of chemical compounds.

• Compounds such as bentonite, gypsum, salt are added to soil around the earthing electrode.

• These absorb moisture from the atmosphere and retain it, hence keeping the surrounding soil damp and conductive.

ii. Increasing the depth of earth electrode

• Soil resistivity typically reduces with decrease in depth due to increased moisture content, mineral content and reduced
temperature.

iii. Increasing the surface area of the electrode.

• Large surface area allows for more current to disperse into the ground, reducing overall resistance of the earthing system.

• This can be achieved by using multiple rods, employing strip or plate earthing instead of a single rod or laying the conductors
horizontally.
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 5. Earthing

iv. Soil replacement.

• Replacement of poor-conducting soil with loam or clay soil or soil mixed with bentonite or salt.

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