SAL Institute of Technology & Engineering Research

Mechanical & Automobile Engineering Department

Lab Manual

Heat Transfer (3151909)

5TH Sem. - B.E. 3RD Year
 SAL Institute of Technology & Engineering Research

Mechanical & Automobile Engineering Department

Certificate

This is to certify that, Mr. / Ms._________________________________________________

Enroll No._______________________of Fifth semester Bachelor of Mechanical/Automobile

Engineering has completed the term work satisfactorily in Heat Transfer ( 3151909) for the
academic year 2023-24 as prescribed in the curriculum.

Place: Enrollment No.: _______________

Date: Exam. Seat No.: _______________

Subject Teacher Head of the Department

 SAL Institute of Technology & Engineering Research
Mechanical & Automobile Engineering Department
Subject : Heat Transfer Code : 3151909

Index
Sr Page Date of Date of Comp.
Name of Experiment Marks
No. no. Start Comp. Sign

To determine the Thermal Conductivity of

1
Insulating Powder

To determine the thermal conductivity of

2 given metal rod

To determine heat transfer co-efficient by

3
natural convection.

To determine heat transfer co-efficient by

4 forced convection.
To determine heat transfer rate and overall
5 heat transfer coefficient of Parallel flow heat
exchanger.
To determine heat transfer rate and overall
6 heat transfer coefficient of counter flow heat
exchanger.
To determine Stephan Boltzmann constant
7 experimentally

8 To determine effectiveness and LMTD of

Plate type heat exchanger

9 To Study the Unsteady State Temperature

Response of Finite Geometric Shapes.
 Experiment: 1
Thermal Conductivity of Insulating Powder

Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of insulating

power.

Introduction:
The apparatus consists of two thin walled concentric copper spheres. The
inner sphere houses the heating coil. The insulating powder (Asbestos powder –
Lagging Material) is packed between the two shells. The powder supply to the
heating coil is by using a dimmerstat and is measured by Voltmeter and Ammeter.
ChoromelAlumel thermocouples are used to measure the temperatures. Five
thermocouples are used to measure the temperature for analysis. The three
thermocouples, number as T1, T2 and T3 are embedded on outer surface of inner
sphere and two thermocouples numbered as T4 and T5 are embedded on inner
surface of outer sphere.

Procedure:
1. Adjust the dimmerstat to required value.
2. Put on the selection switch of the temperature indicator to the required
temperature.
3. Wait till steady state condition is reached.
4. Note down the readings in the observations table.

Specifications:

1. Radius of the inner copper sphere, ri = 37.5 mm

2. Radius of the outer copper sphere, ro = 75 mm
3. Voltmeter (0 – 100 – 200 V).
4. Ammeter (0 – 2 Amps.)
5. Temperature Indicator 0 – 300 0
C calibrated for
chromelalumel.
6. Dimmerstat 0 – 2A, 0 – 230 V.
Observation Table:

1. Voltmeter reading (V) = Volts.

2. Ammeter reading ( I ) = Amps.
3. Heater input (VI) = Watts.

Inner Sphere:

Thermocouple No. 1 2 3
T1 T2 T3 Mean Temp. Ti
T1 + T2 + T3
Ti = ----------------------------
3
Temp. 0C

Outer Sphere:
Thermocouple 4 5
No.
T4 T5 Mean Temp. T0
T4 + T5
T0 = -------------
2
Temp. 0C

Calculation:
Let, ri = Radius of inner sphere in meters.
ro = Radius of outer sphere in meters.
Ti = Average Temperature of the inner sphere in oC
To = Average Temperature of the outer sphere in oC
T1 + T2 + T3
Where, Ti = -------------------- °C
3
 T4 + T5
and To = ------------- °C
2

Q (ro – ri )
K = ---------------------------
4  rori (Ti +To)

Q = V ᵒ I Watts

Conclusion:-

Thermal conductivity of powder is found out to be --------------

 Experiment: 2
Heat Conduction - Thermal Conductivity of Metal Rod

Aim: To determine thermal conductivity of metal rod.

Introduction:
Thermal conductivity is the physical property of the material denoting the
ease with a particular substance can accomplish the transmission of thermal
energy by molecular motion.

Thermal conductivity of material is found to depend on the chemical

composition of the substance or substance of which it is a composed, the phase (i.
e. gas, liquid or solid) in which it exists, its crystalline structure if a solid, the
temperature and pressure to which it is subjected, and whether or not it is a
homogeneous material.

Table 1 lists the values of thermal conductivity for some common metals.

Metals Thermal Conductivity Watt/M State

K

Pure Copper 390 20°C

Brass 110
20°C

Steel (0.5%C) 40-50

20°C

S. S. 16-20
 20°C

Thermal energy may be conducted in solids by two modes :

1. Lattice Vibration.
2. Transport by free electrons.
In good electrical conductors a rather large number of free electrons move
about in the lattice structure of the material. Just as these electrons may transport
electric charge, they may also carry thermal energy from a high temperature region
to a low temperature region. In fact, these electrons are frequently referred as the
electron gas. Energy may also be transmitted as vibration energy in the lattice
structure of the material. In general, however, this latter mode of energy transfer
is not as large as the electrons transport and it is for this reason that good electrical
conductors are almost always good heat conductor viz. Copper, Aluminium and
silver. With increase in the temperature, however the increased lattice vibrations
come in the way of the transport by free electrons for most of the pure metals the
thermal conductivity decreases with increase in the temperature.

Apparatus:

The experimental set up consists of the metal bar, one end of which is
heated by an electric heater while the other end of the bar projects inside the
cooling water jacket. The middle portion of the bar is surrounded by a cylindrical
shell filled with the asbestos insulating powder. The temperature of the bar is
measured at eight different sections while the radial temperature distribution is
measured by separate thermocouples at two different sections in the insulating
shell. The heater is provided with a dimmerstat for controlling the heat input.
Water under constant heat condition is circulated through the jacket and its flow
rate and temperature rise are noted.
Specifications:
1. Length of the metal bar (total) : 300 mm
2. Size of the metal bar (diameter) : 25 mm
3. Test length of the bar : 175mm
4. MOC of Metal bar : Brass
5. No. of thermocouple mounted on the Bar :4
6. No. of thermocouples in the insulation shell : 2
7. Heater coil (Bald type ) : Band type
8. Water jacket diameter : 80mm
9. Temperature indicator :0-1000 degree multi-
channel
10. Dimmerstat for heater coil : 2A / 230 V.
11. Watt meter :400 Watts.
12. Measuring flask for water flow rate.
13. Stop clock.
14. Shell diameter : 175 mm

Theory:

The heater will heat the bar at its end and heat will be conducted through the bar
to other end.After attaining the steady state Heat flowing out of bar.Heat flowing
out of bar = Heat gained by water

Qw = mw x Cpw x (Tout – Tin) = mwx Cpw x (T8-T7)

Where, mw= Mass flow rate of the cooling water In Kg / hr

Cp= Specific Heat of water (Given 1)

 T= (Tout – Tin) for water

Thermal Conductivity of Bar

1. Heat Conducted through the Bar (Q)

2  KL (Tb – Ts )

Q = Qw + -------------------------------
ln {ro / ri}

Where, Qw: Heat conducted through water

K : Thermal conductivity of Asbestos powder is 0.3 Kcal / hr –

m-degree

ro&ri : Radial distance of thermocouple in insulating shell.

2. Thermal conductivity of Bar (K)

𝑑𝑡
Q = K [𝑑𝑥 ]A

Where, dt : Change in temperature= (T1 – T4)

dx : Length across temperature= 0.175 m

A : Area of the bar (  / 4 x d2) = 1.96 x 10– 3 m2

Procedure:
1. Start the electric supply.
2. Adjust the flow rate to 150 mi/min using measuring jar and stop wach.
3. Adjust the varaic to obtain some heat input.
4. Wait till steady state condition is reached.
5. Note the reading of thermocouplesT1 to To.
6. Take two more reading at interval of 10 minutes and Tabulate.
 Observation Table:

Sr. Temp On Metal Rod Temp. on Water Water Flow

No. Insulating Temperature Rate

Shell

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 ml sec

Conclusion:
1)Thermal conductivity of metal rod is found out to be --------
 Experiment: 3
Heat Transfer in Natural Convection

Aim: To determine the natural convection heat transfer co-

Efficient for the vertical tube exposed to atmospheric air.

Introduction:

Convection is the mode of heat transfer which generally takes place in

liquid and gases. Consider a fluid flow over a heated surface, the molecules of
fluid adjacent to the surface, absorb heat and become hot, on heating the molecules
of higher density come down in contact of heated surface, in the way, motion of
molecules set up in fluid due to developed density gradient.

Experimental Setup:

The experimental setup consists of a brass tube filled in a rectangular duct,

vertically. The duct is open at the top and bottom, an electric heating element is
kept in the centre of vertical tube, which in turn heats the tube surface
longitudinally. The heat is lost from the tubes to the surrounding air by natural
convection. The temperature of vertical tube is measured by seven thermocouples
at different locations and thermocouple T 8 measures the duct temp. The heat
energy is measured by ammeter and voltmeter.
When a hot body is kept in still atmosphere, heat is transferred to the
surrounding fluid by natural convection. The fluid layer in contact with the hot
body gets heated; rise up due to the decrease in its density and the cold fluid rushes
in to take place. The process is continuous and the heat transfer takes place due to
the relative motion of hot cold fluid particles.
The heat transfer rate,
Q = As h (Ts- Ta)
The heat transfer coefficient is given by:

Q
h = ----------------------
As(Ts – Ta)

Where, h = Average surface heat transfer coefficient (W/ m2 0C)

q = Heat transfer rate (Watts)
As = Area of heat transferring surface = π. d. l (m2)
Ta = Ambient temperature in the duct = T8 0C
Ts= Average surface temperature

Procedure:

1. Put ON the heater switch and adjust the heat input through dimmerstat.
2. Wait till the steady state is reached.
3. Note down the reading of all therocouples through selector switch and
wattmeter.
4. Repeat above procedure for next reading.

Specification:
1. Diameter of the tube (d) = 25 mm
2. Length of tube (L) = 400 mm
3. Duct size 400mm x 200mm x 800mm. Length
4. Capacity of heater = 200W
5. No. of thermocouples = 6 Nos.

Observations Table:
Sr No.
Watt T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 or
T7
1
2
3

Calculations:
The heat transfer coefficient h,
 Q
h = ----------------------
As (Ts – Ta)

(T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 )
Ts= ------------------------------------------------ 0C
6
Ambient temperature Ta= _______ °C
The convection coefficients = __________ W/m2K
Theoretical Method (Correct method):
Ts + Ta
Film temperature Tf = ----------
2
1
Volumetric Coefficient, β = ----------------- = ________ K-1
(Tf+273)

Properties of air at the film temperature (T f) from data book,say at 350 K

ρ = 0.9980 kg/m3
Cp = 1.0090 KJ/Kg K
μ = 2.075 kg/ms x 10-5
Kair = 0.03003 W/mK
V = 20.76 m2/s
μCp
Pr = Praudtl Number = -----------
Kair
G β L3 (ΔT)
Gr = Grashof Number = ----------------------------
V2

Nu = C (Gr Pr)n
Where,
C = 0.56 and n= 0.25 for 104< Gr. Pr< 108
C = 0.13 and n= 1/3 for 108< Gr. Pr< 1012
L = Length of the brass tube
Kair = Thermal conductivity of air, W/m K
v = Kinematics Viscosity of air, m2/s
μ = Dynamic Viscosity of air, kg/m.s
Cp = Specific heat of air.J/Kg K
 β = Coefficient of volumetric expansion for air, K-1
g = Acceleration due to gravity.
ΔT = [Ts – Ta] °C

(h x L)
Also, Nu = ----------
Kair

(Nu x Kair)
H= -----------------
L

Schematic Diagram:

Result and Discussions:

Practical readings are based on the assumption that current supplied to heater is
converted totally into heat energy. This is not possible and generally the losses are
as high as 50%. Commonly used heaters also have a band of insulation over the
heating element which further reduces the amount of heat transfer to the test
section.

Also the heat generated in heating element is lost in radiation and convection
losses due to surrounding air breeze. Due to this cumulative effect there is big
difference in heat transfer coefficient values calculated using different methods.

Hence theoretical reading based on temperature values should be considered the

correct values

Conclusion:
The heat transfer coefficient in natural convection is much lower, because, the
heat is transferred due to density gradient only, thus the value of heat transfer
coefficient as also small. The phenomenon of natural convection also depends
upon viscosity, thermal conductivity, volumetric expansion coefficient, β etc.

Heat coefficient for a vertical tube losing heat by natural convection is found out
to be
----------------------
 Experiment: 4
Heat Transfer in Forced Convection

Aim: To determine the Forced convection heat transfer co-efficient for the
flow through the given horizontal tube.

Introduction:
In many practical situations and equipments, we invariably deal with flow of fluids in
tubes e.g. boiler, super heaters and condensers of a power plant, automobile radiators, water
and air heaters or coolers etc. the knowledge and evolution of forced convection heat transfer
coefficient for fluid flow in tubes is essentially a prerequisite for an optional design of all
thermal system

Convection is the transfer of heat within a fluid by mixing of one portion of fluid with
the other. Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the
transport of medium itself. In forced convection, fluid motion is principally produced by some
superimposed velocity field like a fan, blower or a pump, the energy transport is said due to
forced convection.

Description:
The apparatus consists of a blower unit fitted with the test pipe. The test section is
surrounded by a Nichrome band heater. Four thermocouples are embedded on the test section
and two thermocouples are placed in the air stream at the entrance and exit of the test section
to measure the air temperature. Test pipe is connected to the delivery side of the blower along
with the orifice to measure flow of air through the pipe. Input to the heater is given through a
dimmerstat and measured by meters.

It is to be noted that only a part of the total heat supplied is utilized in heating the air.
A temperature indicator with cold junction compensation is provided to measure temperatures
of pipe wall at various points in the test section. Airflow is measured with the help of orifice
meter and the water manometer fitted on the board.

Specifications:

Outer Pipe diameter (Do) : 32 mm

Inner Pipe diameter (Di) : 27.5 mm
Length of test section (L) : 400 mm
Blower
Orifice Diameter (d) : 16.5 mm
Dimmer stat : 0-2 Amp, 230 Volt A.C.
Wattmeter : 300 Watt
Heater
Test Pipe :(Band Type) 400 watt

T6 = Air Inlet Temperature

T7 = Air Outlet Temperature
T1 – T5 = Pipe Wall Temperature

Procedure:
1. Switch ON blower.
2. Adjust the flow by means of gate valve to some desired difference in the
manometer level.

3. Switch ON heater.

4. Start the heating of the test section with the help of dimmerstat and adjust desired heat
input with the help of Voltmeter and Ammeter.

5. Take readings of all the six thermocouples at an interval of 10 min until the steady state
is reached.

6. Note down the heater input.

Observation Table:
Sr. Wattmeter Temperatures Manometer
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
No. W ReadingDifference
Air Air
H in m of
Inlet Outlet
1. Water
2.
3.
4.

Calculation:
1. Air flow rate (Q):

Ao = Area of Cross Section Orifice in m2 = π/4 ᵒ (d2)

Q = Cd x Ao x √2𝑔ℎ. 𝜌𝑤⁄ρa
Where,

Cd = Coefficient of discharge of orifice = 0.64

Ao = area of cross section of orifice in m2
ρw = Density of water = 1000 Kg/m3
ρa = density of air at ambient temp. = 1.03 Kg/m3
h = manometer reading in meter
ma = mass flow rate of air in Kg / sec
g = gravitational accelation = 9.81 m/s2

T6 + T7
Mean bulk temp = -------------------- kg/m2
2

2. Mass flow of air (m):

ma = Q x ρa
Where,
ρa = Density of air at mean bulk temp.

3. Heat gain by air (qa):

Qa = ma x Cp x ∆T

Where,

Cp = specific heat of air at mean bulk temp.

∆T = (T7– T6) = Rise in temp. °K

4. Surface heat transfer co-efficient (ha):

Q
h = -------------------
A (Ts – Ta)
Where,
Ta = Average Temperature of Air in 0C
(T7 + T6)
Ta = ----------------
2
 Ts = Average Surface Temperature in 0C

T1+ T2 + T3+ T4
Ts = -----------------------
4

As = Test Section Surface Area in m2

As = π x Di x L

Di = Inner diameter of the test pipe in meter

L = Length of the test section in meter
h = Heat Transfer Coefficient in W / m2k

5. Velocity of Air(V):

4Q
V = --------------
Π (Di2)

V = Mean Velocity of Flow through tube in m / sec

6. Reynold‘s number (Re):

V Di
Re = ----------
υ

Where,
υ = Kinematic Viscosity at bulk mean Temp. i.e. (T6 + T7) /2 in m2/ s

7. Prandtl Number (Pr):

Pr = 0.7 at Avg. Temperature

8. Nusselt Number(Nu):

ha= heat transfer coefficient calculated by using the correlations

Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4------------- for Re > 10000

OR
0.6 0.4
Nu = 0.036 Re Pr ------------- for Re > 2300
Here, ha is taken form

Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4

Nu = (ha x Di)/K

Where,
K = thermal conductivity of air at avg. temp. in w / m k
= (T6 + T7)/2

Conclusion:

Heat transfer coefficient in forced convection of air in a tube is found out to

be_______________

Result and Discussions:

Practical readings are based on the assumption that current supplied to heat eris converted
totally into heat energy. This is not possible and generally the losses are as high as 50%.
Commonlyusedheatersalsohaveabandofinsulationovertheheatingelementwhich further
reduces the amount of heat transfer to the test section.

Also the heat generated in heating element is lostinradiation and convection losses due to
surrounding air breeze. Due to this cumulative effect there is big difference in heat transfer
coefficient values calculated using different methods.

Hence theoretical reading based on temperature values should be considered the correct
values

Precautions:
1. Keep the dimmer stat at zero position before switching ON the power supply.

2. Increase the voltmeter gradually.

3. Do not stop the blower in between the testing period.

4. Do not disturb thermocouples while testing. Operate selector switch of the

thermocouple gently. Don’t exceed 200 watts

5. Operate selector switch of the temperature indicator gently.

 Properties
of Air

Temp Density Kinematic Prandil Thermal Specific Thermal Coefficient

0C Kg/m3 Viscosity Number Diffusivity HeatCp Conducti ofViscosity
m2/nr vityK x x 106Ns/m2
V x 10-6m2 Pr J/Kg K orKg/m
10-3
-50 1.584 9.23
/s 0.728 45.7 1013 20.35 14.61
-40 1.515 10.04 0.728 49.6 1013 21.17 15.20
-30 1.453 10.80 0.723 53.7 1013 21.98 15.69
-20 1.395 11.61 0.716 68.3 1009 22.79 16.18
-10 1.342 12.43 0.712 52.8 1009 23.61 16.67
0 1.293 13.28 0.707 67.7 1005 24.42 17.16
10 1.247 14.16 0.705 72.2 1005 25.12 17.65
20 1.205 15.06 0.703 77.1 1005 25.93 18.14
30 1.165 16.00 0.701 82.3 1005 26.75 18.63
40 1.128 16.69 0.699 87.5 1005 27.56 19.12
50 1.093 17.95 0.698 92.6 1005 28.26 19.61
60 1.060 18.97 0.696 97.9 1005 28.96 20.10
70 1.029 20.02 0.694 102.8 1009 29.66 20.59
80 1.000 21.09 0.692 108.7 1009 30.47 21.08
90 0.972 22.10 0.690 114.8 1009 31.28 21.48
100 0.946 23.13 0.688 121.1 1009 32.10 21.87
120 0.898 25.45 0.686 132.6 1009 33.38 22.85
140 0.854 27.80 0.684 145.2 1013 34.89 23.73
160 0.815 30.09 0.682 158.0 1017 36.40 24.52
180 0.779 32.49 0.681 171.0 1022 37.80 25.30
200 0.746 34.85 0.680 184.9 1026 39.31 25.99
250 0.674 40.61 0.677 210.6 1038 42.68 27.36
300 0.615 48.20 0.674 257.6 1047 46.05 29.71
350 0.566 55.46 0.676 294.7 1059 49.08 31.38
400 0.524 63.09 0.678 335.2 1067 52.10 33.05
500 0.456 79.38 0.687 415.1 1093 57.45 36.19
600 0.404 96.99 0.699 499.0 1114 62.22 39.13
700 0.362 115.40 0.706 588.2 1135 66.87 41.78
800 0.329 1347.80 0.713 682.0 1156 71.76 44.33
 Experiment: 5 & 6
Parallel Flow / Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

Aim: To determine heat transfer rate and overall heat transfer coefficient
of Parallel flow and counter flow heat exchanger.

Introduction:

Heat exchanger is a device used for affecting the process of heat exchange between two
fluids that are at different temperatures. It is useful in many engineering processes like those
in Refrigeration and Air conditioning system, power system, food processing systems,
chemical reactor and space or aeronautical applications. The necessity for doing this arises in
multitude of industrial applications. Common examples of best exchangers are the radiator of
a car, the condenser at the back of the domestic refrigerator, and the steam boiler of a thermal
power plant.

Description & Construction:

The simple example of transfer type of heat exchanger can be in the form of a tube in
tube type arrangement as shown in the figure. One fluid flowing through the inner tube and the
other through the annulus surroundings it. The heat transfer takes place across the walls of the
inner tube. The experiments are conducted by keeping the identical flow rates [approx] while
running the unit as a parallel flow heat exchanger and counter flow exchanger.

The temperatures are measured with the help of the temperature sensor. The readings are
recorded when steady state is reached. The outer tube is provided with adequate insulation to
minimize the heat losses.

The PF & CF heat exchanger consist of following components

1. Main Frame

2. Heat Exchanger

3. Temperature Indicator
 4. Hot water Generator

5. Rotameter for hot & cold water flow rate measurement

6. Temperature Sensors

The total assembly is supported on a main frame. The apparatus consists of a ‘tube in tube’
type concentric tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid is water, which is obtained from the hot
water generator it is attached at the bottom of assembly to supply the hot fluid i.e., water with
the help of pump through the inner tube while the cold fluid is flowing through annulus. Pump
set is connected to the hot water generator to suck the water from it & deliver as per
requirement. Different valves are provided in the system to regulate the flow of fluid to the
system. The hot water & cold water admitted at the same end & the opposite end, named
parallel & counter flow heat exchanger accordingly, is done by valve operation.

The concentric type heat exchanger is connected in system, which transfers thermal energy
between two fluids at different temperature.

Specification:

Inner Tube Material :copper

Outer Diameter (do) : 12.5 mm
Inner Diameter (di ) : 10.6 mm
Outer Tube Material :G.I.
Inner Diameter (Di) : 33 mm
Outer Diameter (Do) : 29 mm
Length of the heat (L)
Exchanger : 1600 mm
Heater : 3kw x 01 No.
Thermostat : 1 (Range10-1100C)
Temperature Indicator : 6 Channel (0 to 200 0C), 0.1 0C Resolution
MCB : 16 Amp for Heater, 6 Amp for Pump
Type of Pump : ¼ HP, 230 VAC(optional)
Type of Heat Exchangers:

Heat exchangers are classified in three categories.

1. Transfer Type

According to flow arrangement

2. Parallel flow
3. Counter flow
4. Cross flow

Storage Type
1. Direct Transfer Type
2. Shell and tube heat Exchanger
3. Concentric tube Heat Exchanger

A Transfer type heat exchanger is the one in which both fluids pass simultaneously flow
through the device and heat is transferred through separating walls. In practice most of the heat
exchangers used are transfer type ones. The transfer type heat exchangers are further classified
according to flow arrangements as

Parallel Flow, in which fluids flow in the same direction.

Counter flow, in which they flow in opposite direction.

Procedure:

1. Make all connections as shown in the fig. & check for any leakage in the circuit.

2. Make the oil well at the places where thermocouples are inserted for sensing the
temperature of water.

3. Set the temperature of the heater tank to some fix temp say around 55 to 60 0C.

4. Once the temperature of hot water is reached start the flow of water through hot and cold
water side and adjust it as per requirement.
5. For Parallel flow the flow of hot & cold water should be on same side & for counter flow
the flow of both the fluids should be on opposite side. Make this adjustment with the
help of valves

6. Wait to stabilized the temperature on the indicator.

7. As the temperature get stabilized take down the readings for different four channels by
using switch on the panel.

8. Readings for the flow rates can be taken from the rotameter attached at the front of the
instrument.

9. Take down the readings by varying the flow rates.

10. Observe flow rate of hot water to be less than flow rate of cold water

11. Once the experiment is completed drain the water remains in concentric tube. By
opening the cocks given at side & below the shell.
Precautions:

1. Do not put on heater unless water flow is continuous.

2. Once the flow is fixed, do not change it until note down the readings for that flow.

3. The thermocouples should keep in pockets

4. There should make the oil well in pockets of thermocouple.

5. Equipment should be earthed prop

6. Once the experiment is completed drain out the water remain in both the tubes.

Observation:

Given data:

 Inner Tube

Inner tube material =Copper

Outer Diameter (do) = 12.5 mm = 0.0125 m

Inner Diameter (di ) = 10.6 mm = 0.0106 m

 Outer Tube

Outer tube Material = G.I.

Inner Diameter (Di) = 33 mm = 0.033 m

Outer Diameter (Do) = 29 mm = 0.029 m

 Length of the heat (L)

Exchanger = 1600 mm = 1.6 m

Constants:
1. Cpc = Specific heat of cold water = 4.174 KJ / KG k

2. Cph = Specific heat of hot water = 4.174 KJ / KG k

Observation Table – I:
Parallel Flow Run:

HOT WATER SIDE COLD WATER SIDE

SR. Flow rate Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp. Flow rate Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp.
NO. mh. Thi Tho mc. Tci Tco
(Kg/hr) (C) (C) (Kg/hr) (C) (C)

Note: Tci in parallel is becoming Tco in counter Flow while making necessary
Correction.

Calculation for Parallel Flow:

1. Qh = Heat transfer rate from hot water in KJ / sec

Qh = mh x Cphx (Thi – Tho)

2. Qc = Heat transfer rate from cold water in KJ /sec

Qc = mc x Cpc x (Tco – Tci)

3. Q = Total heat transfer rate in KJ /sec

Qh + Qc
Q = -----------------
2

Tm = Logarithmic mean temperature difference in 0K

Tin – Tout
Tm= -------------------
ln (Ti / To)
Where,
Tin = Thi -Tci in oC
Tout = Tho -Tco in oC

Ai = Area of inner side tube in m2

Ai =  x di x L
Where,
di = diameter of inner tube in meter
Ao = Area of outer side tube in m2
Ao =  x do x L
Where,
Do = diameter of outer tube in meter

Uo = Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer area in W / m2 K

Qc
Uo = -----------------
Ao x Tm

Ui = Overall heat transfer coefficient based on inner area in W / m2 K

Qh
Ui = -----------------
Ai x Tm
C = Capacity ratio
Cmin
C = --------------
Cmax
Where,
Cmin = mh x Cph
Cmax = mc x Cpc
 = Effectiveness of heat exchanger
mc x Cpc x (Tco – Tci) mh x Cph x (Thi – Tho)
 = --------------------------------- = -------------------------------------
(mCp)min x (Thi – Tci) (m Cp)min x (Thi – Tci)

Thi – Tho
When, (mCp)min= mh x Cph< mc x Cpc,  =----------------
Thi – Tci

Tco – Tci
(mCp)min = mc x Cpc<mh x Cph ,  = ----------------
Thi – Tci
NTU (i) = No. of transfer unit for inner surface

Ui x Ai
NTU(i) = ----------------
Cmin
NTU (o) = No. of transfer unit for outer surface

Uo x Ao
NTU(o) = ----------------
Cmin

Observation Table – II:

Counter Flow Run:

Hot Water Side Cold Water Side

SR. Flow rate Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp. Flow rate Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp.
NO. mh. Thi Tho mc. Tci Tco
(Kg/hr) (C) (C) (Kg/hr) (C) (C)
Note:Tci in parallel is becoming Tco in counter Flow while making necessary
correction.

Calculation for Counter Flow:

1. Qh = Heat transfer rate from hot water in KJ / sec

Qh = mh x Cphx (Thi – Tho)

2. Qc = Heat transfer rate from cold water in KJ /sec

Qc = mc x Cpc x (Tco – Tci)

3. Q = Total heat transfer rate in KJ /sec

Qh + Qc
Q = -----------------
2

Tm = Logarithmic mean temperature difference in 0K

Tin – Tout
Tm= -------------------
ln (Ti / To)

Where,
Tin = Thi -Tci in oC
Tout = Tho -Tco in oC

Ai = Area of inner side tube in m2

Ai =  x di x L
Where,
di = diameter of inner tube in meter
Ao = Area of outer side tube in m2
Ao =  x do x L
Where,
Do = diameter of outer tube in meter
Uo = Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer area in W / m2 K

Qc
Uo = -----------------
Ao x Tm

Ui = Overall heat transfer coefficient based on inner area in W / m2 K

Qh
Ui = -----------------
Ai x Tm

 = Effectiveness of heat exchanger

mc x Cpc x (Tco – Tci)
 = ---------------------------------------- With mh mc
mh x Cph x (Thi – Tci)
C = Capacity ratio
Cmin
C = --------------
Cmax
Where,
Cmin =mh x Cph
Cmax = mc x Cpc
NTU (i) = No. of transfer unit for inner surface

Ui x Ai
NTU(i) = ----------------
Cmin
NTU (o) = No. of transfer unit for outer surface

Uo x Ao
NTU(o) = ----------------
Cmin
Conclusion:
Heat transfer coefficient of Parallel flow and counter flow heat exchanger is found out to be –
A. Heat transfer coefficient of Parallel flowheat exchanger =
B. Heat transfer coefficient ofcounter flow heat exchanger =
 Experiment: 7
Stefan Boltzmann Constant
Aim: To determine the Stefan Boltzmann Constant.

Introduction:
All the substances emit thermal radiation. When heat radiation is incident over a body
part of radiation is absorbed, transmitted through and reflected by the body. A surface which
absorbs all thermal radiation incident over it, is called black surface. For black surface,
transmissivity and reflectivity are zero and absorptivity is unity. Stefan Boltzmann law states
the emissivity of a surface is proportional to fourth power of absolute surface temperature.i.e.

e α T4

or e = σ ɛ T4

Where,

e = emissive power of surface

T = absolute temperature

σ= Stefan Boltzmann Constant = 5.667 x 10-8 W/ m2 K

ɛ= emissivity of the surface

For black surface = 1, hence above equation reduces to e = σ. T4

Apparatus:
The apparatus consists of a water heated jacket of hemispherical shape. A copper test disc is
fitted at the centre of jacket. The hot water is obtained from a hot water tank, fitted to panel, in
which water is heated by an electric immersion heater. The hot water is taken around the
hemisphere, so that hemisphere temp rises. The test disc is then inserted at the centre.
Thermocouples are fitted inside hemisphere to average out hemisphere temperature. Another
thermocouple fitted at the center of test disc measure the temperature of test disc. A timer with
a small buzzer is provided to note down the disc temp at the time intervals of 5 seconds.

Experimental Procedure:
1. See that water inlet cock of water jacket is closed and fill up sufficient water in the
heater tank.
2. Put on the heater.
3. Blacken the test disc with the help of lamp black and let it cool.
4. Put the thermometer and check the water temperature.
 5. Boil the water and switch off the heater.
6. See that drain cock of water jacket is closed and open water inlet cock.
7. See that there is sufficient water above the top of hemisphere ( A piezometer tube is
fitted to indicate water level)
8. Note down the hemisphere temperatures (i.e. Up to channel 1 to 4)
9. Note down the test disc temperature ((i.e. channel no 5)
10. Start the timer. Buzzer will start ringing. At the start of timer cycle, insert test disc into
the hole at the bottom of hemisphere.
11. Note down the temperature of disc, every time the buzzer rings. Take at least 4-5
readings.

In the experiment, this value may deviate due to reason like convection, temperature
drop of hemisphere, heat losses, etc..

Observation table:

Hemisphere temperature (°C)

T1 =
T2 =
T3 =
T4 =
T5 (initial test disc Time interval Test disc Avg rise in
temp) = (seconds) temperature (°C) temperature(dT) °C
Reading no 1 05
Reading no 2 10
Reading no 3 15
Reading no 4 20

Calculations:
1) Area of test disc, A = 3.14 x 10-4 m2 (d= 20 mm)
2) Weight of test disc, m = 5.5 gms. = 5.5. x 10-3 kg
3) Plot a graph of temperature. Rise of test disc with time as base and find out its slop at
origin.
𝑑𝑇
i.e. [ 𝑑𝑡 ]at t=0 = _____ k/sec.
Where, dT = Average increment in temperature
dt = time interval
4) Hemisphere temp.

T1 + T2 + T3 + T4
TH= ------------------------------ + 273.15 K

4
5) Initial disc temperature,
 TD = T5 + 273.15 K

As area of hemisphere is very large as compared to that of test disc, we can put

Q= σ ɛ A (TH4 – TD4)

Where,
q = heat gain by disc/sec = m ρ (dT/dt)
σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant
m = mass of test disc = 5.5 x 10-3 kg
ɛ = emissivity of test disc = 1
A = area of disc
Ρ = sp. Heat of copper = 381 J/Kg °C

mρ (dT/dt)
σ = ------------------------ W/ m2 K4
A (TH4 – TD4)

Theoretical value of σ is 5.667 x 10-8 W/ m2 K4

In the experiment, this value may deviate due to reasons like convection, temp drop of
hemisphere, heat losses, etc..

Precautions:
1. Never put on the heater before putting water in the tank.
2. Put off the heater before darning the water from heater tank.
3. Drain the water after completion of experiment.
4. Operate all the switches and controls gently.
 Experiment: 8
Plate type heat exchanger
Aim: To determine effectiveness and LMTD of Plate type heat exchanger

Introduction:
Heat exchangers are the devices used to transfer the heat from one fluid to other.
Transfer of heat is needed for many applications. Commonly used types of heat exchangers are
transfer type, storage type and direct contact type. In transfer type, both, hot & cold fluids are
passing simultaneously through the heat exchanger and heat is being transfer through the
separating wall between them. Transfer type exchangers are simple for connection and
installation, hence are used in many applications.

Apparatus:
In transfer type heat exchangers, different type of flow arrangements are used, viz,
parallel, counter or cross flow. The latest type being plate type heat exchanger. The apparatus
consists of parallel plates stacked together. The hot fluid is hot water obtain from water heater.
The cold fluid is tap water. Hot water enters at the top. Flow through the alternate plates in the
stack & comes to the diagonally opposite end of the plates. It reverse its directions during flow.
Cold water enters lower part of the plates, passes through the alternate eaves out the stack
through outlet at upper diagonally opposite end of the plates.

Specification:
1. Heat exchanger
No. of plates = 5 with passage of hot & cold fluid between alternate plates
Plate size = 200 x 400 mm
Effective heat transfer area = 0.334 m2 (for 1 fluid)
2. Instantaneous water heaters, 3 KW capacity, to supply hot water – 2 Nos.
3. Thermometers for measuring the water temperatures.
4. Valves to control hot and cold water flow.
5. Measuring flasks- 1 litre & stop watch.

Service required from customer:

1. Water supply about 15 litre/ min at constant head.
2. Two phase A.C. supply.
3. Floor space of about 1.5 m x 1 m.
4. Suitable drain arrangements for water.
Experimental Procedure:
1. Connect the water supply & start water flow, for hot water keep flow rate about 2-
3 litre/min, keep cold water flow rate between 4 to 6 litre/ min.
2. Connect the main electric supply & switch on the water heater.
3. Observe water inlet & outlet temperature.
4. Wait still steady state is reached & note down the observation.
5. Repeat the procedure by changing the water flow rate.

Observation table:
Hot water Cold water
Sr No Inlet temp Outlet Discharge Inlet temp Outlet Discharge
Thi°C temp Tho° time for 1 Tci°C temp Tco° time for 1
litre of litre of
C C
water water
1
2
3

Data:
1. Specific heat of water = Cpw = 4.2 KJ/Kg K
2. Heat transfer area = 0.334 m2
3. Density of water ρw = 1000 Kg/m3

Calculations:
1) Hot water inlet temp, Thi= °C
Hot water outlet temp, Tho = °C
Cold water inlet temp, Tci = °C
Cold water inlet temp, Tco = °C
2) Mass flow rate:
Let time required for 1 ltrs. Flow of water in measuring tank , for cold water be t cand
hot water be th
Volume flow rate, vc = 0.001 / te m3/s
Mass flow rate, mc = vc x ρw Kg/s
Similarely, for hot water, mh = vh x ρw Kg/s
3) Heat collected by cold water –
Qc = mc x Cpw (Tco – Tci) KJ/sec
Heat lost by hot water –
Qh = mh x Cpw (Thi – Tho) KJ/sec
 4) Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD)
As plate type heat exchanger is counter flow heat exchanger,
(Thi – Tco) - (Tho – Tci)
ΔT = LMTD = -----------------------------------------
Ln [(Thi – Tco) / (Tho – Tci)]
5) Heat transfer co-efficient,
I. Hot side heat transfer co-efficient,
Uh = Qh / (A ΔT)
II. Cold side heat transfer co-efficient,
Uc = Qc / (A ΔT)
6) Effectiveness of a heat exchanger,
Rate of heat transfer in heat exchanger
ɛ= ---------------------------------------------------
Maximum possible heat transfer rate

mh x Cp (Thi – Tho)
ɛ = ---------------------------------------
m x Cp (Thi – Tci)
Where, (m Cp) is smaller of two capacity rates of mh or mc,

Results:
Sr No. ΔT Uh Uc ϵ
1
2
3

Precautions:
1. Start water supply before switching on the water heater put water heater of before
closing the water supply.
2. Use all the controls and switches gently.
3. Keep the flow rate in the prescribed range, mention in experimental procedure.
4. Too low flow rate for hot water may give very high water temperature, which may
cause thermostat to put off the heater. Too high flow rate will not give appreciable
temperature rise of water.
5. Use clean water for the experiment, water containing impurities or flowing particles
May clog the tubes.
 Experiment: 9

Unsteady State Heat Transfer Apparatus

AIM:
(1) To study the unsteady state temperature response of finite geometric shapes.
(2) To calculate the value of surface conductance (h).

INTRODUCTION:
When the temperature at any given point in a system changes with time, the heat transfer is at
unsteady state. The phenomenon of unsteady state heat transfer is widely utilized in industrial
processes, such as the cooling of metal ball bearings. The calculation of heat transfer
coefficients makes it possible, among other things, to predict the amount of time a system takes
to reach steady state conditions. Through the use of the lumped-sum model and analysis of
Heisler charts, we measured the effects of radius, material and length to diameter ratio on the
heat transfer coefficient of a solid cylinder. The cylinder (at a constant temperature) was placed
in a warm water bath with a stirrer to simulate forced convection. We chose to study these
variables because, although previous groups have performed similar experiments, none is as
comprehensive as this. The next section will present the theory behind this experiment. An
explanation of the procedure we followed and the equipment we used follows. Next, we will
discuss the results obtained and the conclusions drawn from that data. Finally, we will conclude
with recommendations for future experiments.
If the temperature of the body does not vary with time, it is said to be in a steady state. But if
there is an abrupt change in its surface temperature, it (body) attains an equilibrium temperature
or a steady state after some period. During this period the temperature varies with time and the
body is said to be in an unsteady or transient state (the term transient or unsteady designates
a phenomenon which is time dependent). The steady state is thus the limit of transient
temperature distribution for large values of time.
Conduction of heat in unsteady state refers to the transient conditions wherein the heat flow
and the temperature distribution at any point of the system vary continuously with time.
Transient conditions occur in
(1) cooling of I.C. engines
(2) automobile engines
(3) heating and cooling of metal billets
(4) cooling and freezing of foods
(5) heat treatment of metals by quenching
(6) starting and stopping of various heat exchange units in power installation
(7) brick burning
The temperature field in any transient problem, in general, is given by
T = f(x,y,z,t)
During an unsteady state the change in temperature may follow a periodic or non-periodic
variation.

HEAT CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS HAVING INFINITE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

(NEGLIGIBLE INTERNAL RESISTANCE):

LUMPED PARAMETER ANALYSIS:

All solids have a finite thermal conductivity and there will always a temperature gradient inside
the solid whenever heat is added or removed. However for solids of large thermal conductivity
with surface areas that are large in proportion to their volume like plates and thin metallic wires,
the thermal resistance (L/kA) can be assumed to be small or negligible in comparison with the
convective resistance (1/hA) at the surface.
The process in which the internal resistance is assumed to be negligible in comparison with its
surface resistance is called the Newtonian heating or cooling process. The temperature, in this
process, is considered to be uniform at a given time. Such an analysis is called Lumped
Parameter analysis because the whole solid, whose energy at any time is a function of its
temperature and total heat capacity is treated as one lump.
The temperature response of such body for Newtonian heating or cooling is given by,

T  Ta  hAs 
 exp  t (1)
Ti  Ta  VC p 

And it indicates that temperature increases exponentially with time.

Where,
T = temperature of body at any time t, C

Ti = initial temperature of body, C

Ta = surroundings temperature, C

h = unit surface conductance, W/ m2 C

As = surface area of the body, m2

 = density of body material, kg/ m3

V = volume of the body, m3

Cp = specific heat of body, kJ/ kg C

t = time, s
The term (VCp/ hAs) has the dimensions of time and is called thermal time constant. Its value
is indicative of the rate of response of a system to a sudden change in its environmental
temperature. i.e. how fast a body will response to a change in the surroundings temperature.
This term can be arranged in dimensionless form as follows:

hAs  hV  As 2 k   hL  t 
t    t   c  2 
VC p    k 
 s  V C p  Lc
2
kA  
Where,
 = (k/ Cp) = thermal diffusivity of the solid
Lc= characteristic length = (volume of the solid (V)/ surface area of the solid (A s))
(1) The non dimensional factor hLc/k is called the Biot Number, Bi.
(2) It gives the indication of the ratio of internal (convection) resistance to the surface
(conduction) resistance. When the vale of Bi is small, it indicates that the system has a
small internal (conduction resistance), i.e. relatively small temperature gradient or the
existence of practically uniform temperature within the system. The convective resistance
then predominates and the transient phenomenon is controlled by the convective heat
transfer.
(3) The non dimensional factor t/ Lc2 is called the Fourier Number, Fo.
It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect through a solid.
Using non-dimensional terms, eqn.(1) takes the form of

T  Ta
 exp  BiFo 
Ti  Ta

THEORY:
In this experiment, we want to use a lumped capacity analysis to simplify our calculations, in
which only the effects of convection are significant. This occurs when the internal resistance
is negligible, and the Biot Number, Bi, is less than 0.1 as described in Equation (1).1

hx
Bi  (1)
k
Where k is the thermal conductivity and x is a characteristic dimension of the body obtained
from the volume to area ratio.
Derivation of Lumped-Sum Analysis:
 T  T h
ln  t
T0  T xC p  (1*)

Where x is the relative radius, described by:

V
x (2*)
A

V is the volume of the cylinder and A is the surface area. For a long cylinder this becomes:
r (3*)
x
2

Plugging into equation (1*)

T  T 2h
ln  t (4*)
T0  T rC p 

T  T 2h
ln  t (2)
T0  T rC p 

Where Cp is the heat capacity and  is the density of the material. T is the temperature of a
large bath, T is the center temperature of the cylinder at time, t, and T0 is the initial center
temperature.
This lumped sum model makes several approximations, including that of an infinite tank. As
discussed in previous reports, this approximation is not valid for the tank in the Rothfus lab
using materials with high internal resistance, such as Plexiglas. However, using materials with
low internal resistance such as those in this experiment, the lumped sum model is a close
approximation. In addition to the approximation of an infinite bath, the h value is the average
value over the entire surface of the cylinder. This introduces a problem of conduction through
the ends of the cylinder, which must be accounted for by using an appropriate length (L) to
diameter (D) ratio2:
L
 2 (3)
D
Using Plexiglas end caps helps to eliminate heat flow through the ends of the cylinders,
making the infinite cylinder approximation more accurate. Using various L/D ratios, it is
possible to test the accuracy of this assumption, which is addressed in this experiment.
In general, the average heat-transfer coefficient on immersed bodies is correlated in terms of
the Nusselt number1:

N Nu  CN Re
m 1/ 3
N Pr (4)
Where NPr is the Prandtl number which is constant for this experiment.
The variables C and m are constants based on the Reynolds number. From all previous reports
using similar cylinders, the Reynolds number was found to be within the range of 4 x 10 3 to 4
x 104 corresponding to C=0.683 and m=0.6183.
Dv
N Re  (5)

Where v, , and  are properties of water which are constant throughout the experiment.
hD
N Nu  (6)
k
Where k is the thermal conductivity of water, and D is the diameter of the cylinder. From these
equations it can be seen that h will decrease with increased diameter.
C1
h
(7)
0
D .382

Where C1 is a proportionality constant. This relationship will hold true for infinite cylinders,
but with increasing diameter and constant, finite length, the end effects will become more
apparent, and therefore the Biot number will increase. While equation (6) contains a relation
between the k value of the surrounding water and the convective heat transfer coefficient, it
does not indicate any relationship between the h value and the thermal conductivity of the
material itself. In fact, this equation would imply that the material has no affect on the heat
transfer coefficient, as long as the lumped sum approximation has been justified, meaning the
internal resistance is relatively low. However, in previous experiments it has been noted that
the heat transfer coefficient varies with changing material properties. i

When the effects of internal resistance are not negligible, the lumped-sum analysis described
above is invalid, and Heisler charts must be used to calculate the convective heat transfer
coefficients. To use these charts, dimensionless numbers are calculated and applied to a chart
with data for objects of varying geometry. In this case, we will use the following described
values and apply them to a Heisler chart (see figure A 4.1 below) to determine the heat transfer
coefficient of a long cylinder.ii

X   t (8)
x2
1
 T  T
Y (9)
T  T0

k
m
hx (10)

x
n
x1 (11)

k

 Cp (12)

X is a dimensionless number which accounts for the effects of the shape and material, where k
is the solid thermal conductivity, and x1 is the radius of the cylinder. Y is a dimensionless
temperature constant, m is the inverse of the Biot number, relating conductive effects and
convective effects, and n is a relative radius, in which x is the location of the thermocouple.
The results gathered from Heisler charts will be accurate even with significant internal
resistance and are recommended anytime the Biot number is greater than 0.1.

UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER APPARATUS

EXPERIMENTAL MANUAL

APPARATUS DESCRIPTION:
In this experiment, the effects of material selection and radius on the heat transfer coefficient,
h, of a solid cylinder were measured.

For this experiment the materials were ordered and were prepared by cutting the
appropriate material into its desired length. Then Sphere & Cylinder were drilled in the
centre to a depth that corresponded to half its length (See Figure A2.1 for an example of
how this was done). A Type J, iron/ constantan, thermocouple was glued into the centre
of each cylinder using anepoxy with a high thermal conductivity. This particular epoxy
was chosen because it would not have any affect on the temperature readings that were
obtained from the thermocouple. In essence, the presence of the epoxy could be ignored.
(For more accurate results, the ends of the cylinders would be sealed with Plexiglas end
caps and a two-part
 Figure A4.1: Heisler chart.
epoxy. The epoxy and Plexiglas acted as an insulator to prevent heat loss from the ends of the
cylinders.)

The apparatus consist of a 20 litre SS 304 tank equipped with 1.5 kW heater and a drain valve.
The tank is well insulated from outside to prevent heat losses to the surroundings. The
temperature of the fluid inside the tank can be controlled by the regulator provided on the tank
and is measured using the digital temperature indicator. Two shapes of known geometry and
metals are provided with thermocouples to study the unsteady state heat transfer.

T1 Hot Oil/ Water Bath Temperature

T2 Mild Steel Sphere

T3 Copper Cylinder

TEST BODY SHAPE 1:

Geometry = Cylinder

MOC = Copper
Diameter = 50 mm

Length = 150 mm
Density () = 8900 kg/m3
Specific Heat (Cp) = 0.38 kJ/ kg oC

PROCEDURE:
One hot water bath is used. This water bath provides a constant temperature environment for
the experiment to be conducted (a schematic of the apparatus can be found in Figure A2.2 ).
The test body was placed in the atmosphere at ambient temperature and is allowed to achieve
this temperature. Once this temperature is reached, as shown by the reference thermocouple,
the test body to be tested is then transferred to the hot water bath at particular temperature
(about 65 C), which was kept constant using thermostat provided and laboratory stirrer (not
supplied). The cylinder is allowed to equilibrate to this temperature. Digital Temperature
Indicator and stopwatch is used to record the temperature read by the thermocouple every 5
seconds.

 Fill the heating tank with fluid (water/ oil) upto 75% level so that test specimen can be
dipped in to the fluid.
 Switch on the heater and Maintain the desired temperature of the water/ oil using the
regulator provided on the tank.
 Note down this temperature (Ta) and initial temperature of the body as indicated by the
DTI.
 Now dip the selected body into this hot fluid with the help of stand provided.
 With selector switch of DTI at proper thermocouple number and start noting down the
unsteady state temperature response (T) for a regular time interval (about 5 or 10 seconds
interval).
 After the temperature reaches the steady state take the body out of the heating tank and note
down the unsteady state temperature response of the body while cooling. Or dip the body
into the cold water bath (not supplied) and note down the unsteady state temperature
response (T) for a regular time interval for cooling.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Body Shape : Copper Cylinder

Diameter :

Length :

Volume :

Surface Area :

Thermal Conductivity :

Density :

Specific Heat :

Cycle : Heating / Cooling

Surrounding Temperature (Ta) : C

Initial body Temperature (Ti) : C

Time Temperature Unit Surface Biot Fourier

Sr. Response (T - Ta/ Conductance Number Number
(sec)
No. Ti – Ta)
(t) T = T3 (C) h (w/m2*oC) Bi Fo

GRAPHS: Plot [(T-Ta)/ (Ti-Ta)] vs. t for heating as well as cooling cycle.

GRAPHS: Plot [(T-Ta)/ (Ti-Ta)] vs. t for heating as well as cooling cycle.
SAMPLE CALCULATION:
Sample calculation of h using lumped-sum model

(For Aluminium D=2in, L=4in)

First, obtain the equation of the line.
y  0.0585 x  0.5285
Next, use the slope of that equation in the following equation:

 r Cp    (0.0254m)(896 J )( 2707 kg )

kg  K m3
h  slope   0.0585 
2 2

h  1801.95W
m2
SAMPLE CALCULATION OF H FROM HEISLER CHART

First, choose a point on the graph of Y vs. t. Then substitute those values into the following
equations:

(8.94  10  5 m
2
 t s
)( 45.498s)
X   5.987
x2 (0.0254m) 2
1

T  T 61.798C  54.794C
Y   0.115
T  T0 61.798C  0.942C

k
m 
h  x1
Using the Heisler chart, find the point (0.115, 5.987), which corresponds to a value for m.
Rearranging the equation for m yields the following:

206W
h
k
 m K
m  x1 5  0.0254m

h  1622 W
m2  K
SAMPLE CALCULATION OF C1 VALUE:

For 3.0-inch diameter aluminum cylinder, from Table 2 the average experimental
h is 1335.

W  in
h = 1335
m2  K

D = 3.0 in.
C1
h (Equation (9))
D0.382
W  in
Therefore, C1 = 2031
m2  K
h values for all trials
Material trials: L/D trials: Radius Trials:
D=1.5 in. L=6 in. aluminum D=2 in. aluminum L=6 in.
h(W/m^2*K) h(heisler) h(W/m^2*K) h(heisler) h(W/m^2*K) h(heisler)
steel 1 974.771 945 L=4 in 1 1801.954 1622 D=1 in 1 2086.937
steel 2 1039.984 945 L=4 in 2 1823.516 1352 D=1 in 2 2083.856
steel 3 985.068 859 L=4 in. 3 1829.677 1352 D=1 in 3 2048.432
AVERAGE 999.941 916 AVERAGE 1818.382 1442 AVERAGE 2073.075
stdev 35.05835762 49.65212315 stdev 14.55702862 155.8845727 stdev 21.39699107

copper1 2136.796 L=6 in. 1 1943.6467 1474 D=1.5 in 1 1266.024

copper2 2042.045 L=6 in. 2 1919.0046 1622 D=1.5 in 2 1520.152
copper3 1979.967 L=6 in. 3 1885.1217 1622 D=1.5 in 3 1240.691
AVERAGE 2052.936 AVERAGE 1915.924333 1573 AVERAGE 1342.289
stdev 78.97970765 stdev 29.38383805 85.44783984 stdev 154.5537942

brass1 1809.447 1365 L=7.5 in. 1 2008.3322 1622 D=2 in 1 1697.273

brass2 1753.195 1365 L=7.5 in. 2 1959.048 1707 D=2 in 2 1152.051
brass3 1906.326 1560 L=7.5 in. 3 1949.8072 1622 D=2 in 3 1497.05
AVERAGE 1822.989333 1430 AVERAGE 1972.3958 1650 AVERAGE 1448.791333
stdev 77.45851718 112.5833025 stdev 31.46294217 49.07477288 stdev 275.7959962

aluminum1 1266.024 L=9 in. 1 1774.232 1622 D=2.5 in 1 1478.568 1298

aluminum2 1520.152 L=9 in. 2 1811.1953 1622 D=2.5 in 2 1259.093 1442
aluminum3 1240.691 L=9 in. 3 1801.9545 1622 D=2.5 in 3 1517.072 1442
AVERAGE 1342.289 AVERAGE 1795.793933 1622 AVERAGE 1418.244333 1394
stdev 154.5537942 stdev 19.23631521 0 stdev 139.1671645 83.13843876

D=3 in 1 1270.644 1298

D=3 in 2 1270.644 1298
D=3 in 3 1464.706 1442
AVERAGE 1335.331333 1346
stdev 112.0417479 83.13843876

RESULTS

Table 1: Heat transfer coefficients for various materials.

Table 1 shows results from the trials of cylinders made of different materials, but the same
W W
Diameter (inches) h( ) lumped-sum Bi h( ) Heisler
m2  K m2  K

1.0 2073 ± 21 0.064 ---

1.5 1342 ± 155 0.062 ---

2.0 1448 ± 276 0.089 ---

2.5 1418 ± 139 0.109 1394 ± 83

3.0 1335 ± 112 0.123 1346 ± 83

sizes: diameter of 1.5 inches and length of 6 inches. Heat transfer coefficients were found
using the lumped sum model and Heisler charts, when necessary, i.e., when Bi>0.1. Sample
calculations for h can be found in Appendix 4 along with a Heisler chart.

W W
Material h( ) lumped sum Bi h( ) Heisler
m2  K m2  K

Aluminium 1342 ± 155 0.062 ---

Brass 1823 ± 77 0.167 1430 ± 113

Copper 2053 ± 79 0.052 ---

Steel 1000 ± 35 0.212 916 ± 50

Table A5.1: Heat transfer coefficients for varying cylinder diameter.

Table A5.1 in Appendix 5 gives results from the trials of aluminium cylinders with
different diameters. Again, Heisler charts were used for two of the cylinders. To correlate heat
transfer coefficient to diameter, the data from the table can be used to calculate the C1 value
from equation (7) for each cylinder (excluding the 1.5-inch cylinder- see Table A5.2). This
W  in
gives an average C1 value of 2001 for all experimental data, and an average C1 of 1997
m2  K
W  in
when including Heisler chart values. Figure 1 shows the equation of the line of h versus
m2  K
D obtained from equation (7), and it also shows the experimental h values.
Table A5.2: Constant (C1) values for varying diameters.
 W  in
W  in C1 ( )
C1 ( 2 ) m2  K
Diameter (inches) m K
Heisler

1.0 2073 ---

2.0 1887 ---

2.5 2012 1978

3.0 2031 2048

3000

2500
h(W/K*m^2)

h( D )
2000
hs i

1500

1000
1 2 3 4
D  Ds i
Diameter (inches)

Figure 1: Experimental h values and predictive line for h values.

DISCUSSION:

The results from this experiment can be broken down into three separate parts. First, varying
the material of the cylinder changes the value of heat transfer coefficients, as shown in Table
1. The Biot numbers for brass and steel were slightly above 0.1, which is reasonable because
these materials have lower thermal conductivities than the other two. Because these Biot
numbers are too large for a lumped sum analysis, Heisler charts were used to find another h
value for brass and steel. The Heisler values are a little lower than the experimental values.
This is expected since the internal resistance would decrease the heat transfer. It is important
to note that the h values obtained from the Heisler charts have a higher standard deviation than
the experimental values in almost all cases, probably due to the human error involved with
reading the charts. Therefore these values may not be very precise. Using the Heisler values
or the experimental values, no direct relationship could be found between h and k (see
Appendix 6 for a graph.) A possible explanation for the change in h is some unknown
combination of material properties, such as thermal conductivity, surface roughness and
density.
 Graph of h vs. k
i  0  3

2500

2000
h (W/K*m^2)

1500

1000

500
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
k
h experimental
h Heisler

Figure A6.1: h vs. k for experimental and Heisler values.

The second set of data shows how h varies with radius. From equation (7), h should decrease
with increasing diameter. As shown on Table A5.1, with the exception of the 1.5-inch diameter
cylinder, the h values of the aluminum cylinders followed this trend. The 1.5-inch cylinder
deviates from the others possibly because it is an old and was already in the lab when we
performed our experiment. The other cylinders were cut from the same piece of aluminum
and are probably more consistent. Since these trials were not done at the same time as the other
trials illustrated in Table A5.1, it is likely that the data is not reproducible from day to day. For
this reason, the 1.5-inch cylinder is excluded from the calculation of the line graphed in Figure
1. The remaining cylinders, though, have h values that fit well with the graph, showing that
equation (7) is a good predictor of heat transfer coefficient with respect to diameter.
As expected, the Biot number of the cylinders increases with increasing diameter (again
neglecting the 1.5 inch cylinder) because as the cylinder gets bigger, internal resistance plays
a larger role in heat transfer. The largest two cylinders have Biot numbers greater than 0.1, but
the h values obtained from Heisler charts are not significantly different from those calculated
using the lumped-sum model .
L
The third set of data (shown in Table 2) relates ratio to h. The h values range from 1796 to
D
W
1972 . This variation is probably due to the fact that the tank was not very deep compared
m2  K

to the length of the cylinder. When testing the longest cylinder, the top of the cylinder was
only a few inches from the surface of the water, while the top of the shortest cylinder was only
about halfway between the surface of the water and the bottom of the tank. The change in
length certainly changed the mixing patterns in the tank, and therefore the velocity of water
flowing over the cylinder. Given the fact that on other trials, the standard deviation for h
reached as high as 276 2W (see Table A5.1), it can be concluded that the fluctuations in heat
m K
 L
transfer coefficient for varying ratio are not significant, and therefore the infinite cylinder
D
assumption described in the theory is valid.
It should also be noted that all calculated Biot numbers for these trials were greater than 0.1,
so Heisler charts were used to recalculate h values. As seen in Table 2, these values also did
not fluctuate any more than would be expected from the standard deviations.

CONCLUSION:

This experiment shows that heat transfer coefficient of a cylinder can be correlated to
its diameter by the following equation:

C1
h
D.382
Where C1 is a constant. The material of the cylinder also affects heat transfer coefficient. The
results of several trials support using the infinite cylinder assumption, meaning that changing
the length to diameter ratio will not affect the heat transfer coefficient as long as it is greater
than two. Using the lumped sum analysis is not always appropriate, given that Biot numbers
are sometimes greater than 0.1, especially when using cylinders with large diameters or
materials with low thermal conductivities. Heisler charts can be used in place of lumped-sum
analysis, but reading off of them is not always reliable.
Future experiments related to this study should include more than three trials performed
on each cylinder to reduce errors in experimental procedure. Further study could be performed
on length to diameter ratio, using ratios below two in order to test the limit of the infinite
cylinder assumption. More materials should be tested to determine if there is a direct
relationship between heat transfer coefficient and thermal conductivity. Also, it is important
for future groups to ensure that their data is reproducible from day to day, for instance by
keeping the placement of the cylinder in the tank consistent.
NOMENCLATURE

h heat transfer coefficient [=] W

m2  K

k thermal conductivity [=] W

m K

m dimensionless, inverse Biot number

n relative radius [=] in

r radius [=] in

t time [=] seconds

2
v velocity [=] m
s
x relative radius [=] in

x1 radius of cylinder [=] in

Bi dimensionless Biot number

C dimensionless constant based on Reynolds number

C1 proportionality constant for height to diameter [=] W  in

m2  K

Cp heat capacity of solid [=] J

Kg  K

D diameter of cylinder [=] in

L length of cylinder [=] in

Nnu dimensionless Nusselt number

Npr dimensionless Prandtl number

Nre dimensionless Reynolds number

T temperature at center of cylinder [=] Celsius

To initial temperature at center of cylinder [=] Celsius

T temperature of hot bath [=] Celsius

X dimensionless parameter used in Heisler chart analysis

Y dimensionless parameter used in Heisler chart analysis

2
 thermal diffusivity m
s

 viscosity [=] Kg
ms

 density [=] Kg
m3

REFERENCES:

 Chan, Melissa; Guo, Judy, et. al. Unsteady-State Heat Transfer: Characterization of Heat
Transfer Coefficients and Flow in a Cylindrical Container. May 7, 1999.
 Cunning, Scott; Petruzzi, Lauren, et. al. Velocity Profiles in an Agitated Tank. May 15,
2000.
 Echevarria, Cindy; Knaebel, Seth, et. al. A Tale of Two Cylinders: Unsteady State Heat
Transfer Through Tin. March 24, 2000.
 Geankoplis, Christie J. Transport Processes and Unit Operations. Prentice Hall, New
Jersey, 1993. 3rd edition.