Chapter 1 - Resistors

Resist is the word which means “to oppose”. Resistance is the property of opposing the flow of electrons, in a
conductor or a semiconductor. A Resistor is an electronic component which has the property of resistance.

Symbol and Units

The symbol for a Resistor is as shown below.

The units of resistance is Ohms, which is indicated by Ω omega.

The formula for resistance is,

R = V/I

Where V is Voltage and I is Current. It would really be difficult to manufacture the resistors with each and every value.
Hence, few values are chosen and the resistors of such values are only manufactured. These are called as
“Preferred Values”. In practice, the resistors with near values are chosen to match the required applications. This is
how a practical resistor looks like –

Color Coding

A process called color coding is used to determine the value of resistance for a resistor, just as shown in the above
figure. A resistor is coated with four color bands where each color determines a particular value. The below table
shows a list of values which each color indicates.
The first two colored bands indicate the first and second digit of the value and the third color band represents the
multiplier number of zeroes added. The fourth color band indicates the tolerance value.
Tolerance is the range of value up to which a resistor can withstand without getting destroyed. This is an important
factor. The following figure shows how the value of a resistor is determined by color code.

The five color band resistors are manufactured with tolerance of 2% and 1% and also for other high accuracy
resistors. In these five band resistors, the first three bands represent digits, fourth one indicates multiplier and the fifth
represents tolerance.

Let us look at an example to understand the color-coding process.

Example 1 − Determine the value of a resistor with a color code yellow, blue, orange and silver.

Solution − The value of yellow is 4, blue is 6, orange is 3 which represents multiplier. Silver is ±10 which is the
tolerance value.
Hence the value of the resistor is 46×103 = 46kΩ
The maximum resistance value for this resistor is
46kΩ or 46000Ω + 10% = 46000 + 4600 = 50600Ω = 50.6kΩ
The minimum resistance value for this resistor is
46kΩ or 46000Ω - 10% = 46000 - 4600 = 41400Ω = 41.4kΩ

After having gone through different details regarding resistors, we have some terms to learn. Also we have to deal
with different behaviors of a resistor for few types of connections.

Important Terms

There are a few terms which we need to discuss before going into the type of resistors we have. One needs to get
introduced to these terms at this stage and can understand them as we progress further.

Resistance
Resistance is the property of a resistor that opposes the flow of current. When alternating current goes through a
resistance, a voltage drop is produced that is in-phase with the current.

Indication − R
Units − Ohms
Symbol – Ω

Along with resistance, there are other important terms, called as reactance and impedance.

Reactance
The resistance offered to the alternating current because of the capacitances and inductances present in the circuit,
can be understood as reactance. When alternating current goes through a pure reactance, a voltage drop is
produced that is 90°out of phase with the current.

Depending upon the phase i.e., +90° or -90° the reactance can be termed as inductive reactance or capacitive
reactance.
Indication − X
Units − Ohms
Symbol – Ω
Impedance
Impedance is the effective resistance to alternating current arising from the combined effects of ohmic resistance and
reactance. When alternating current goes through an impedance, a voltage drop is produced which is somewhere
between 0°to 90°out of phase with the current.
Indication − I
Units − Ohms
Symbol − Ω

Conductance
This is the ability of a material to conduct electricity. It is the reciprocal of resistance.
Indication − G

Symbol − ℧
Units − Mhos

Circuit Connections in Resistors

A Resistor when connected in a circuit, that connection can be either series or parallel. Let us now know what will
happen to the total current, voltage and resistance values if they are connected in series as well, when connected in
parallel.

Resistors in Series

Let us observe what happens, when few resistors are connected in Series. Let us consider three resistors with
different values, as shown in the figure below.

Resistance

The total resistance of a circuit having series resistors is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. That means,
in the above figure there are three resistors having the values 1KΩ, 5KΩ and 9KΩ respectively.

Total resistance value of the resistor network is −

R = R1+R2+R3

Which means 1 + 5 + 9 = 15KΩ is the total resistance.

Where R1 is the resistance of 1st resistor, R2 is the resistance of 2nd resistor and R3 is the resistance of 3rd resistor in
the above resistor network.

Voltage

The total voltage that appears across a series resistors network is the addition of voltage drops at each individual
resistances. In the above figure we have three different resistors which have three different values of voltage drops at
each stage.

Total voltage that appears across the circuit −

V = V1+V2+V3

Which means 1v + 5v + 9v = 15v is the total voltage.

Where V1 is the voltage drop of 1st resistor, V2 is the voltage drop of 2nd resistor and V3 is the voltage drop of
3rd resistor in the above resistor network.
Current

The total amount of Current that flows through a set of resistors connected in series is the same at all the points
throughout the resistor network. Hence the current is same 5A when measured at the input or at any point between
the resistors or even at the output.

Current through the network −

I = I1 = I2 = I3

Which means that current at all points is 5A.

Where I1 is the current through the 1st resistor, I2 is the current through the 2nd resistor and I3 is the current through the
3rd resistor in the above resistor network.

Resistors in Parallel

Let us observe what happens, when few resistors are connected in Parallel. Let us consider three
resistors with different values, as shown in the figure below.

Resistance

The total resistance of a circuit having Parallel resistors is calculated differently from the series resistor network
method. Here, the reciprocal 1/R1 value of individual resistances are added with the inverse of algebraic sum to get
the total resistance value.

Total resistance value of the resistor network is −

Where R1 is the resistance of 1st resistor, R2 is the resistance of 2nd resistor and R3 is the resistance of 3rd resistor in
the above resistor network.

For example, if the resistance values of previous example are considered, which means R 1 = 1KΩ, R2 = 5KΩ and
R3 = 9KΩ. The total resistance of parallel resistor network will be −
From the method we have for calculating parallel resistance, we can derive a simple equation for two-resistor parallel
network. It is −

Voltage

The total voltage that appears across a Parallel resistors network is same as the voltage drops at each individual
resistance.

The Voltage that appears across the circuit −

V = V 1 = V2 = V3

Where V1 is the voltage drop of 1st resistor, V2 is the voltage drop of 2nd resistor and V3 is the voltage drop of
3rd resistor in the above resistor network. Hence the voltage is same at all the points of a parallel resistor network.

Current

The total amount of current entering a Parallel resistive network is the sum of all individual currents flowing in all the
Parallel branches. The resistance value of each branch determines the value of current that flows through it. The total
current through the network is

I = I1 + I2 + I3

Where I1 is the current through the 1st resistor, I2 is the current through the 2nd resistor and I3 is the current through the
3rd resistor in the above resistor network. Hence the sum of individual currents in different branches obtain the total
current in a parallel resistive network.

A Resistor is particularly used as a load in the output of many circuits. If at all the resistive load is not used, a resistor
is placed before a load. Resistor is usually a basic component in any circuit.

Non-linear Resistors
There are many types of resistors according to the type of material used, the manufacturing procedure and their
applications. The classification is as shown below.

Linear resistors have linear VI characteristics and non-linear resistors has non-linear VI characteristics. Non-linear
resistors are the resistors whose voltage and current characteristics vary non-linearly. The voltage and current values
vary depending upon other factors like temperature and light, but they may not be linear.

Thermistor

Thermal means temperature. In this resistor, the resistance varies with temperature. If heat increases, the resistance
decreases and vice versa. This is used for measurement and control purposes.
The main types of thermistors are NTC and PTC.
 NTC is Negative Temperature Coefficient and in such devices, the resistance decreases as the
temperature increases. These are used to protect the devices from over-voltage conditions.
 PTC is Positive Temperature Coefficient and in such devices, the resistance increases as the temperature
increases. These are used to protect the devices from over current conditions.
The following figure shows an NTC thermistor, along with its symbol.

Photo Resistor

Photo means light. In this resistor, the resistance varies with light. As light increases resistance decreases and vice
versa. This is also used for measurement and control purposes. It is also called as LDR Light Dependent Resistor.

Varistors

The resistance of a varistor, varies with the applied voltage. As the voltage increases, the resistance decreases and if
the voltage decreases, the resistance increases. It is also called as VDR Voltage Dependent Resistor.

Surface Mount

These are being highly used since the introduction of surface mount technology. These can be termed as chip
resistors, which means a resistive layer integrated on a ceramic chip.
These surface mount resistors are very small when compared to the normal resistors and hence occupy less space.
They are effective and dissipate less heat. The invention of these resistors has changed the look of a PCB Printed
Circuit Board and reduced its size greatly.
The advantages of surface mount resistors are −
  These are compact in size.

 These are very stable.

 They have good tolerance.

 They are effective in reducing heat dissipation.

The following figure shows the images of surface mount resistors.

Linear Resistors

A Linear resistor is one whose resistance doesn’t vary with the flow of current through it. The current through it, will
always be proportional to the voltage applied across it. Linear resistors are further classified as Fixed and Variable
resistors.

Variable Resistors

Variable resistors are those whose values can be varied manually, according to the requirement. A particular value of
resistance is chosen from a range of resistance values, with the help of a shaft connected. The symbol of a variable
resistor is as shown below.

These resistors are better understood with the help of the classification we have. Variable resistors are further divided
into Potentiometers, Rheostats and Trimmers.

Potentiometer

A Potentiometer is simply called as a Pot. This is a three-terminal resistor having a shaft which slides or rotates. This
shaft when operated forms an adjustable voltage divider. The following figure shows an image of a Potentiometer.
A potentiometer also measures the potential difference voltage in a circuit. A path of resistive material with resistance
of low to high value is laid internally and a wiper is placed so that it connects the resistive material to the circuit. This
is mostly used as a volume controller in TV sets and Music systems.

Rheostat

A Rheostat can be simply called as a Wire wound resistor. A Resistive wire is wound around an insulating ceramic
core tightly. A Wiper slides over these windings. One connection is made to one end of the resistive wire and the
second connection is made to the wiper or the sliding contact, to obtain the desired resistance.

The Rheostat is used to control current. These are mostly used in the speed control of heavy motors. The resistance
obtained by these is in the order of kilo ohms. Rheostats are mostly available as single tube and double tube
rheostats, as shown in the following figure.

As a variable resistance they are often used for tuning and calibration in circuits. Now-a-days, the usage of rheostats
was replaced by switching electronic devices, as rheostats have lower efficiency.

Trimmer

Trimmer is both a variable resistor and a potentiometer measures potential difference. This Trimmer Potentiometer is,
in short called as Trim Pot. If these are used as variable resistors, then they are called as Preset Resistors.

These trim pots are of different types such as single turn or multi turn. These are small variable resistors used for
tuning and calibration. Their life span is shorter than other variable resistors.

Fixed Resistors

Fixed resistors are one type of linear resistors. A resistor is said to be a fixed resistor, if its value is fixed. The value of
fixed resistor can’t be varied like a variable resistor as its value is determined at the time of manufacturing itself. The
following figures represent the symbol of a fixed resistor.
The fixed resistors are classified into different types, depending upon their manufacturing processes and the
materials used in their manufacturing. The classification is as follows.

Carbon composition

The Carbon composition resistors are a blend of carbon particles, graphite and ceramic dust mixed with a binder
substance like clay. This mixture is treated with high pressure and temperature. After the whole thing is molded in a
case, the leads are fixed.

Thermal mass of the carbon composition resistor is higher so as to withstand high energy pulses.

These resistors have low stability and high noise which is a disadvantage.

The following figure shows an image of carbon composition resistor.

Carbon composition resistors are used in Surge protection, Current limiting, and High voltage power supplies.

Wire wound

A Wire wound resistor is formed by wounding a wire made up of a resistive material around a core. The metallic core
acts as a non-conductive material while the resistive wire conducts, but with some resistance. The image of a wire
wound resistor is as shown below.

Usually a nichrome wire or a manganin wire is used to wind the core because they offer high resistance. Whereas
plastic, ceramic or glass is used for core.

Wire wound resistors are very accurate.

They work excellently for low resistance values and high power ratings.
These are the oldest type of fixed resistors, but are being used even now.

Thick Film

The film resistors have a resistive layer on a ceramic base, whose thickness defines the type they belong to. The
thickness of resistive layer on thick film resistors is much higher than thin film resistors. Thick film resistors are
produced by firing a special paste, which is a mixture of glass and metal oxides, onto the substrate.

There are three main types in thick film resistors like Fusible resistors, Cermet film resistors, and Metal oxide film
resistors.

Fusible Resistors

The Fusible resistors are similar to wire wound resistors. But these resistors along with providing resistance, act as a
fuse. The image of a fusible resistor is as shown below.

In this resistor, the current flows through a spring loaded connection, which is placed closely to the body of the
resistor. The blob that is attached to the spring wire of the resistor takes the heat generated by the resistor due to the
current flow. If this heat is increased, the attachment to the blob gets melted up and opens the connection.

Hence we can say that, these resistors limit the current, but if the circuit power rating exceeds a specified value,
these resistors act as a fuse to open or break the circuit. The value of these resistors is usually of less than 10 Ohms.
These resistors are generally used in TV sets, amplifiers and other expensive electronic circuits.

Cermet Film Resistors

The Cermet film resistors are the film resistors made up of a special material called Cermet. Cermet is a composite
alloy made by combining Ceramic and Metal. This combination provides the advantages in both of these materials
like high temperature resistance and wear resistance of ceramic along with flexibility and electrical conductivity of a
metal.
A metal film layer is wrapped around a resistive material and is fixed in a ceramic metal or cermet substrate. Leads
are taken to make the connections easy while fixing on a PCB. They offer high stability as temperature cannot affect
their performance.

Metal Oxide film resistors

A Metal oxide film resistor is formed by oxidizing a thick film of Tin chloride on a heated glass rod, which is a
substrate. They have high temperature stability and can be used at high voltages. These resistors have low operating
noise.

Metal oxide film resistors differ with metal film ones only regarding the type of film coated. Metal oxide is a metallic
compound like tin with oxygen to form tin oxide, which is coated as a film on the resistor. The resistivity of this resistor
depends upon the amount of antimony oxide added to the tin oxide.

Thin Film

Thin film resistors have a resistive layer of width 0.1 micrometer or smaller on the ceramic base. Thin film resistors
have a metallic film that is vacuum deposited on an insulating substrate.

Thin film resistors are more accurate and have better temperature coefficient and is more stable. The thin film
resistors are further divided into two types such as −

Carbon film resistors

Metal film resistors

Carbon film resistor

A Carbon film resistor is made by depositing a carbon film layer on a ceramic substrate. The carbon film acts as the
resistive material to the current and the ceramic substance acts as an insulating substance. Metallic caps are fixed at
both the ends and copper leads are drawn out.

The following figure shows the construction of a carbon film resistor.

The main advantages of these resistors are their high stability, wide operating range, low noise, and low cost. The
carbon film resistors are the most preferred ones over carbon composition resistors due to their low noise.

Metal Film Resistors

The film coating makes the difference between metal oxide film resistors and metal film resistors. A thin film of
metallic substance such as nickel chromium is used to coat the resistor in a metal film resistor whereas a film of metal
oxide like tin oxide is used to coat the resistor in a metal oxide resistor.

Metal film resistors have low temperature coefficient of resistance, which means the resistance is less affected by the
temperature.

Wattage

While using a resistor, if the flow of current increases, the resistor dissipates some heat. If this value crosses a
certain critical value, the resistor may get damaged. The wattage rating of a resistor is printed on some higher value
resistors in order to avoid such situation.

Wattage is the amount of electric power expressed in watts. Electric power is the rate of transfer of electrical energy.

Power P = VI = I2R

Chapter 2 – Capacitors

A Capacitor is a passive component that has the ability to store the energy in the form of potential difference between
its plates. It resists a sudden change in voltage. The charge is stored in the form of potential difference between two
plates, which form to be positive and negative depending upon the direction of charge storage.
A non-conducting region is present between these two plates which is called as dielectric. This dielectric can be
vacuum, air, mica, paper, ceramic, aluminum etc. The name of the capacitor is given by the dielectric used.

Symbol and Units

The standard units for capacitance is the Farads. Generally, the values of capacitors available will be in the order of
micro-farads, pico-farads and nano-farads. The symbol of a capacitor is as shown below.

The Capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the distance between the plates and is inversely proportional to the
area of the plates. Also, the higher the permittivity of a material, the higher will be the capacitance.
The permittivity of a medium describes how much electric flux is being generated per unit charge in that medium.
The following image shows some practical capacitors.
When two plates having same area A, and equal width are placed parallel to each other with a separation of distance
d, and if some energy is applied to the plates, then the capacitance of that parallel plate capacitor can be termed as –

Where:

C = Capacitance of a capacitor
ε = permittivity of free space
0

εr = permittivity of dielectric medium

d = distance between the plates
A = area of the two conducting plates

With some voltage applied, the charge deposits on the two parallel plates of the capacitor. This charge deposition
occurs slowly and when the voltage across the capacitor equals the voltage applied, the charging stops, as the
voltage entering equals the voltage leaving.
The rate of charging depends upon the value of capacitance. The greater the value of capacitance, the slower the
rate of change of voltage in the plates.

Working of a Capacitor
A Capacitor can be understood as a two-terminal passive component which stores electrical energy. This electrical
energy is stored in electrostatic field.
Initially, the negative and positive charges on two plates of the capacitor are in equilibrium. There is no tendency for a
capacitor to get charged or discharged. The negative charge is formed by the accumulation of electrons, while the
positive charge is formed by the depletion of electrons. As this happens without any external charge given, this state
is electrostatic condition. The figure below shows the capacitor with static charges.

The accumulation and depletion of electrons according to the varying positive and negative cycles of the AC supply,
can be understood as “current flow”. This is called as Displacement Current. The direction of this current flow keeps
on changing as this is AC.

Charging of a Capacitor
When an external voltage is given, the electric charge gets converted into electrostatic charge. This happens while
the capacitor is charging. The positive potential of the supply, attracts the electrons from the positive plate of the
capacitor, making it more positive. While the negative potential of the supply, forces the electrons to the negative
plate of the capacitor, making it more negative. The figure below explains this.
During this process of charging, the electrons move through the DC supply but not through the dielectric which is
an insulator. This displacement is large, when the capacitor starts to charge but reduces as it charges. The capacitor
stops charging when the voltage across capacitor equals the supply voltage.

Let us see what happens to the dielectric when the capacitor begins to charge.

Dielectric behavior
As the charges deposit on the plates of the capacitor, an electrostatic field is formed. The strength of this electrostatic
field depends upon the magnitude of charge on the plate and the permittivity of the dielectric material. Permittivity is
the measure of dielectric whether how far it allows the electrostatic lines to pass through it.
The dielectric is actually an insulator. It has electrons in the outer most orbit of the atoms. Let us observe how they
get affected. When there is no charge on the plates, the electrons in the dielectric move in circular orbit. This is as
shown in the figure below.

If the charge increases further, the orbits expand more. But if it still increases, the dielectric breaks down shorting
the capacitor. Now, the capacitor being fully charged, it’s ready to get discharged. It is enough if we provide a path for
them to travel from negative to positive plate. The electrons flow without any external supply as there are too many
number of electrons on one side and barely any electrons on the other. This imbalance is adjusted by
the discharge of the capacitor.
Also, when a discharge path is found, the atoms in the dielectric material tend to get to their normal circular
orbit and hence forces the electrons to get discharged. This kind of discharge enables capacitors to deliver high
currents in a short period of time, just as in a camera flash.

Color Coding
To know the value of a capacitor, it is usually labelled as below −
n35 = 0.35nF or 3n5 = 3.5nF or 35n = 35nF and so on.
Sometimes the markings will be like 100K which means, k = 1000pF. Then the value will be 100 × 1000pF = 100nF.
Though these number markings are being used now-a-days, an International color coding scheme was developed
long ago, to understand the values of capacitors. The color coding indications are just as given below.
In these five band capacitors, the first two bands represent digits, third one indicates multiplier, fourth for tolerance
and the fifth represents voltage. Let us look at an example to understand the color coding process.

Example 1 − Determine the value of a capacitor with a color code yellow, violet, orange, white and red.
Solution − The value of yellow is 4, violet is 7, orange is 3 which represents multiplier. White is ±10 which is the
tolerance value. Red represents the voltage. But to know the voltage rating, we have got another table, from which
the particular band to which this capacitor belongs, has to be known.

Hence the value of the capacitor is 47nF, 10% 250v voltage for Vband.

The following table shows how voltage is determined depending upon the bands the capacitors belong to.

With the help of this table, the voltage rating for each band of capacitors is known according to the color given. The
type of voltage ratings also indicates the type of capacitors. For example, TYPE J ones are Dipped Tantalum
Capacitors, TYPE K ones are Mica Capacitors, TYPE L ones are Polystyrene Capacitors, TYPE M ones are
Electrolytic Band 4 Capacitors and TYPE N ones are Electrolytic Band 3 Capacitors. These days, the color coding
has been replaced by simple printing of value of the capacitors as mentioned previously.

Capacitive Reactance
This is an important term. Capacitive Reactance is the opposition offered by a capacitor to the alternating current
flow, or simply AC current. A capacitor resists the change in the flow of current and hence it shows some opposition
which can be termed as reactance, as the frequency of the input current should also be considered along with the
resistance it offers.
Symbol: XC

In a purely capacitive circuit, the current IC leads the applied voltage by 90°.

Temperature Coefficient of Capacitors

The maximum change in Capacitance of a capacitor, over a specified temperature range, can be known by the
temperature coefficient of a capacitor. It states that when the temperature exceeds a certain point, the change in
capacitance of a capacitor that might occur is understood as the temperature coefficient of capacitors.
All the capacitors are usually manufactured considering a reference temperature of 25°C. Hence the temperature
coefficient of capacitors is considered for the values of temperatures that are above and below this value.
Circuit Connections in Capacitors
In a circuit, a Capacitor can be connected in series or in parallel fashion. If a set of capacitors were connected in a
circuit, the type of capacitor connection deals with the voltage and current values in that network.
Capacitors in Series
Let us observe what happens, when few Capacitors are connected in Series. Let us consider three capacitors with
different values, as shown in the figure below.

Capacitance
When the capacitance of a network whose capacitors are in series is considered, the reciprocal of the capacitances
of all capacitors, is added to get the reciprocal of the total capacitance. To get this more clearly,

Where C1 is the capacitance across the 1st capacitor, C2 is the capacitance across the 2nd capacitor and C3 is the
capacitance across the 3rd capacitor in the above network.

Voltage
The voltage across each capacitor depends upon the value of individual capacitances. Which means

Where Vc1 is the voltage across the 1st capacitor, Vc2 is the voltage across the 2nd capacitor and Vc3 is the voltage
across the 3rd capacitor in the above network.

Current
The total amount of Current that flows through a set of Capacitors connected in series is the same at all the points.
Therefore the capacitors will store the same amount of charge regardless of their capacitance value.
Current through the network,
Capacitors in Parallel
Let us observe what happens, when few capacitors are connected in Parallel. Let us consider three capacitors with
different values, as shown in the figure below.

Capacitance
The total Capacitance of the circuit is the equivalent to the sum of the individual capacitances of the capacitors in the
network.
Variable Capacitors
There are many types of capacitors depending upon their function, the dielectric material used, their shape etc. The
main classification is done according to fixed and variable capacitors.

Types of Capacitors
The classification is as shown in the following figure.

The main classification is just like the above one. The fixed capacitors are the ones whose value is fixed at the time of
manufacturing itself and the variable ones provide us with an option to vary the value of capacitance.

Variable Capacitors
Let us know something about the variable capacitors whose value alters when you vary,
either electrically or mechanically. Variable capacitors in general consists of interwoven sets of metallic plates in
which one is fixed and the other is variable. These capacitors provide the capacitance values so as to vary
between 10 to 500pF.

The ganged capacitor shown here is a combination of two capacitors connected together. A single shaft is used to
rotate the variable ends of these capacitors which are combined as one. The dotted line indicates that they are
connected internally.
There are many uses of these variable resistors such as for tuning in LC circuits of radio receivers, for impedance
matching in antennas etc. The main types of variable capacitors are Tuning capacitors and Trimmer capacitors.

Tuning Capacitors
Tuning capacitors are popular type of variable capacitors. They contain a stator, a rotor, a frame to support the stator
and a mica capacitor. The constructional details of a tuning capacitor are shown in the following figure.
The stator is a stationary part and rotor rotates by the movement of a movable shaft. The rotor plates when moved
into the slots of stator, they come close to form plates of a capacitor. When the rotor plates sit completely in the slots
of the stator then the capacitance value is maximum and when they don’t, the capacitance value is minimum.

The above figure shows a ganged tuning capacitor having two tuning capacitors connected in a gang. This is how a
tuning capacitor works. These capacitors generally have capacitance values from few Pico Farads to few tens of Pico
Farads. These are mostly used in LC circuits in radio receivers. These are also called as Tuning Condensers.

Trimmer Capacitors
Trimmer capacitors are varied using a screwdriver. Trimmer capacitors are usually fixed in such a place where there
is no need to change the value of capacitance, once fixed.
There are three leads of a trimmer capacitor, one connected to stationary plate, one to rotary and the other one is
common. The movable disc is a semi-circular shaped one. A trimmer capacitor would look like the ones in the
following figure.

There are two parallel conducting plates present with a dielectric in the middle. Depending upon this dielectric used,
there are air trimmer capacitors and ceramic trimmer capacitors. The constructional details of a trimmer capacitor are
as shown below.
One of the two plates is movable, while the other is fixed. The dielectric material is fixed. When the movable plate is
moved, opposite to the area between movable and fixed electrode, then the capacitance can be changed. The
capacitance will be higher if the opposite area gets bigger, as both the electrodes act as two plates of a capacitor.
The Trimmer Capacitors are easily fixed on a PCB (Printed Circuit Board) and they are mostly used for calibration of
equipment.

Fixed Capacitors
The Capacitors whose value is fixed while manufacturing and cannot be altered later are called as Fixed Capacitors.
The main classification of fixed capacitors is done as polarized and non-polarized. Let us have a look at Non-
polarized capacitors.

Non-Polarized Capacitors
These are the capacitors that have no specific polarities, which means that they can be connected in a circuit,
either way without bothering about the placement of right lead and left lead. These capacitors are also called as Non-
Electrolytic Capacitors.

The main classification of Non-Polarized capacitors is done as shown in the following figure.

Ceramic Capacitors
The common capacitors used among fixed type are Ceramic Capacitors. The Ceramic capacitors are fixed capacitors
that have ceramic material as a dielectric.
These ceramic capacitors are further classified as class1 and class2 depending upon their applications. For
instance, Class1 has high stability and works best for resonant circuit applications, while class2 has high efficiency
and gives its best for coupling applications.
A hollow tubular or plate like ceramic material such as titanium dioxide and barium titanate is coated with a
deposition of silver compound on both walls, so that both sides act as two capacitor plates and ceramic acts as a
dielectric. Leads are drawn from these two surfaces and this whole assembly is encapsulated in a moisture-proof
coating.
The most often used modern ceramic capacitors are Multi-Layer Chip Capacitors (MLCC). These capacitors are
made in surface mounted technology and are mostly used due to their small size. These are available in the order of
1ηF to 100µF.

Film Capacitors
The Film Capacitors are the ones which have a film substance as a dielectric material. Depending upon the type of
film used, these are classified as Paper and Metal film capacitors.
These film capacitors are both paper dielectric capacitors whereas a paper capacitor uses a waxed paper while a
metallic film capacitor uses a metallized paper. The arrangement is almost same as shown below.

Paper Capacitors
Paper capacitors use Paper as a dielectric material. Two thin tin foil sheets are taken and placed between thin waxed
or oiled paper sheets. This paper acts as a dielectric. Now-a-days paper is being replaced by plastic.
These sheets are sandwiched and are rolled into a cylindrical shape and encapsulated in a plastic enclosure. Leads
are drawn out. The following figure shows an example of Paper Capacitors.

Paper capacitors are available in the order of 0.001µF to 2µF and the voltage rating can be as high as 2000volts.
These capacitors are useful in high voltage and current applications.

Metal Film Capacitors

Metal Film capacitors are another type of film capacitors. These are also called as Metal Foil Capacitors or Metallized
Paper Capacitors as the dielectric used here is a paper coated with metallic film.
Unlike in paper capacitors, a film of Aluminum or Zinc is coated on a paper to form a dielectric in this metallic film
capacitors. Instead of Aluminum sheets placing between papers, the paper itself is directly coated here. This reduces
the size of the capacitor.

The Aluminum coating is preferred over zinc coating so as to avoid destruction of capacitor due to chemical
reduction. The Aluminum coated sheets are rolled in the form of a cylinder and leads are taken. This whole thing is
encapsulated with wax or plastic resin to protect the capacitor. These capacitors are useful in high voltage and
current applications.

Other Capacitors
These are the miscellaneous capacitors that are named after the dielectric materials used. This group includes Mica
Capacitors, Air Capacitors, Vacuum Capacitors and Glass Capacitors etc.

Mica Capacitors
The Mica Capacitors are made by using thin Mica sheets as dielectric materials. Just like paper capacitors, thin metal
sheets are sandwiched with mica sheets in between. Finally, the layers of metal sheets are connected at both ends
and two leads are formed. Then the whole assembly is enclosed in plastic Bakelite capsule. The following image
shows how a Mica capacitor looks like.

Mica Capacitors are available in the range of 50pF to 500pF. The Mica capacitors have high working voltage up to
500volts. These are most commonly used capacitors for electronic circuits such as ripple filters, Resonant circuits,
Coupling circuits and high power, high current RF broadcast transmitters.

Air Capacitors
The Air Capacitors are the ones with air as dielectric. The simplest air capacitors are the ones with conducting
plates having air in between. This construction is exactly the same as the variable tuning capacitor discussed
above. These capacitors can be fixed and variable also but fixed are very rarely used as there are others with
superior characteristics.

Vacuum Capacitors
The Vacuum Capacitors uses high vacuum as dielectric instead of air or some other material. These are also
available in fixed and variable modes. The construction of these capacitors is similar to vacuum tubes. They are
mostly seen in the form of a glass cylinder which contain inter-meshed concentric cylinders.
The following image shows a variable vacuum capacitor.

Variable vacuum capacitors are available at a range of 12pF to 5000pF and they are used for high voltage
applications such as 5kV to 60kV. They are used in main equipment such as high power broadcast transmitters,
RF amplifiers and large antenna tuners.

Glass Capacitors
Glass capacitors are very exclusive ones with many advantages and applications. As all of the above types,
here glass is the dielectric substance. Along with glass dielectric, Aluminum electrodes are also present in these
capacitors. Plastic encapsulation is done after taking out the leads. The leads can be axial leads or tubular leads.

Polarized Capacitors
Polarized Capacitors are the ones that have specific positive and negative polarities. While using these capacitors in
circuits, it should always be taken care that they are connected in perfect polarities. The following image shows the
classification of polarized capacitors.

Electrolytic Capacitors
The Electrolytic Capacitors are the capacitors which indicate by the name that some electrolyte is used in it. They are
polarized capacitors which have anode ++ and cathode −− with particular polarities.

A metal on which insulating oxide layer forms by anodizing is called as an Anode. A solid or non-
solid electrolyte which covers the surface of the oxide layer, functions as a cathode. The Electrolytic Capacitors
have much higher Capacitance-Voltage CV value than the others, due to their larger anode surface and thin
dielectric oxide layer.

Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors

Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors are the most common types among the Electrolytic capacitors. In these ones, a
pure Aluminum foil with an etched surface acts as an Anode. A thin layer of metal, which has a thickness of few
micrometers acts as a diffusion barrier, which is placed between two metals to separate electrically. Hence the
diffusion barrier acts as a dielectric. The electrolyte acts as a cathode which covers the rough surface of oxide
layer.
They are −
Wet Aluminum Electrolytic capacitors non−solid
Manganese dioxide Aluminum Electrolytic capacitors solid
Polymer Aluminum Electrolytic capacitors solid

The main advantage with these Aluminum Electrolytic capacitors is that, they have low impedance values even at
mains frequency and they are cheaper. These are mostly used in Power supply circuits, SMPS Switched Mode
Power Supply and DC-DC Converters.

Tantalum Electrolytic capacitors

These are another type of Electrolytic capacitors whose anode is made up of tantalum on which a very thin
insulating oxide layer is formed. This layer acts as a dielectric and the electrolyte acts as a cathode which covers
the surface of oxide layer.

Tantalum provides high permittivity dielectric layer. Tantalum has high capacitance per volume and lower weight. But
these ones are costlier than Aluminum Electrolytic capacitors, due to the frequent unavailability of tantalum.

Niobium Electrolytic Capacitors

A Niobium Electrolytic Capacitor is the other type of Electrolytic Capacitors in which a passivated niobium metal or
niobium monoxide is considered as anode and an insulating niobium pentoxide layer is added on to the anode, so
that it acts as a dielectric. A solid electrolyte is laid on the surface of the oxide layer which acts as a cathode. The
following figure shows how Niobium capacitors look like.
The Niobium Capacitors are commonly available as SMD Surface Mount Devices chip capacitors. These are easily
fitted in a PCB. These capacitors should be operated in perfect polarities. Any kind of reverse voltage or ripple current
higher than the specified will eventually destroy the dielectric and the capacitor as well.

Super Capacitors
The high capacity electrochemical capacitors with capacitance values much higher than the other capacitors, are
called as Super Capacitors. These can be categorized as a group that lies between electrolytic capacitors and
rechargeable batteries. These are also called as Ultra Capacitors.
There are many advantages with these capacitors such as −
They have high capacitance value.
They can store and deliver charge much faster.
They can handle more charge and discharge cycles.
These capacitors have many applications such as −
They are used in cars, buses, trains, elevators and cranes.
They are used in regenerative braking.
They are used for memory backup.

The types of super capacitors are Double-layered, Pseudo and Hybrid ones.

Double-layered Capacitors
Double-layered capacitors are electrostatic capacitors. The charge deposition is done in these capacitors according
to the principle of Double-layer.
All solid substances have negative charge on the surface layer when disposed into a liquid.
This is due to the high dielectric coefficient of liquid.
All the positive ions come near the surface of the solid material to make a skin.
The deposition of positive ions near the solid material get looser with the distance.
The charge created at this surface due to the deposition of anions and cations leads to some capacitance value.
This double-layer phenomenon is also termed as Helmholtz double layer. The figure below explains the procedure of
double-layer phenomenon, when the capacitor is charged and when it is discharged.

These capacitors are simply called as Electric Double Layered Capacitors EDLC. They use carbon electrodes to
achieve separation of charge between the surface of conductive electrode and the electrolyte. The carbon acts as
dielectric and the other two as anode and cathode. The separation of charge is much smaller than in a conventional
capacitor.

Pseudo Capacitors
These capacitors follow the electrochemical process for the deposition of charge. This is also called as faradaic
process. At an electrode, when some chemical substance reduces or oxidizes, some current is generated. During
such process, these capacitors store the electric charge by electron transfer between electrode and electrolyte. This
is the working principle of Pseudo capacitors.
They get charged much faster and store the charge as much as a battery does. They are operated at a faster rate.
These are used in tandem with batteries to improve life. These are used in grid applications to handle power
fluctuations.

Hybrid Capacitors
A Hybrid Capacitor is a combination of EDLC and Pseudo Capacitor. In the Hybrid capacitors, activated carbon is
used as cathode and the pre-doped carbon material acts as anode. Li ion capacitor is the common example of this
type. The following figure shows different types of Hybrid Capacitors.

They have high tolerance in a wide range of temperature variations from -55°C to 200°C. Hybrid capacitors are also
used in airborne applications. Though cost is high, these capacitors are highly reliable and compact. These are
rugged and can tolerate extreme shock, vibration and pressure from environment. Hybrid capacitors have higher
energy density and higher specific power than any electrolytic capacitor.

Chapter 3 – Inductors

Let me introduce you to another important component in the field of Electronics and Electricals, the Inductor. Inductor
is a passive two-terminal component that temporarily stores energy in the form of a magnetic field. It is usually called
as a coil. The main property of an inductor is that it opposes any change in current.

Inductor
According to the Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction, When the current flowing through an inductor changes,
the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor. According to lens law, the direction of induced
EMF opposes the change in current that created it. Hence, induced EMF is opposite to the voltage applied across the
coil. This is the property of an inductor.
The following figure shows how an inductor looks like.
An inductor blocks any AC component present in a DC signal. The inductor is sometimes wrapped upon a core, for
example a ferrite core. It then looks as in the figure below.

Storage of Energy
One of the Basic properties of electromagnetism is that the current when flows through an inductor, a magnetic field
gets created perpendicular to the current flow. This keeps on building up. It gets stabilized at some point, which
means that the inductance won’t build up after that. When the current stops flowing, the magnetic field gets
decreased.
This magnetic energy gets turned into electrical energy. Hence energy gets stored in this temporarily in the form of
magnetic field.

Working of an Inductor
According to the theory of Electromagnetic Induction, any varying electric current, flowing in a conductor, produces a
magnetic field around that, which is perpendicular to the current. Also, any varying magnetic field, produces current in
the conductor present in that field, whereas the current is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Now, if we consider an inductor which is made up of a conducting coil and when some current passes through the
inductor, a magnetic field is created perpendicular to it. The following figure indicates an inductor with magnetic field
around it.

Now, here we have a varying magnetic field, which creates some current through the conductor. But this current is
produced such that it opposes the main current, which has produced the magnetic field.
If this current is named as Im which means the current produced due to the magnetic field and the magnetic field is
indicated by β, the following figure indicates it.

This opposing current gains strength with the varying magnetic field, which gains energy by the input supply
frequency. Hence as the input current becomes more and more AC with high frequency, the resulting opposing
current also gains its strength in opposite direction to the very cause producing it. Now, this opposing current, tries to
stop the high frequency AC to pass through the inductor, which means “blocking of AC”.

Inductance
The property of an inductor to get the voltage induced by the change of current flow, is defined as Inductance.
Inductance is the ratio of voltage to the rate of change of current.
The rate of change of current produces change in the magnetic field, which induces an EMF in opposite direction to
the voltage source. This property of induction of EMF is called as the Inductance.
The formula for inductance is

A coil is said to have an inductance of one Henry when an EMF of one volt is self-induced in the coil where the
current flowing changed at a rate of one ampere per second.

Self-Inductance
If a coil is considered in which some current flows, it has some magnetic field, perpendicular to the current flow.
When this current keeps on varying, the magnetic field also changes and this changing magnetic field, induces an
EMF, opposite to the source voltage. This opposing EMF produced is the self-induced voltage and this method is
called as self-inductance.
The current is in the figure indicate the source current while iind indicates the induced current. The flux represents the
magnetic flux created around the coil. With the application of voltage, the current is flows and flux gets created. When
the current is varies, the flux gets varied producing iind.
This induced EMF across the coil is proportional to the rate of change in current. The higher the rate of change in
current the higher the value of EMF induced.
We can write the above equation as

The minus in the above equation indicates that the EMF is induced in opposite direction to the voltage
source according to Lenz’s law.

Mutual Inductance
As the current carrying coil produces some magnetic field around it, if another coil is brought near this coil, such that
it is in the magnetic flux region of the primary, then the varying magnetic flux induces an EMF in the second coil. If
this first coil is called as Primary coil, the second one can be called as a Secondary coil.
When the EMF is induced in the secondary coil due to the varying magnetic field of the primary coil, then such
phenomenon is called as the Mutual Inductance.

The current is in the figure indicate the source current while iind indicates the induced current. The flux represents the
magnetic flux created around the coil. This spreads to the secondary coil also.
With the application of voltage, the current is flows and flux gets created. When the current is varies, the flux gets
varied producing iind in the secondary coil, due to the Mutual inductance property.
The change took place like this.
Depending upon the number of turns of the primary and the secondary coils, the magnetic flux linkage and the
amount of induced EMF varies. The number of turns in primary is denoted by N1 and secondary by N2. The co-
efficient of coupling is the term that specifies the mutual inductance of the two coils.

Factors affecting Inductance

There are a few factors that affect the performance of an inductor. The major ones are discussed below.
Length of the coil
The length of the inductor coil is inversely proportional to the inductance of the coil. If the length of the coil is more,
the inductance offered by that inductor gets less and vice versa.

Cross sectional area of the coil

The cross sectional area of the coil is directly proportional to the inductance of the coil. The higher the area of the
coil, the higher the inductance will be.

Number of turns
With the number of turns, the coil affects the inductance directly. The value of inductance gets square to the number
of turns the coil has. Hence the higher the number of turns, square of it will be the value of inductance of the coil.

Permeability of the core

The permeability μμ of the core material of inductor indicates the support the core provides for the formation of a
magnetic field within itself. The higher the permeability of the core material, the higher will be the inductance.

Coefficient of Coupling
This is an important factor to be known for calculating Mutual inductance of two coils. Let us consider two nearby
coils of N1 and N2 turns respectively.
The current through first coil i1 produces some flux Ψ1. The amount of magnetic flux linkages is understood by weber-
turns.
Let the amount of magnetic flux linkage to the second coil, due to unit current of i 1 be
The above equation holds true when the whole changing flux of primary coil links with the secondary coil, which is an
ideal case. But in practice, it is not the case. Hence, we can write as
Where K is known as the coefficient of coupling.
The Coefficient of coupling K can be defined as the ratio of actual coefficient of mutual inductance to the
ideal maximum coefficient of mutual inductance.
If the value of k is near to unity, then the coils are said to be tightly coupled and if the value of k = 0, then the coils are
said to be loosely coupled.

Applications of Inductors
There are many applications of Inductors, such as −
Inductors are used in filter circuits to sense high-frequency components and suppress noise signals
To isolate the circuit from unwanted HF signals.
Inductors are used in electrical circuits to form a transformer and isolate the circuits from spikes.
Inductors are also used in motors.

Circuit Connections in Inductors

An Inductor when connected in a circuit, that connection can be either series or parallel. Let us now know what will
happen to the total current, voltage and resistance values if they are connected in series as well, when connected in
parallel.
Inductors in Series
Let us observe what happens, when few inductors are connected in Series. Let us consider three resistors with
different values, as shown in the figure below.

Inductance
The total inductance of a circuit having series inductors is equal to the sum of the individual inductances. Total
inductance value of the network given above is

Where L1 is the inductance of 1st resistor, L2 is the inductance of 2nd resistor and L3 is the inductance of 3rd resistor in
the above network.

Voltage
The total voltage that appears across a series inductors network is the addition of voltage drops at each individual
inductances.

Total voltage that appears across the circuit

Where V1 is the voltage drop across 1st inductor, V2 is the voltage drop across 2nd inductor and V3 is the voltage drop
across 3rd inductor in the above network.

Current
The total amount of Current that flows through a set of inductors connected in series is the same at all the points
throughout the network.
The Current through the network

Where I1 is the current through the 1st inductor, I2 is the current through the 2nd inductor and I3 is the current through
the 3rd inductor in the above network.
Inductors in Parallel
Let us observe what happens, when few resistors are connected in Parallel. Let us consider three resistors with
different values, as shown in the figure below.

Inductance
The total inductance of a circuit having Parallel resistors is calculated differently from the series inductor network
method. Here, the reciprocal 1/R1 value of individual inductances are added with the inverse of algebraic sum to get
the total inductance value.

Total inductance value of the network is

Where L1 is the inductance of 1st inductor, L2 is the inductance of 2nd inductor and L3 is the inductance of 3rd inductor
in the above network.
From the method we have for calculating parallel inductance, we can derive a simple equation for two-inductor
parallel network. It is

Voltage
The total voltage that appears across a Parallel inductors network is same as the voltage drops at each individual
inductances.

The Voltage that appears across the circuit

Where V1 is the voltage drop across 1st inductor, V2 is the voltage drop across 2nd inductor and V3 is the voltage drop
across 3rd inductor in the above network. Hence the voltage is same at all the points of a parallel inductor network.

Current
The total amount of current entering a Parallel inductive network is the sum of all individual currents flowing in all the
Parallel branches. The inductance value of each branch determines the value of current that flows through it.
The total Current through the network is

Where I1 is the current through the 1st inductor, I2 is the current through the 2nd inductor and I3 is the current through
the 3rd inductor in the above network.
Hence the sum of individual currents in different branches obtain the total current in a parallel network.

Inductive Reactance
Inductive Reactance is the opposition offered by an inductor to the alternating current flow, or simply AC current. An
inductor has the property of resisting the change in the flow of current and hence it shows some opposition which can
be termed as reactance, as the frequency of the input current should also be considered along with the resistance it
offers.
Indication − XL
Units − Ohms
Symbol − Ω
In a purely inductive circuit, the current IL lags the applied voltage by 90°. Inductive reactance is calculated by,

Where f is the frequency of the signal. Hence inductive reactance is a function of frequency and inductance.

Types of Inductors
Inductors are available in different shapes and has different uses. Their sizes vary depending upon the material used
to manufacture them. The main classification is done as fixed and variable inductors. An inductor of few Henries may
be in a dumbbell shape at the size of a simple resistor. A fixed inductor always has silver as its first color in color
coding.
The Core of the Inductor is its heart. There are many types of Inductors according to the core material used. Let us
have a look at a few of them.

Air-core Inductor
The commonly seen inductor, with a simple winding is this air-Core Inductor. This has nothing but air as the
core material. The non-magnetic materials like plastic and ceramic are also used as core materials and they also
come under this air-core Inductors. The following image shows various air-core inductors.

These Inductors offer a minimum signal loss at the applications having a very high magnetic field strength. Also, there
exists no core losses as there is no solid core material.

Iron-Core Inductor
These Inductors have Ferromagnetic materials, such as ferrite or iron, as the core material. The usage of such core
materials helps in the increase of inductance, due to their high magnetic permeability. Permeability measures the
ability of supporting the formation of magnetic fields within the materials. The following image shows how an Iron-core
Inductor looks like −

The inductors that have ferromagnetic core materials just like these, suffer from core losses and energy losses at
high frequencies. These Inductors are used in the manufacture of few types of transformers.

Toroidal Inductors
These Inductors have a magnetic material as the core substance to which the wire is wound. These are in circular
ring shape, just as shown in the following figure.
The main advantage of this type of inductors is that, due to the circular shape, symmetry is achieved in the whole
shape of the inductor, due to which there are minimum losses in the magnetic flux. These inductors are mostly used
in AC circuit applications.

Laminated Core Inductors

These are the inductors that have laminated thin steel sheets, such as stacks, as the core materials. Usually for an
inductor, if the loop area is increased for the current to travel, the energy losses will be more. Whereas, in these
laminated core Inductors, thin steel sheets of stacks are helpful in blocking the eddy currents, which minimize the
loop action.
The following figure shows an image of a laminated core inductor.

The main advantage of these inductors is minimizing the energy loss with its construction. These laminated core
inductors are mostly used in the manufacture of transformers.

Powdered Iron Core Inductors

As the name implies, the core of these inductors have magnetic materials with some air gaps in it. But this kind of
construction provides an advantage to the core, to store high level of energy compared with the other types. The
following figure shows an image of a Powdered Iron core Inductor.

These inductors provide very low eddy current losses and hysteresis losses. These are available at lowest prices and
have very good inductance stability.

RF Inductors
RF inductors are the radio frequency inductors, which are used at high resonant frequencies. These can be
multilayered coil inductor or a thin film coated ceramic inductor or some wire wound ceramic inductor. The following
figure represents few RF inductors.
These inductors are characterized by low current rating and high electrical resistance. But as the high frequencies are
used here, the wire resistance increases. Also, few effects come into picture because of these high resonant radio
frequencies. Let us have a look at them.

Skin Effect
At high frequencies, the alternating current has a tendency of unequal distribution of current through the conductor.
The electric current flows highly at the surface of the conductor than at its center. It gets its energy concentrated in
the skin of the conductor, leaving the deep core of the conductor, as shown in the following figure.

As the energy gets concentrated at the skin of the conductor, this effect is called as the Skin Effect. Actually this skin
effect is caused due to the eddy currents which are produced by the changing Magnetic field, resulting from
alternating current. Now-a-days, the conductors carrying higher frequencies are made in the form of tube shape, in
order to reduce the weight and cost of the conductors.

Proximity Effect
Along with the above one, this is another effect, which is observed here. Proximity effect is the one which increases
the resistance of the wire at high frequencies. Proximity is the word which says that the effect will be on adjacent
wires. The following figure shows the concentration of current on the edges of the adjacent cables.

Each turn has some magnetic field which induces eddy currents in the wire that causes the current to be focused on
the side of the adjacent wire. With this effect, the effective cross sectional area of the wire gets reduced and
its resistance gets increased.

Parasitic Capacitance
Usually, an inductor internally contains a resistor in series wire resistance and a capacitor in shunt parasitic
capacitance. Each turn of winding has slightly different potential, in an inductor. The following figure shows the
capacitance effect in an inductor.
The two conductors that present in each turn, act as capacitor plates with air as dielectric. A capacitance called
as Parasitic Capacitance exists here. In order to avoid this in certain applications, the windings are made far to each
other.
As the frequency increases, the impedance of the parasitic capacitance decreases and the impedance of inductor
increases. Hence the inductor tends to behave like a capacitor.

Dielectric losses
The current through the conductor of an inductor makes the molecules of the insulators exert energy in the form of
heat. The higher the frequency, the greater the heat dissipation will be.

Chokes
Inductors are also called as chokes. An Inductor blocks AC components and sends DC components through it.
Hence as it chokes or stops AC, an inductor can simply be termed as a Choke.

A coil of insulated wire is often wound on a magnetic core to form a choke. As the signal frequency increases, the
impedance of the choke increases. Due to its reactance, it can limit the amount AC through it. Even though,
practically some amount of AC passes through it due to its low electrical resistance. These are mostly used in tube
lights and in transformers in electronic applications.

Chapter 4 - Transformers
According to the principle of Electromagnetic Induction, we have already learnt that, a varying flux can induce an
EMF in a coil. By the principle of Mutual induction, when another coil is brought beside such coil, the flux induces
EMF into the second coil.

Now, the coil which has the varying flux is called as the Primary Coil and the coil into which EMF is induced is called
as the Secondary Coil, while the two coils together makes a unit called as a Transformer.

Transformer
A transformer has a primary coil to which input is given and a secondary coil from which the output is collected. Both
of these coils are wound on a core material. Usually an insulator forms the Core of the transformer.
The following figure shows a practical transformer.

From the above figure, it is evident that few notations are common. Let us try to have a note of them. They are −
Np = Number of turns in the primary winding
Ns = Number of turns in the secondary winding
Ip = Current flowing in the primary of the transformer
Is = Current flowing in the secondary of the transformer
Vp = Voltage across the primary of the transformer
Vs = Voltage across the secondary of the transformer
Φ = Magnetic flux present around the core of the transformer.

Transformer in a Circuit
The following figure shows how a transformer is represented in a circuit. The primary winding, the secondary winding
and the core of the transformer are also represented in the following figure.

Hence, when a transformer is connected in a circuit, the input supply is given to the primary coil so that it produces
varying magnetic flux with this power supply and that flux is induced into the secondary coil of the transformer, which
produces the varying EMF of the varying flux. As the flux should be varying, for the transfer of EMF from primary to
secondary, a transformer always works on alternating current AC.

Step-up and Step-down

Depending upon the number of turns in the secondary winding, the transformer can be called as a Step up or a Step
down transformer.
The main point to be noted here is that, there will not be any difference in the primary and secondary power of the
transformer. Accordingly, if the voltage is high at secondary, then low current is drawn to make the power stable. As
well, if the voltage in the secondary is low, then high current is drawn so as the power must be same as the primary
side.

Step Up
When the secondary winding has more number of turns than the primary winding, then the transformer is said to be
a Step-up transformer. Here the induced EMF is greater than the input signal.

Step Down
When the secondary winding has lesser number of turns than the primary winding, then the transformer is said to be
a Step-down transformer. Here the induced EMF is lesser than the input signal.
Turns Ratio
As the number of turns of primary and secondary windings affect the voltage ratings, it is important to maintain a ratio
between the turns so as to have an idea regarding the voltages induced.
The ratio of number of turns in the primary coil to the number of turns in the secondary coil is called as the “turns
ratio” or “the ratio of transformation”. The turns ratio is usually denoted by N.

The turns ratio also states whether the transformer is a step-up or a step-down transformer. For example, a turns
ratio of 1:3 states that the transformer is a step-up and the ratio 3:1 states that it is a step-down transformer.

Types of Transformers
Coming to the classification of transformers, there are many types depending upon the core used, windings used,
place and type of usage, voltage levels etc.
Single and three phase transformers
According to the supply used, the transformers are mainly classified as Single phase and three phase transformers.
A normal transformer is a single phase transformer. It has a primary and a secondary winding and it is operated to
either decrease or increase the secondary voltage.

For a three phase transformer, three primary windings are connected together and three secondary windings are
connected together.
A single three phase transformer is preferred to three single phase transformers so as to get good efficiency, where it
occupies less space at low cost. But due to the transportation problem of heavy equipment, single phase
transformers are used in most cases.

Another classification of these transformers is Core and Shell type.

In Shell type, the windings are positioned on a single leg surrounded by the core.
In Core type, they are wounded on different legs.
The difference is well known by having a look at the following figure.

The classification of transformers can also be done depending upon the type of core material used. These are
actually RF transformers, which contain many types such as Air-core transformers, Ferrite
core transformers, Transmission line transformers and Balun transformers. Balun transformers are used in RF
receiver systems. The main types are the air core and iron core transformers.
Air-core Transformer
This is a core type transformer in which the windings are wound on a non-magnetic strip. The magnetic flux linkages
are made through air as core between the primary and secondary. The following image shows an air-core
transformer.

Advantages
The hysteresis and eddy current losses are low in these Air core transformers.
Noise production is low.

Disadvantages
The reluctance is high in Air core transformers.
Mutual inductance is low in Air core compared to Iron-core transformers.
Applications
Audio frequency transformers.
High frequency radio transmissions.

Iron Core Transformers

This is a core type transformer in which the windings are wound on an iron core. The magnetic flux linkages are
made strong and perfect with iron as core material. This is commonly seen in laboratories. The figure below shows an
example of iron core transformer.

Advantages
They have very high magnetic permeability.
Iron core transformers has low reluctance.
Mutual Inductance is high.
These transformers are highly efficient.

Disadvantages
These are a bit noisy compared to Air core transformers.
The hysteresis and eddy current losses are a bit more than Air core transformers.

Applications
As isolation transformers.
High frequency radio transmissions.
The transformers are also classified according to the type of core they use. Some transformers use the core
immersed in oil. This oil is cooled from outside by various methods. Such transformers are named as Wet core
transformers, while the others such as ferrite core transformers, laminated core transformers, toroidal core
transformers and cast resin transformers are Dry core transformers.
Based on the type of winding technique, we have another transformer which is very popular named as the Auto
transformer.
Auto Transformer
This is type of transformer which is mostly seen in our electrical laboratories. This auto transformer is an improved
version of the original transformer. A single winding is taken to which both the sides are connected to power and the
ground. Another variable tapping is made by whose movement secondary of the transformer is formed.
The following figure shows the circuit of an auto-transformer.

As shown in the figure, a single winding provides both primary and secondary in a transformer. Various tapping of
secondary winding are drawn to select various voltage levels at the secondary side.
The primary winding as shown above is from A to C and the secondary winding is from B to C whereas the variable
arm B is varied to get the required voltage levels. A practical auto transformer looks like the figure below.

By rotating the shaft above, the secondary voltage is adjusted to different voltage levels. If the voltage applied across
the points A and C is V1, then the voltage per turn in this winding will be

Transformers based on Usage

There are transformers which are classified depending upon the applications they have. Many of these transformers
are large and bulky. Most of them are used by the Electricity department.

Power Transformers
The Power transformers are used in high power transfer applications for both step-up and step-down applications,
where the operating voltages are more than 33KV generally rated above 200MVA. The flux density is much higher for
them.
All the transformers that are used for power control applications such as laminated core transformers, toroidal
transformers, variable auto transformers, polyphaser transformers, stray leakage transformers come under this
category.

These are usually big in size depending upon the power handling capacity and its application. These transformers are
available in three phase or single phase type. As these transformers are bulky, they are placed in large open area.
These transformers tend to provide 100% efficiency in full load applications.

Advantages
They have high insulation level.
Noise is low.
They are highly efficient.
High voltage rated ones to handle high power applications.

Applications
They are used in power generation systems.
They are used in transmission sub stations.

Measurement Transformers
The Measurement transformers are used for measuring high voltage and high currents. These are mostly helpful in
isolating the circuits from them. Usually, the Primary of a transformer is connected with high inputs of voltages and
currents whereas Secondary of the transformer is connected to some relay or circuit which has to be provided some
isolation.

These are mainly of two types, Current transformers and Voltage transformers. Let us have a look at each of them.

Current Transformer
The Current transformers provide current in the secondary circuit proportional to the current in the primary circuit.
These are used in protective relays and for measurement purposes.
A single turn primary winding is passed through a well-insulated toroidal core transformer which is wounded with
many turns, which makes a Current Transformer. This is always connected in series.

The secondary winding can be designed to provide single output or it may have several tapping for different values.
Care must be taken that the secondary winding is connected to its load having low impedance, while current flows in
primary. This is to avoid sudden high voltages in open circuited secondary which might permanently damage the
accuracy of the transformer.

Voltage Transformers
The Voltage Transformers provide voltage in the secondary circuit proportional to the voltage in the primary circuit.
These transformers are also called as Potential Transformers. These are connected in parallel to the circuit.
The primary of this transformer may have phase to phase connections but the secondary will have one terminal to
ground. The figure below shows an image of a voltage transformer.

There are three main types of a voltage transformers. They are

Electromagnetic − uses a wire wound transformer having good flux linkages.
Capacitor − uses a capacitor with potential divider network.
Optical − makes use of electrical properties of optical materials.

The voltage transformers are used in protective relays and for measurement purposes and also for phasor phase
shift isolation.

Protection Transformers
These transformers are very accurate than measuring transformers, as these are used only to protect the circuits
from high voltages and currents. The primary of these transformers are connected with high inputs whereas the
secondary of the transformer keeps the circuit or relay, isolated from the sudden spikes or surges which might
damage the circuit.

Distribution Transformers
The Distribution transformers are used for distribution of electrical energy at end-user level. The operating voltages
are around 33KV for industrial purposes and 440v-220v for domestic purposes. These are generally rated below
200MVA.

The large three phase auto transformers used in power distribution and the oil-cooled transformers also come under
this category. The figure below shows an image of a distribution transformer.

These transformers are usually smaller in size compared to power transformers. These transformers are placed in
open but are not fully loaded like power transformers.

Advantages
They are small in size.
They are easy to install.
These transformers have low magnetic losses.

Disadvantages
These transformers have low efficiency.
They are not fully-loaded.
Applications
They are used for distributing electricity in various areas like houses, farm yards, lands, railways, wind farms etc.

Transformer Efficiency
When the Primary of a transformer has some voltage induced, then the magnetic flux created in the primary is
induced into the secondary due to mutual induction, which produces some voltage into the secondary. The strength
of this magnetic field builds up as the current rises from zero to maximum value which is given by dφ/dt.
The magnetic lines of flux pass through the secondary winding. The number of turns in the secondary winding
determines the voltage induced. Hence the amount of voltage induced will be determined by

Where N = number of turns in the secondary winding

The frequency of this induced voltage will be same as the frequency of primary voltage. The peak amplitude of the
output voltage will be affected if the magnetic losses are high.
Induced EMF
Let us try to draw some relationship between induced EMF and number of turns in a coil.
Let us now assume that both the primary and the secondary coils has a single turn each. If one volt is applied to one
turn of the primary with no losses ideal case the current flow and magnetic field generated induce the same one volt
in the secondary. Hence voltage is same on both sides.
But the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally which means,

As alternating flux produces current in the secondary coil, and this alternating flux is produced by alternating voltage,
we can say that only an alternating current AC can help a transformer work. Hence a transformer doesn’t work on
DC.
Losses in Transformers
Any Device has few losses in practical applications. The main losses that occur in the transformers are Copper
losses, Core losses and Flux leakage.

Copper Losses
Copper loss is the loss of energy, due to the heat produced by the current flow through the windings of the
transformers. These are also called as “I2R losses” or “I squared R losses” as the energy lost per second increases
with the square of the current through the winding and is proportional to the electrical resistance of the winding.
This can be written in an equation as

Core Losses
Core Losses are also called as Iron Losses. These losses depends upon the core material used. They are of two
types namely, Hysteresis and Eddy Current losses.

Hysteresis Loss − The AC induced in the form of magnetic flux keeps on fluctuating like rise and falls and reversing
the direction according to the AC voltage induced. Some energy is lost in the core due to these random fluctuations.
Such loss can be termed as Hysteresis loss.

Eddy Current Loss − While this whole process goes on, some currents are induced in the core which circulate
continuously. These currents produce some loss called as Eddy Current Loss. Actually the varying magnetic field is
supposed to induce current only in the secondary winding. But it induces voltages in the nearby conducting materials
also, which results in this loss of energy.

Flux Leakage − Though the flux linkages are strong enough to produce the required voltage, there will be some flux
which gets leaked in practical applications and hence results in the energy loss. Though this is low, this loss is also
countable when it comes to high energy applications.

Power of a Transformer
When an ideal transformer is considered with no losses, the Power of the transformer will be constant, as the product
when voltage V multiplied by current I is constant.
We can say that the power in the primary equals the power in the secondary as the transformer takes care of that. If
the transformer, steps-up the voltage then the current is reduced and if the voltage is stepped-down, the current is
increased so as to maintain the output power constant.
Hence the primary power equals the secondary power.

Efficiency of a transformer
The amount or the intensity of Power loss in a transformer, determines the efficiency of the transformer. The
efficiency can be understood in terms of power loss between primary and secondary of a transformer.
Hence, the ratio of power output of secondary winding to the power input of primary winding can be stated as
the Efficiency of the transformer. This can be written as
Efficiency is generally denoted by η. The above given equation is valid for an ideal transformer where there will be no
losses and the whole energy in the input gets transferred to the output.
Hence, if losses are considered and if the efficiency is calculated in practical conditions, the below equation is to be
considered.

It is to be noted that the input, output and losses are all expressed in terms of power, i.e., in Watts.

Example
Consider a transformer having input power of 12KW which is rated at 62.5 amps current having equivalent resistance
of 0.425ohms. Calculate the efficiency of the transformer.

Solution −
Given data
Input power = 12KW
Rated current = 62.5 Amps
Equivalent resistance = 0.425 ohms
Calculating the loss −
The copper loss at rated current is I2R = 62.562.52 0.4250.425 = 1660W
We have

Chapter 4 - Diodes