Basic Concepts

Effects of Controls
This lesson is arguably the most important lesson Primary flight controls are the elevator, ailerons
a student will take. A thorough understanding and rudder. When these are deflected in flight
of the primary and secondary effects of control the aeroplane moves about one or more of
inputs is the basis of all future flying. It is its three axes. The student needs to know what
important that the student understands and effect these controls have on the aeroplane’s
has the opportunity to practise these effects. flight path in order to accurately manoeuvre the
As this is commonly the first formal preflight aeroplane. They also need to see the effect
briefing, a short explanation of the sub-headings of moving each of these primary flight controls
should be included, as well as the normal individually, so that any unwanted secondary
introduction. The Airmanship section covers effect can be countered through coordinated
good aviation practice. use of the primary flight controls.

This lesson does not aim to teach the student Ancillary controls are the throttle, flap and trim.
to fly, that will come over the next few lessons. The student needs to know how to operate
This lesson focuses primarily on each control, each of these correctly and what effect their
how it works, and how it is related to other operation will have on the flight of the aeroplane.
controls. As a consequence this lesson may A clear understanding of the effect of using these
seem less coordinated than normal. controls is important, and then with practise,
any adverse effect can be countered.

Objectives Principles of Flight

To operate the primary control Primary Controls
surfaces and to experience the feel Describe how the aeroplane is controlled on the
and observe the first aerodynamic ground (see Taxiing lesson). Speed is controlled
by the hand operated throttle and the main wheel-
effect on the aeroplane in flight. brakes, while direction is controlled by the use
of the pedals linked to the steerable nosewheel.
To operate the primary control
surfaces and observe the further Figure 1
(or secondary) aerodynamic effects
on the aeroplane in flight.
To operate the ancillary controls and
to experience the feel and observe
the effect on the aeroplane in flight.
Describe how to hold the aeroplane’s controls and
explain the concept of dual controls. Identify on your
aeroplane which controls are dual, and which are not.
Introduce the terms lift and aerofoil. Describe how
lift is produced, with reference to Bernoulli, in
the simplest possible terms. For example, if the
speed of the airflow is increased the pressure will
be reduced and the effectiveness increased,
and vice-versa.
2 Basic Concepts: Effects of Controls

Describe the three axes of the aeroplane – lateral, Slipstream should be described as the spiral
longitudinal and normal (sometimes termed column of air being forced back by the propeller
vertical) – and the movement about those axes and the primary controls it affects should be
(use teaching aids). pointed out. It should be noted that slipstream
is present whenever the propeller is
Figure 2 rotating, regardless of the aeroplane’s speed.
The comparison of standing behind the aeroplane,
compared with standing at the wingtip, may help
the student visualise the effect of this airflow.
This highlights that ailerons are unaffected
by slipstream.

Figure 3

Drawings, PowerPoints or overheads should

be gradually built up and colour coordinated.
For example, the lateral axis, the elevator and
the word pitch could all be coloured purple.
Describe how deflection of the controls changes
the shape and/or angle of attack, affecting Describe the rotational nature of the slipstream
lift and producing the first aerodynamic effect. and its resultant impact on the tail fin. As the
Start with the elevator, as this is the easiest aeroplane spends most of its time in cruise, the
to describe. Then cover the ailerons and the manufacturer offsets the tail fin, or the thrust
rudder. If the student has difficulty understanding line, to negate the resultant yawing tendency.
Bernoulli, angle of attack or pressure, state that Therefore, at any power setting other than normal
movement of the controls deflects the airflow cruise, and at any time the power changes, the
and the tail is pushed up or down as applicable aeroplane will want to yaw, and compensating
(Newton’s third law). rudder inputs are required.
The effect of moving the elevator is to pitch
the aeroplane. This changes the position of the Ancillary Controls
aeroplane’s nose in relation to the horizon – Briefly describe the throttle and its direct
the aeroplane’s attitude – and will consequently connection to the propeller and its effect on
affect the aeroplane’s speed. the aeroplane’s speed. Explain that power is
increased by moving the lever (or plunger) forward
The effect of moving the ailerons is to roll the
and decreased by moving the lever rearwards.
aeroplane. This banks the aeroplane left or right.
Discuss the purpose of trim and how it works.
The effect of moving the rudder is to yaw the
State that most training aeroplanes are fitted with
aeroplane. This moves the aeroplane’s nose left
trim tabs to provide sufficient force to hold the
or right.
primary control surface in the desired position.
Emphasise that they are not used to alter the
primary control surface’s position, they are a pilot
aid only. You could also note that trim tabs may
be provided on all three primary controls.
 Basic Concepts: Effects of Controls 3

Describe where the flaps are located on the

aeroplane, how they are operated, how they work
Airmanship
Knowing who is physically flying the aeroplane
(electrically or manually), and the various positions
is critical. Get the student into the habit of stating
to which they can be selected. It should be noted
“I have control/you have control.” The meaning
that flap ‘up’ means flush with the wings, ie, they
of “follow me through” should be explained, for
do not extend above the wing.
example, “I want you to place your hands and
feet lightly on the controls and feel what I’m
Figure 4
doing, but I retain control.”
Explain how to use the clock code to report the
relative position, height and distance of other
aircraft. Aircraft that appear above the horizon
are higher, aircraft on the horizon are at the same
level, and aircraft below the horizon are lower.
Distance is judged from the known size of
the object and is prone to perception errors.
For example, a Boeing 747 at 10 miles can look
Describe how the flap changes the shape of the like a Cherokee 140 at 2 miles.
wing and the effect that has on lift, drag, L/D ratio, The aeroplane is manoeuvred in the air by visual
and pitch. Commonly, in high-wing aeroplanes, reference to the horizon and ground features.
the nose pitches up with application of flap, and Visual flight rules mean that cloud must be
on low-wing aeroplanes the nose pitches down. avoided and the ground or water kept in sight
The reverse occurs in each case when flap is at all times. When you get into the air, point out
raised, but importantly all aeroplanes will sink some major features in your local area, as well as
when flap is raised. Describe the actual pitch the approximate directions of north, south, east
changes the student will observe as a result of and west, and where your aerodrome is located.
using the flap, and the consequent trim changes Over subsequent briefings the various aspects
that will be required. of VFR flight will be discussed. It is vital that
The structural airspeed limit for flap extension, you demonstrate compliance with the various
and the normal operating range, white arc, should VFR requirements.
be explained.
I’M SAFE
Inertia The ‘I’M SAFE’ checklist should be introduced
Because an aeroplane has mass (weight) it is for the student to complete before leaving
subject to inertia. Explain in very basic terms that home for their next lesson.
inertia is the tendency of a body to remain in
its current state. If it has stopped on the ground I Illness
it will take more power to get it moving than Do not fly when feeling unwell as this will
to keep it moving. If you want to decrease the not only degrade the learning experience but
speed in flight, the aeroplane will not slow down affect all phases of flight.
instantly, but gradually decelerate. This must
be taken into account when changing the speed M Medication
or the direction of the aeroplane. How will the effects of medication be
altered by the flight environment, for example,
altitude? In addition, why is medication
being taken, am I unwell? Do I need to consult
an AME?
4 Basic Concepts: Effects of Controls

S Stress Mixture
This takes up valuable space in the short-term IN or OUT, UP or DOWN. Explain the type
memory. Getting into an aeroplane straight of control and that when the mixture control
after an argument or with other personal is pulled fully out the fuel supply is cut off from
worries affects your information processing the engine. This is called Idle Cut Off (ICO)
capabilities. and is normally used to stop the engine (not the
ignition key – except where there is a solid state
A Alcohol ignition system). This will be demonstrated
Even in small amounts, alcohol adversely when you shutdown at the end of the lesson.
affects brain functioning. Mixed with Discuss how the mixture control is used to alter
altitude and the dynamic three-dimensional the fuel/air ratio and then state that for initial training
environment of aviation, it is deadly. Safe flights the mixture control is set at the full rich
periods of abstinence before flight vary with position. Leaning the mixture will be covered in
the individual and the amount consumed. later lessons.
Carburettor heat
F Fatigue UP or DOWN, IN or OUT. The purpose of the
This affects not only motor skills but carburettor heat control should be covered.
also mental skills. Adequate rest is essential
for quality information processing and Briefly outline the reasons and conditions for
decision making. carburettor ice forming, the symptoms of its
formation, and the cure. In addition, the reason
E Eating for applying carburettor heat before closing
A balanced diet and drinking water at regular the throttle, and the conditions under which
intervals to prevent dehydration is important. carburettor ice is most likely to form, should
Poor eating habits and/or dehydration can be described. Introducing warm air into the
have a detrimental effect on the decision- carburettor alters the mixture, so is not normally
making process. used at high power settings.
Discuss when you would use carburettor heat on
In addition, the ‘I’M SAFE’ checklist should be the ground, and the precautions you need to take
prominently displayed in the briefing room for while doing so.
quick reference before flight.
Temperature and pressure gauges
Such as oil, cylinder and fuel, have a normal
operating range depicted by a green arc.
Aeroplane Management Red lines indicate operating limits, yellow arcs
A large-scale photograph of the aeroplane the cautionary ranges, and often white lines
instrument panel and/or cabin layout is a or arcs for other purposes (refer Flight Manual).
valuable aid. The importance of monitoring temperatures
Give a brief explanation of the purpose of the and pressures for normal readings should be
engine controls. Discuss the sense of movement explained. It may sometimes be normal to taxi
of these controls. with oil temperature below the green range
Throttle (see Flight Manual). On the other hand, it would
The use of smooth throttle operations should not be normal to see the oil temperature near the
be emphasised. As a guide it should take three top of the green range after a prolonged descent,
seconds to move the throttle from fully CLOSED even though it’s in the green.
to fully OPEN, and vice versa. Demonstrate an
appropriate grip on the throttle.
 Basic Concepts: Effects of Controls 5

Human Factors Emphasise the association between control

movement and the natural sense, for example,
Describe the VFR see-and-be-seen principle and
rotating the control column to the right will
the importance of a good lookout.
cause the aeroplane to roll to the right.
Discuss the limitations of vision, especially on
In flight these movements are related to
lookout effectiveness. Stress the need to move
the horizon and confirmed with reference
the head to see around the cabin structures, so
to the instruments. These movements rotate the
that a thorough lookout can be achieved.
aeroplane about its axes in a natural sense and
Discuss the limitation of the visual system when always have the same effect relative to the pilot,
attempting to detect small stationary objects for example, even when banked rudder will
and alternatively the ability of peripheral vision to still yaw the nose to the pilot’s left or right, but
detect movement. up or down in relation to the horizon.
Discuss the effects of information overload
in relation to human information processing Further Effects
capabilities and the effect on performance. The The emphasis here is on aerodynamic effects,
short-term memory can hold only 7 items ± 2. sometimes known as aerodynamic cross
coupling. When a control movement is made on
Discuss the effects of stress in relation to human
its own, movement initially occurs around one
information processing capabilities and the effect
axis, followed by an undesired movement about
on performance. As this is the student’s first flight
another axis. The main point is that these effects
it is a busy and new experience. Future lessons
only occur when the control is used on its own.
build on those before them and the stress reduces.
There is no further or secondary effect of elevator.
The benefits of regular practise and the use of a
checklist should be encouraged to help with both When aileron is used on its own, the aeroplane will
of these. roll, slip and then yaw towards the lower wing.
When rudder is used on its own, the aeroplane
will yaw, skid and then roll in the direction of yaw.
Air Exercise In both cases, if the controls are left alone, the
Describe the method of taxiing the aeroplane
aeroplane will enter a spiralling descent. The initial
under its own power, stopping and turning.
slip or skid can be demonstrated with a model
Basic flight training is based on the concept of as it may be difficult to detect in the air, but the
attitude flying by visual reference. It is important secondary effect will be clearly seen. The balance
to introduce the student to the concept of ball will indicate these effects, but you may
attitude, being the relationship between the not wish to draw the student’s attention to this
nose (or instrument panel) and wings, and instrument yet.
the horizon. Discuss in simple terms how the
It should be emphasised that these further or
primary controls are used.
undesirable effects of ailerons and rudder can be
eliminated through coordination of these controls,
Primary Effects and will be dealt with in later lessons. In this
Discuss the effect of movement of each of the lesson, your purpose is to demonstrate these
primary controls in flight, with emphasis on secondary effects, and as a consequence aspects
the sense of movement of the control column of this lesson are uncoordinated.
and rudder pedals – not the sense of movement
of the control surfaces themselves. It is what
Airspeed
the student sees as a result of control movement
Discuss the effect of airspeed on the feel of
that is important, for example, easing back
the controls, the aeroplane response rate, and the
on the control column pitches the nose up.
amount of movement needed to change the flight
path. Commonly, the analogy of holding your hand
6 Basic Concepts: Effects of Controls

out the car window and moving it from horizontal Trim

to vertical at various speeds is used to describe Describe the method of trimming, if you are
this effect. holding the elevator back – trim back, if you
At low airspeeds, typically with a high nose are holding the elevator forward – trim forward.
attitude, the controls are easy to move, are less Similarly, if the aeroplane is fitted with rudder
effective and require large movements to bring trim, holding right rudder pressure – move
about a change of flight path. They feel sloppy. or rotate rudder trim to the right.

At high airspeeds, typically with a low nose Figure 6

attitude, the controls are harder to move, very
effective and require only small movements to
bring about a change of flight path. They feel firm.

Slipstream
Figure 5

Flap
When flap is lowered, lift and drag are increased,
which causes the nose to pitch .
The opposite effect will occur when flap is
raised. The change in lift can be felt and the
Describe the effect of slipstream over the
changes in drag can be seen as an airspeed
elevators and rudder, in relation to high power
change. Discuss the L/D ratio in context of
and idle power settings, at a constant airspeed.
the initial application of flap on lift compared
At high power the slipstream is increased, and
with the further application and its affect on drag.
the elevator and rudder are more effective;
Any change in pitch will require a change in
conversely, at idle power they are less effective.
the trim.
Because the ailerons are situated outside
the slipstream their effectiveness does not
change with increasing or decreasing slipstream.
On some aeroplanes the elevator may be out Airborne Sequence
of the slipstream because of its height, for
Before Flight
example the Piper Tomahawk.
The importance of inspecting the aeroplane
before flight should be emphasised and a
Power demonstration of the full aeroplane preflight
With an increase in power the aeroplane will
inspection given.
pitch up (for reasons that will be explained in a
later lesson) and the nose will yaw to the left. During the preflight inspection, point out the
Reducing power will result in a pitch down major features of the aeroplane, the primary
and yaw to the right. Therefore, whenever the controls and movements, both fixed and
power is changed, the pitch and yaw must be adjustable trim tabs, and the effect flap has on the
compensated for in order to maintain the attitude. shape of the wing. Point out that while full control
movement is acceptable on the ground, only
small movements are required in normal flight
because the primary controls are situated at the
extremities (thus providing a large moment arm).
 Basic Concepts: Effects of Controls 7

Make sure the student is seated correctly, seat themselves. After each demonstration, the
secure, seat belts done up, and point out the student should operate each control one at a
limitations imposed on the lookout as a result of time. Ensure that during the rudder movement
the cabin structure. demonstration and student practise that the
During the taxi encourage the student to operate wings are held laterally level with aileron.
the rudder pedals while you hold the control Otherwise the student will see the more obvious
column and operate the throttle. Gradually hand roll rather than a pure yaw.
over control of throttle, brakes and control column
to the student. Most students will attempt to Further Effects
steer the aeroplane on the ground by rotating Aileron
the control column – as in a car. They will soon The aeroplane should be trimmed to fly so that
discover that this has no effect on the aeroplane. only the lightest of finger and thumb grips is
With a gentle reminder, they will learn to keep needed on the control column and the feet are
the control column neutral and use their feet only resting on the rudder pedals. Resist the
on the rudder pedals. natural tendency to increase backpressure
as aileron is applied, otherwise the yaw will not
Remind the student that a much greater lateral occur. Secondary effects only occur when
clearance is required than that required for a car. the primary controls are used on their own.
Point out major ground features and approximate Drawing the student’s attention to the outside
directions of north, south, east and west. reference point, roll the aeroplane with pure
aileron using only the finger and thumb. The slip
The Exercise may be difficult to see, however, the yaw and
resultant spiral descent should be apparent.
Primary Effects
Before any demonstration, ensure the student You should ensure three things – firstly that only
is looking in the right place, ie, outside over the moderate angles of bank are used, secondly
nose. If the student is looking at the rudder pedals that the student sees how easy it is to stop the
they are unlikely to see the first effect, much less spiral descent by using coordinated control inputs,
any further effects. and thirdly that you demonstrate the further
effects in both directions.
Figure 7 The student should get the opportunity to move
the controls and experience these further effects,
but does not need to master it.
Rudder
Once the aeroplane has been returned to straight
and level flight, the further effect of rudder should
be demonstrated. Gentle application of rudder
is all that is required. Once again the skid is
difficult to see but the roll and resultant spiral
descent is obvious.
First explain ‘nose attitude’ and what you mean
by it. The line the horizon makes in relation to the Airspeed
aeroplane’s nose will be the primary means the Demonstrate the use of elevator by selecting
student uses to fly the aeroplane. They must have an attitude and watching its resultant effect on
a sound understanding of aeroplane attitude and airspeed, then give the student the opportunity
how to use it, if they are going to become a pilot. to experience it.

The primary flight controls and their effects are To effectively demonstrate the effect of airspeed,
demonstrated one at a time, with emphasis maintain a constant power setting and vary the
on the natural sense, to experience the affect airspeed with attitude.
8 Basic Concepts: Effects of Controls

Nose-high attitude equals low or lower airspeed, The next step is to reduce power to idle to
nose-low attitude equals high or higher airspeed. remove the effects of slipstream and set up the
At this stage there is no requirement to refer same airspeed as before (ie, a glide). Trim. Now
to any specific attitude, for example, level or the student again operates all controls, noting the
climbing attitude. During this demonstration the changed feel of those within the slipstream –
throttle should not be moved but left at a medium the elevator and rudder, or just the rudder in the
power setting, so as to make it quite clear that it case of the Piper Tomahawk.
is the attitude that directly affects the airspeed. To effectively demonstrate the effect of
During the high airspeed demonstration, however, slipstream, maintain a constant airspeed and
the throttle will need to be slightly closed unless vary the power setting.
the aeroplane has a variable speed propeller and a
constant speed unit fitted. Power
In each case (low and high airspeed) the student To demonstrate the effects of a power increase
should note the feel and response of each primary or decrease, the aeroplane should be trimmed
control. Although any slipstream will affect the straight and level at an intermediate power
feel and response of elevator and rudder in most setting. Point out that for this demonstration
single engine aeroplanes, the average student the feet are off the rudder and the hand is
on their first lesson will not detect it. It is highly resting lightly on the control column before any
unlikely that the student under these conditions power change.
will notice any difference at all regardless of It may be better to demonstrate the effects
the power setting. Therefore, the student will of reducing power first and then trimming for
need to be convinced verbally of what they feel. a descent at a low power setting, for example
This is achieved by modulating your voice as 1500 rpm, which will provide for a greater pitch
each control is moved. For example, low airspeed, change when demonstrating the effects of
elevators light, less effective, BIG movements increasing power. Using full power for this gives
required; high airspeed, elevators firm, VERY a very good demonstration, especially as the
effective, small movements required. The benefit aeroplane is trimmed for a descent.
of a constant power setting to give a clear
demonstration of attitude to control airspeed The student should experience compensating
far outweighs the considerations of control feel for the power changes with appropriate pitch
and response. and balance application – “keeping the picture
the same.”
You can demonstrate at the end of this sequence
that all three controls work in relation to the The instructor should trim the aeroplane
pilot and not the horizon by rolling in some bank, as required.
pitching the nose up or down and yawing left
or right at the same time. The student should Trim
then be encouraged to operate all three controls The use of elevator trim to relieve control loads
for themselves. and maintain a constant attitude is demonstrated
next. Be aware that the aeroplane is trimmed
Use the phrase “pitch the nose up”, instead of for an attitude, not an altitude or airspeed.
“pull back on the control column.” The student should be asked to hold a constant
attitude – any attitude will do – you then apply
Slipstream trim to load the control (caution: do not use
Although the effect of slipstream is present at all excessive amounts of trim in case the student
airspeeds with the propeller rotating, it is easiest suddenly lets go of the control column). When the
to demonstrate at a high power setting and low student can feel that they are pushing or pulling
airspeed. Set up the aeroplane for a constant in an effort to maintain the attitude they should
low airspeed with full power on (eg, a climb). Trim. move the trim in the appropriate direction to
The student should operate all of the controls, remove the load.
noting the feel of effectiveness for each.
 Basic Concepts: Effects of Controls 9

To trim the aeroplane the student should be Debrief

encouraged to gradually relax their grip on the Comments are given here as a guide to the
control column as they neutralise the control novice instructor on how to complete the debrief
forces and, looking outside at the attitude, while gaining the experience needed to expand
observe any change. If a change is observed, their teaching.
the desired attitude should be re-selected The debrief is an opportunity to revise the
with the primary flight controls, then pause while exercise, and for both you and the student to
equilibrium is re-established, and then re-trim reflect on whether the objectives have been met.
and start the checking process again. As already
pointed out, the student at this stage, cannot feel Did the student operate the aeroplane’s primary
subtle control pressures. However, the changing controls and experience the first aerodynamic
attitude should be relatively easy to detect. The effects? Did they observe the further effects
aim is to be able to fly the aeroplane at a constant on the aeroplane in flight? Did they operate and
attitude, using only a finger and thumb grip, and experience the ancillary controls and their effects?
this will not be achieved in one lesson. If you require verbal confirmation from the
student that the objective has been achieved,
Flap questions should be phrased to test understanding.
Point out the white arc on the airspeed indicator. Do not ask if the student observed the secondary
To demonstrate the effect of flap, an attitude effects of the primary controls. Preferably, ask
should be selected for a suitable speed within the the student to describe the further effect of one,
white arc. Trimmed for straight and level, flap is or each, of the primary controls.
selected, the pitch change for the aeroplane type It is important at this early level to allay any fears
noted and the aeroplane re-trimmed. This will or false expectations by reinforcing the fact that
not necessarily require the application of full flap there is much to learn. Competence at this stage
to occur. The student can operate the flap, but is not as important as understanding – every
be aware that observing the pitch change is the lesson will build on the last and give the student
more important aspect. From trimmed level flight every opportunity to improve.
demonstrate the effect of raising the flap, and the
re-trimming required. Also note the changes in lift
and drag, and the sink encountered with changes
in airspeed.

After Flight
After landing, allow the student to revise taxiing
and to move the mixture control to ICO on
shut down.
The operation of the aeroplane’s heater/demister
and fresh-air vents can be demonstrated.
After the debrief (see below) tell the student the
next lesson will be Straight and Level, and that
you will be using the controls you learnt about
today to fly straight and level. They may want to
do some further reading on this.