ARTICLE 1 (Effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive

outcomes and academic performance in adolescents and young

adults: A meta-analysis):

Introducction

Physical activity leads to a numerous amount of strong and positive

health benefits, which includes lowering the risks of cardiovascular
diseases, adiposity (The excessive accumulation of adipose tissue), and
type 2 diabetes but furthermore physical activity is also linked to
cognitive and academic benefits in both children and older adults
acording to recent studies. Despite these positive traits of physical
activity, nowadays more than 80% of adolescents do not adhere to the
recommended physical activity and this lack of physica lactivity is seen
as a major threat for physical and cognitive health.

Physical activity is especially important during adolescence and young

adulthood and is during these key stages of development where higher
cortical functions, the so called executive functions which are located in
the prefrontal cortex, show rapid development. A growing number of
studies have supported the idea that physical activity boosts these
executive functions. Also, physical activity is thought to have a positive
effect on attention and processing speed.These are two basic
neurocognitive functions that act as pre-requisite for executive functions
to emerge, which are very useful if not mandatory for successful
learning, and executive functions are indispensable for success
throughout life. In terms of brain development, grey and white matter
have been found to continue developing up to 30 years of age, with the
most prominent changes taking place in the prefrontal cortex. Therefore,
cognitive outcomes and academic performance might not be ideally
optimized and supported since these functions strongly rely on frontal
lobe functioning. Repeated bouts of physical activity (also referred to as
chronic physical activity or chronic exercise) has been shown to lead to
angiogenesis (development of new blood vessels from already existing
blood vessels), synaptogenesis (formation of synapses, the points of
contact where information is transmitted between neurons)
and neurogenesis (process by which new neurons are formed in the
brain). Such morphological changes in brain structure may lead to
enhanced cognitive outcomes and academic performance. Due to the
resulting structural changes, effects of a chronic intervention may persist
longer. Furthermore, most studies focus on cognitive outcomes, while
few studies describe effects of physical activity interventions on
academic performance. However, in the last decade new research is
emerging in these topics.Therefore, it is important to get a full overview
of the effects of acute and chronic physical activity interventions on
cognitive outcomes and academic performance in adolescents and
young adults.

Research and Investigation Criteria

This investigation included all studies examining the effects of physical

activity interventions on cognitive outcomes and academic performance
published in peer-reviewed English language journals. This studies were
selected according to a certain criteria:

- First, the physical activity intervention had to contain a sports or

exercise component. Both acute physical activity interventions and
chronic physical activity interventions.

- Second, the mean age of the participants in the sample had to be

between 12 and 30 years

- Third, the study had to report on outcomes that were of interest in

the present article

Effects of physical activity interventions

The calculated effects of 43 studies focused on cognitive outcomes.

Overall, acute physical activity resulted in a moderate effect on cognitive
outcomes, Further analyses distinguishing between core domains of
cognitive outcomes, showed a significant moderately sized effect for
processing speed, a significant moderately sized effect for attention and,
a significant moderately sized effect for executive functions.
A further distinction between executive functions yielded a significant
moderately sized effect for inhibition , but no effects for cognitive
flexibility, and working memory. Analyses with categorical moderators
showed that the effects of acute physical activity interventions were not
significantly different between RCT and cross-over studies in working
memory and inhibition. Furthermore, there was no significant difference
between studies contrasting the effects of acute physical activity to a rest
condition or a condition involving some physical activity as a control
condition.
Twenty-seven studies examined the effects of chronic physical activity
interventions on cognitive outcomes or academic performance. Overall,
chronic physical activity interventions had a moderate effect on cognitive
outcomes. Further analyses distinguishing between core domains of
cognitive outcomes showed three significant moderately sized effects
for: processing speed, attention, and executive functions. Furthermore,
chronic physical activity interventions had asignificant moderately sized
effect on academic performance. Further analyses distinguishing
between core domains of academic performance showed a significant
moderately sized effect for language

Interpretation

Most of the conducted meta-analyses showed large or medium

heterogeneity between the individual studies’ effect sizes. Therefore, the
findings should be interpreted with caution. An interesting finding of this
meta-analysis is the beneficial effect of chronic physical activity
interventions on cognitive outcomes and especially on the core domains
working memory and cognitive flexibility. Overall, the previous
meta-analytic studies were inconsistent in their findings. Probably, these
divergent findings have emerged because these meta-analyses included
mostly pre-adolescent children or olderadults and almost no adolescents
or early adulthood subjects.The transition from childhood to adulthood
starts with physical changes and hormonal changes. These changes
start in late childhood or in early adolescence, also referred to as early
puberty, and continue into early adulthood. In the later-puberty, rapid
development of the prefrontalcortex takes place which may make this
structure especially sensitive to the effects of interventions, like physical
activity interventions, compared to other developmental stages.
Moreover, the transition from childhood into adulthood is characterised
by a marked decrease in physical activity and an increase in sedentary
behaviour. The low levels of physical activity in adolescents might make
physical activity interventions result in relatively large increases in
physical activity in later-puberty than in pre-adolescent children.
Concluding the current meta-analysis is the first to include a substantial
number of studies investigating the effects of chronic physical activity
interventions in adolescents and young adults which might explain the
different conclusion reached as compared to previous reviews.

Another interesting finding was that chronic physical activity

interventions were found to have a moderately sized beneficial effect on
academic performance. Further analyses showedthat a chronic
intervention can positively affect language, but not grade point average
or mathematics. This is slightly different from a previous meta-analysis,
which showed positive effects on science, including mathematics, but
not on language or grade point average. In another meta-analysis,
positive effects on language as well as on mathematics were found.
However, in that meta-analysis mainly preadolescent children were
included. Only 3 out of 25 studies were conducted in similar age ranges
as included in the current meta-analysis (12–30 years). While in the age
range of 12–18 years a lot of behavioural changes takeplace that stay
present in adults. If more studies are conducted in adolescence a more
clear effect with possibly less heterogeneity will be visible in this age.
Heterogeneous results between studies in this meta-analysis can
possibly be explained by the fact that mostly school grades were used
as outcome measure instead of standardized tests.School grades are
less objective and comparable with other studies than standardized
tests, because they depend on the topic discussed in that period and
sometimes the grade is awarded subjectively by the teacher.
Furthermore, it should be noted that academic performance was only
measured in adolescents and not in young adults, so findings cannot be
generalized to young adulthood. This meta-analysis showed significant
effect sizes after a chronic intervention but not after an acute intervention
on cognitive flexibility and working memory. While chronic interventions
showed a large effect size, acute interventions yielded small or
non-significant effects, suggesting that only chronic physical activity
interventions may affect cognitive flexibility and working memory. One
possible explanation for this difference in effect sizes is that different
underlying mechanisms operate in acute and chronic interventions. It is
suggested that physical activity, for example, facilitates working memory
by increasing the efficiency of evaluating the stimulus. Underlying
processes that could increase this efficiency are neurogenesis and
synaptogenesis, which are related to chronic interventions. Exercise
influences the production of BDNF (Brain-derived neurotrophic factor) in
the area critical for learning andmemory. After acute interventions, BDNF
levels are increased for a short time period and could explain increased
levels of arousal, attention and effort, which positively influences the
performance on cognitive tasks. However, after a chronic intervention
BDNF levels stay increased and therefore have a structural effect on
neurons, like neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. It seems that the
underlying processes like synaptogenesis, neurogenesis and synaptic
plasticity are the underlying mechanisms of improved cognitive flexibility
and working memory.

Conclusion

This meta-analysis emphasizes the notable benefits of physical activity

interventions in improving cognitive outcomes and academic
performance among adolescents and young adults. Chronic physical
activity interventions, in particular, showed consistent and moderately
sized positive effects on essential cognitive functions, such as
processing speed, attention, and executive functions, as well as on
academic performance, particularly in language skills. These results
highlight the vital importance of regular physical activity during
adolescence and early adulthood, a time of significant brain
development and behavioral changes that set the stage for lifelong
success.

While acute interventions offered short-term cognitive enhancements,

chronic interventions provided more enduring benefits, likely due to
structural changes in the brain, including neurogenesis and
synaptogenesis. These processes improve neural efficiency and lead to
sustained advancements in cognitive flexibility and working memory. The
production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) further reinforces
these effects, showcasing the transformative potential of long-term
physical activity.

Integrating regular physical activity into educational and developmental

environments is crucial to fully leverage these advantages. Future
research should aim to minimize variability in outcomes through
standardized measures and broaden studies to gain a deeper
understanding of effects in young adults. By emphasizing physical
activity, we can foster environments that promote cognitive development
and academic success during these critical years.

ARTICLE 2 (Relationships Between Frequency of Moderate

Physical Activity and Longevity: An 11-Year Follow-up Study):

Introduction

Strong evidence shows that physical activity has beneficial effects on

well-being, health, and longevity in older ages. A relationship between
cognitive function and longevity has also been found The survival effect
of physical exercise has received support by a large study of more than
40,000 athletes, which shows that the Standardized Mortality Ratio
(SMR) for athletes compared to the standard population was 33% lower
and other several studies show that physical exercise decreases
mortality. In one study it was found that jogging or brisk walking more
than 7.5 hr every week was associated with a higher life expectancy.
These studies indicate that a physical activity level larger than some
minimum amount of intensity and frequency, can slow down the aging
process in both psychological and physiological respects while more
intense exercise does not seem to improve health and survivability

Method

- This study included men and women aged 60 to 96. The

characteristics of the general population of elderly people in
Sweden are closely reflected in the sample which may be seen as
 representative for older adults in Sweden. Data were collected
from physical examinations, patient records, and questionnaires.
The purpose of the data collection design was to receive a
randomly selected sample, representing the old population in a
broad variation of ages.
- In the next step, the full model was tested in four subgroups:
women only, men only, participants aged 60 to 79 years and
participants aged 80 to 96 years.

Results

The results show that 82.1% of the total sample performed MPA
(moderate physical activity) 2 to 3 times every month or more. The
younger participants were more active and men were slightly more
active than women. In addition, the results showed that those who
performed MPA 2 to 3 times every month or more were, in an 11-year
perspective, more often still alive. This was shown for the total sample
but also for both men and women as well as for both the younger and
the older groups when RR was calculated for these groups separately.
These results support previous findings showing that MPA benefits
longevity. The previously made suggestion that the strongest difference
in health outcomes can be observed between those not active at all and
those performing any moderate activity is confirmed by the result of this
study.
The remarkably low levels of activity, necessary for survival benefits,
found in this study supports previous findings showing that the largest
differences in death risk appear when comparisons between zero and
any physical activity are made. This should be considered by health
promoters and public health workers. Usually, more frequent and intense
activity levels are recommended, which may make less capable
individuals inclined to give up and believe that health promotion by
physical activity is not attainable for them. A limitation of the study,
however, is that the physical activity variable was self-reported, which
may increase the risk of recall bias. Still, the study contains several
strengths. It is based on a sample that is representative for the Swedish
population and covers age groups as high as 60 to 96 years. In addition,
few previous studies have adjusted for biological, functional, and social
variables in survival analyses. Other strengths include the long
observation time (11 years) and the large number of the study (6,896
persons)

Conclusion

This study emphasizes the significant impact of moderate physical

activity (MPA) on longevity among older adults. Participants who
engaged in MPA at least 2-3 times per month demonstrated higher
survival rates over an 11-year period, with these benefits observed
across genders and age groups. The findings underscore that even
minimal levels of physical activity can yield substantial survival benefits,
confirming previous research indicating that the most significant health
gains occur when comparing inactivity to any level of physical activity.

These results highlight the importance of promoting achievable physical

activity goals, particularly for older adults who may perceive
higher-intensity recommendations as unattainable. Encouraging
moderate activity as a feasible and effective strategy for health
promotion can significantly enhance public health efforts, especially
within aging populations. Despite limitations such as reliance on
self-reported data, the study's strengths—including its large,
representative sample, comprehensive adjustments for biological and
social variables, and extensive follow-up period—support its
conclusions.

In summary, fostering regular moderate physical activity among older

adults is a vital and practical approach to improving longevity and overall
health. Public health initiatives should focus on lowering barriers to
participation, emphasizing that even small increases in physical activity
can profoundly impact life expectancy and quality of life.

Relationship between articles

Both texts highlight the essential role of physical activity in enhancing

health, cognitive function, and longevity, illustrating its wide-ranging
benefits for various age groups. The first text points out how physical
activity can improve cognitive abilities such as processing speed,
attention, and executive functions. It notes that long-term physical
activity interventions can lead to lasting changes in the brain, including
neurogenesis and synaptogenesis. This emphasizes the significance of
engaging in physical activity during adolescence and early adulthood,
crucial periods for brain development that can set the stage for lifelong
learning and achievement.

The second text broadens the conversation to include older adults,

examining the link between moderate physical activity (MPA) and
increased longevity. It shows that even small amounts of regular
activity—like participating in MPA just 2-3 times a month—can lead to
notable improvements in survival rates. This reinforces the idea that
physical activity, no matter the intensity, is essential for maintaining
health and enhancing life expectancy, especially among older
populations.

Both texts align on the concept that physical activity serves as a

universal health-enhancing tool that is relevant at different life stages. In
youth, it supports cognitive growth and academic success, while in older
adults, it helps maintain physical health and boosts longevity. Together,
these insights stress the need to incorporate physical activity into daily
life throughout the lifespan, showcasing its powerful potential to enhance
both mental and physical health. Public health campaigns should focus
on making physical activity accessible and highlighting its benefits,
ensuring that everyone, regardless of age or ability, can take advantage
of its positive effects.

Bibliography

Article 1: Effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive

outcomes and academic performance in adolescents and young
adults: A meta-analysis

Article 2: Relationships Between Frequency of Moderate Physical

Activity and Longevity: An 11-Year Follow-up Study