MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY &

EDUCATION
FACULTY OF INTERNATIONAL AND EDUCATION

PROJECT
SUBJECT:
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

Topic:
REPORT
Lecturer: Assoc.Prof Nguyen Trung Hieu
Subject ID: AEEE230833E_23_2_01FIE

Group 6
1. Bùi Nguyên Bá Thiên - 22145068
2. Lê Công Tuấn - 21145619
3. Đặng Anh Duy - 22145016
4. Nguyễn Thanh Minh - 22145044
5. Đỗ Minh Huy - 22145026

Ho Chi Minh, May 2024

 REPORT
SEMESTER II: 2023-2024
Topic: HOMEWORK

Lecture’s comments:

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Date:

Point
 APPENDIX

A. HOMEWORK REPORT.......................................................................1
I. RESISTOR.........................................................................................1
1. VOLTAGE DIVIDER....................................................................1
2. PARELLEL CIRCUIT..................................................................4
3. SERIES CIRCUIT..........................................................................7
4. RHEOSTAT CIRCUIT................................................................10
5. PHOTORESISTOR CIRCUIT...................................................13
II. CAPACITOR...................................................................................16
1. CAP ACITOR CIRCUIT.............................................................16
III. INDUCTOR.....................................................................................20
1. INDUCTOR CIRCUIT................................................................20
IV. DIODE..............................................................................................25
1. DIODE CIRCUIT.........................................................................25
2. ZENER...........................................................................................28
3. VOLTAGE STABILIZER...........................................................30
V. TRANSISTOR.................................................................................32
1. LED CONTROL BY TRANSISTOR.........................................32
2. RELAY CONTROL BY TRANSISTOR....................................34
VI. OP–AMP....................................................................................37
1. OP-AMP CIRCUIT......................................................................37
VII. IC555...........................................................................................40
1. IC555 CIRCUIT............................................................................40
B. POWER SUPPLY REPORT.......................................................................43
POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT.........................................................43
C. TOPIC BATTERY REPORT.....................................................................45
CONTENT.......................................................................................49
I. OVERVIEW OF BATTERY:................................................................49
II: HOW CELL WORKS:..........................................................................51
III: COMPARING PRIMARY BATTERIES:.........................................53
CONCLUTION...............................................................................60
 A. HOMEWORK REPORT
I. RESISTOR
1. VOLTAGE DIVIDER
a) Equipment

No. Devices Quantity Value

1 Battery 1 12V
2 Resistor 4 10k
3 VOM 1
4 Test board 1
5 Wire

b) Circuit

Picture 1

Picture 2

1
 Picture 3
c) Proteus

Picture 1 running by Proteus

Picture 2 running by Proteus

2
 Picture 3 running by Proteus

d) Conclusion
Picture Value of VOM (V)
1 6V
2 12V 12V 12V 0V
3 9V 6V 3V 0V
Picture 1:
Rtđ=R9+R10=10+10=20k(ohm)
Itđ=I9=I10=U/Rtđ=12/20k=6*10^(-4) (A)
U9=I9*R9=6*10^(-4)*10k=6V
The voltmeter measures the voltage drop caused by resistor R9.
We calculate that the voltage at R9 is 6, so the positive terminal of the voltmeter will
read 6 because 12-6=6
Picture 2:
Since the above circuit is an open circuit, there is no current flowing through the
electrical devices, I=0.
Therefore, there is no voltage loss.
Therefore, the first three voltmeters are considered to measure the voltage of the
power source (battery), and the positive terminal of the fourth voltmeter is not
connected to the source, so the meter will display 0.
Picture 3:
Rtd = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 = 10k + 10k + 10k + 10k = 40k
Itd = U/Rtd =I1=I2=I3=I4= 12/40k = 0.3(kA)
U1 = I1 * R1 = 10k * 0.3 = 3V
U2 = I2 * R2 = 10k * 0.3 = 3V
U3 = I3* R3 = 10k * 0.3 = 3V
U4 = I4 * R4 = 10k * 0.3 = 3V

3
2. PARELLEL CIRCUIT
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Battery 1 12V

2 Resistor 3 10k
3 VOM 1

4 Test board 1
5 Wire

b) Circuit

Picture 1 and 2

Picture 3
c) Proteus

4
Picture 1 running by Proteus

Picture 2 running by Proteus

Picture 3 running by Proteus

5
 d) Conclusion
Picture Value of VOM (V)
Picture 1 6.0V
Picture 2 4.0V
Picture 3 8.0V

Picture 1:
Rtd=R1+R2=10+10=20k(ohm).
Itd=12/20k=6*10^(-4) (A)
U1=Rtd*Itd=6*10^(-4)*10k=6
The voltage drop across R1 is 6, so the remaining voltage is 12-6=6

Picture 2:
Rtd=R1+R2*R3/(R2+R3)=10+10*10/20=15k
Itd=12/15k=0.8*10^-3 (A)
U1=Itd*R1=0.8*10^-3*10k=8V
Since the voltage across resistor R1 is 8 volts, this causes a voltage drop of 8 volts
across R1. Therefore, the voltmeter will show 12-8=4v

Picture 3:
Rtd=R2+R1*R3/(R1+R3)=10+10*10/20=15k
Itd= U/Rtd=12/15k
U2 bằng Itd*R2=12/15k*10k=8V
The voltage across resistor R2 is 8V, and the negative terminal is 0V. Therefore, the
voltmeter will display 8V

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3. SERIES CIRCUIT
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Battery 1 12V

2 Resistor 3 10k
3 VOM 1

4 Test board 1
5 Wire

b) Circuit

Picture 1, 2 and 3

7
c) Proteus

Picture 1 running by Proteus

Picture 2 running by Proteus

Picture 3 running by Proteus

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 d) Conclusion
Picture Value of VOM (V)
Picture 1 6.0V
Picture 2 8.0V
Picture 3 4.0V

Picture 1:
Rtd=R1+R2=20k (ohm)
Itd=12/20k (A)

U1=Itd*R1=12*12/20k=6 (V)

Therefore, the voltage drop across resistor R1 is 6 volts.

Picture 2:
R1, R2, and R3 are connected in series, the voltmeter will measure the voltage at the
output of R1. The voltage will drop by 4V after passing through R1.

Picture 3:
R1, R2, and R3 are connected in series, the voltmeter will measure the voltage at the
output of R2. This time, the current flows through both resistors R1 and R3, so the
voltage will drop across each resistor after passing through them.

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4. RHEOSTAT CIRCUIT
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Battery 1 12V
2 Resistor 1 1k Ohm
3 Rheostat 1 1k Ohm
4 Test board 1
5 Wire
6 VOM 1

b) Circuit

Picture 1 and 2

10
c) Proteus

Picture 1 running by Proteus

Picture 2 running by Proteus

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 d) Conclusion
Picture Value of VOM (V)
Picture 1 3.18V
Picture 2 8.82V

Picture 1:
Resistors RV1 and R1 are connected in series. We calculate that I=6V. The voltmeter
is connected across RV1, and 53% of the way along the resistor, the resistance is
RV1=1*53%=0.53. The voltmeter reads U=RV1*I=3.18V.

Picture 2:
Resistors RV1 and R2 are connected in series. We calculate that I=6V. The voltmeter
is connected in parallel with the resistor at 47% and resistor R2, so the voltmeter will
read U= 6*(1+0.47)=8.82V.

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5. PHOTORESISTOR CIRCUIT
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Battery 1 12V
2 Resistor 1 10k Ohm
3 Photoresistor 1
4 Test board 1
5 Wire
6 VOM 1

b) Circuit

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 c) Proteus

Picture 1 running by Proteus when light

Picture 2 running by Proteus when no light

d) Conclusion
Photoresistors, also known as light-dependent resistors (LDRs) or photoconductive
cells, are passive components that exhibit a change in resistance in response to light.
When exposed to light, photoresistors decrease in resistance, allowing more current to
flow through them. This makes them useful in a variety of applications, such as light
sensors, automatic light switches, and security systems.

Working Principle:
Photoresistors are typically made of semiconductor materials, such as cadmium sulfide
(CdS) or lead sulfide (PbS). These materials have a relatively high resistance in the
dark due to the limited number of free electrons available for conduction. However,
when exposed to light, photons from the light can excite electrons in the
semiconductor material, causing them to jump into the conduction band. These free

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electrons are then able to conduct electricity, reducing the resistance of the
photoresistor.
The amount of change in resistance depends on the intensity of the light. Stronger light
will excite more electrons, leading to a greater decrease in resistance. This makes
photoresistors sensitive to changes in light levels.

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 II. CAPACITOR
1. CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Battery 1 12V
2 Resistor 1 1k (ôm)
3 LED 1
100,1000,
4 Capacitor 3
2200 (uF)
5 Test board 1
6 Wire
7 Switch 4

b) Circuit

Picture 1
c) Proteus

When close swich 1

16
 When close all swich

After that open all swich

Close C3 switch light turn on a little

17
 Close C2 switch light turn on more than C3

Close C1 switch light turn on for a long time

d) Conclusion
Analysis of the circuit behavior:
When switch 1 is closed, the light turns on normally because the circuit is complete.

This is because closing switch 1 completes the circuit, allowing current to flow from
the power source to the light bulb and back to the power source. This current flow
causes the light bulb to illuminate.

When all four switches are closed, the light turns on normally. Then, when switch 1 is
opened, the light gradually dims and turns off.

This is because when all four switches are closed, the capacitors C1, C2, C3, and C4
are all charged in parallel. When switch 1 is opened, the capacitors discharge through
the light bulb, causing it to remain lit for a while. However, as the capacitors
discharge, the current through the light bulb decreases, and it eventually turns off.

When switches 1 and 2 are closed and capacitors C2 and C1 are open, the light turns
on normally. Then, when switch 1 is opened, the light gradually dims and turns off.

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This is similar to the previous case, but only capacitors C1 and C2 are discharging
through the light bulb. As a result, the light dims and turns off more quickly than when
all four capacitors are discharging.

When switches 1 and 3 are closed and the other two switches are open, the light turns
on normally. Then, when switch 1 is opened, the light gradually dims and turns off,
but takes longer than with capacitor C3.

This is because capacitor C3 has a larger capacitance than capacitor C1 or C2.

Therefore, it takes longer for capacitor C3 to discharge, and the light stays lit for a
longer period.

When switches 1 and 4 are closed and the other two switches are open, the light turns
on normally. Then, when switch 1 is opened, the light gradually dims and turns off,
but takes longer than with capacitor C2.

This is similar to the previous case, but capacitor C4 has an even larger capacitance
than capacitor C3. Therefore, it takes even longer for capacitor C4 to discharge, and
the light stays lit for the longest period.

Conclusion: The larger the capacitance of a capacitor, the longer it takes to charge and
discharge.

This is because capacitance is a measure of the ability of a capacitor to store electrical

energy. The larger the capacitance, the more electrical energy the capacitor can store.
As a result, it takes longer for a capacitor with a larger capacitance to charge up or
discharge.

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 III. INDUCTOR
1. INDUCTOR CIRCUIT
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Battery 1 12V
2 Inductor 1 1000000uH
3 VOM 1
4 Light 1
5 Test board 1
6 Wire
7 Switch 2

b) Circuit

c) Proteus

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When close switch 1

When close all switch

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After a while the voltage decreases and the light slowly turn low

After a while the voltage decreases and the light slowly turn low

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 Finally it turn to 0V and the light remain low light
d) Conclusion
Analysis from the diagram:
LED lights up brightly when only one switch is turned on: When only one switch is
turned on, the current flows directly through the LED, causing it to light up at its
maximum brightness.

LED dims when both switches are turned on: When both switches are turned on, the
current flowing through the LED will encounter some resistance due to the inductor.
The presence of the inductor in the circuit increases the impedance, reduces the
current, and dims the LED. This makes the LED dimmer than when only one switch is
turned on.

When switch 1 is on, switch 2 is off (special case): As soon as switch 2 is opened, the
inductor will discharge the stored magnetic energy. The current flows back through the
inductor and LED, causing the LED to light up for a short period of time and then turn
off completely.

Explanation of why the voltmeter reading gradually decreases:

Due to the weak power supply: The 12V power supply is too weak compared to the
1000000uH inductor, causing the process of storing electrical energy to pull down the
power supply, leading to a voltage drop and a gradual decrease when measured with a
multimeter.

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Self-induction: When using a voltmeter to measure the current in an inductor, a
phenomenon called self-induction occurs. This is because the inductor creates a
magnetic field when current flows through it.

When a current flows through an inductor, it creates a magnetic field around the
inductor. When this magnetic field changes over time, it generates a counter-
electromotive force (EMF) in the inductor, which opposes the change in current. This
causes a phenomenon called self-induction.

When using a voltmeter to measure the current in an inductor, the meter will inject a
small current to measure it, which changes the current flowing through the inductor.
As the current changes, the magnetic field in the inductor also changes, inducing a
counter-EMF in the inductor, which reduces the current. This causes the measured
current to gradually decrease until it reaches a stable value.

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 IV. DIODE
1. DIODE CIRCUIT
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Battery 1 12V
2 Resistor 4 1k (Ohm)
3 VOM 1
4 LED 2
5 Test board 1
6 Wire
7 Switch 1
8 Diode 2
9 Capacitor 1 1000uF

b) Circuit

Picture 1

25
 Picture 2
c) Proteus

Picture 1 running by Proteus

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 Picture 2 running by Proteus

d) Conclusion
Figure 1
• Led D1 lights up normally because it is installation in the right 30 direction
• Led D2 does not light up due to reverse installation
Figure 2
• Measure the voltage at the voltmeter set point when SW1 is closed: 5.81 V.
Measure the voltage at the voltmeter set point when SW1 is closed →open: 11.8V.

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2. ZENER
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Battery 1 12V
1K, 10K
2 Resistor 2
(Ohm)
3 VOM 2
4 Diode Zener 1 5,1V
5 Test board 1
6 Wire
7 Switch 1

b) Circuit

c) Proteus

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 When close the switch

When open the switch

d) Conclusion
When close the switch
VOM Value
1 5.16V
2 12V
When open the switch
VOM Value
1 10.9V
2 12V
A Zener diode is different from a normal diode in that when installed in reverse, if the
voltage in the circuit is greater than the rated voltage of the diode, the diode will still
let current through the circuit. When SW1 is closed, the current is divided among the
entire resistor circuit. and diode circuit and even though it is connected in reverse, the
voltage in the circuit is 5.01V greater than the rated voltage of the Zener diode so
current still flows through.

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3. VOLTAGE STABILIZER
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Battery 1 12V
104,1000uF,
2 Capacitor 4
470uF
3 VOM 2
4 Diode 1
5 Test board 1
6 Wire
7 U1 7805 1

b) Circuit

c) Proteus

d) Conclusion

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 VOM Value
1 5.01V
2 12V

The active voltage regulator circuit uses LM 7805 and capacitors to provide 5VDC
output voltage with a stable value.

Capacitors C1 and C2 are used to filter the input voltage for the Vi pin of the IC 7805.
Capacitor C1 is used to provide temporary voltage to the Vi pin when the source
voltage suddenly drops. Capacitor C2 is a ceramic capacitor so the impedance is large.
C2 has the effect of preventing the input source from increasing suddenly, causing the
input voltage waveform to have a sawtooth shape.

Capacitors C3 and C4 to filter the voltage supplied to the load are taken from the Vo
pin of IC 7805. Capacitor C3 is used to provide temporary voltage to the load when
the load voltage suddenly drops. Capacitor C4 has a large impedance. C4 has the effect
of filtering output voltage noise (noise is unwanted voltages that cause the output
voltage waveform to have a sawtooth shape).

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 V. TRANSISTOR
1. LED CONTROL BY TRANSISTOR
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Battery 1 12V
2 Resistor 6 1K (Ohm)
3 Transistor 2 NPN, PNP
4 LED 2
5 Test board 1
6 Wire
7 Switch 2

b) Circuit

Picture 1 and 2
c) Proteus

Picture 1 running by Proteus

This circuit utilizes an NPN transistor. When the switch is closed and the switch's base
current flows to the transistor's base (pin b), the main current passes through the LED,
which is grounded by the transistor's collector (pin C) and emitter (pin E), causing the
LED to illuminate.

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 Picture 2 running by Proteus
This circuit utilizes a PNP transistor. When the switch is closed, the transistor's base
(pin B) is grounded, allowing current to flow from the emitter (pin E) to the collector
(pin C) and reach the load, which is an LED, causing it to illuminate.
d) Conclusion
Based on the two given examples, we can make some specific observations about the
key differences between the two types of transistors:
NPN Transistors:
-NPN transistors require a positive voltage source connected to the base (pin B).Before
any base current is applied, a small positive current exists at the collector (pin
C).When the emitter (pin E) is grounded to the collector (pin C), a closed-loop current
is created, causing the LED connected to the collector to illuminate.
PNP Transistors:
- The base (pin B) serves as the control pin and is connected to ground. A positive
voltage source is applied to the emitter (pin E). When a base current signal is applied
to pin B and a positive voltage is present at the emitter, current flows from the emitter
to the collector, causing the LED connected to the collector to light up.

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 2. RELAY CONTROL BY TRANSISTOR
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Battery 1 12V
2 Resistor 6 1K (ôm)
3 Transistor 2 NPN, PNP
4 Relay 2 12V
5 Test board 1
6 Wire
7 Switch 2

b) Circuit

c) Proteus

Without the switch turned on, the base (B) of the NPN transistor remains unpowered,
consequently, the relay remains unpowered as well.

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Upon turning on the switch and applying voltage to the base, the relay coil is also
energized, causing the contacts to be attracted and closed.

The diagram above illustrates the circuit configuration when the transistor is not
powered.

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Upon switching the switch on, current flows to the base of the transistor, activating the
relay and causing it to engage the contacts.
d) Conclusion
NPN Transistors:
NPN transistors require a positive voltage applied to the base (B) to activate. When
this occurs, current flows from the positive supply through the relay, the transistor, and
back to the negative supply. Upon switching the switch on, current flows through the
base (B) of the transistor, enabling it to conduct. This allows current to flow from the
collector (C) pin of the transistor through the relay, completing the circuit and
energizing the relay. The relay's contacts close, allowing current to pass through the
controlled device.The diode connected across the relay serves to prevent back-EMF
(electromotive force) generated when the relay is de-energized. This back-EMF can
cause voltage spikes that could damage the transistor or other components. The diode
provides a path for this current to dissipate, protecting the circuit.

PNP Transistors:
PNP transistors require a negative voltage applied to the base (B) to activate. When
this occurs, current flows from the positive supply through the transistor to the relay
and back to the negative supply.Upon switching the switch on, current flows through
the negative base (B) of the transistor, enabling it to conduct. This allows current to
flow from the emitter (E) pin of the transistor through the relay, completing the circuit
and energizing the relay. The relay's contacts close, allowing current to pass through
the controlled device.Similar to NPN transistors, the diode connected across the relay
in PNP circuits serves to prevent back-EMF when the relay is de-energized, protecting
the transistor and other components from damage caused by voltage spikes.

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 VI. OP–AMP
1. OP-AMP CIRCUIT
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Battery 1 5V
2 Resistor 4 1K, 330 (ôm)
3 Rheostat 1 10K (ôm)
4 Photoresistor 1
5 Op-amp 2 LM358
6 Diode 2 3.3V
7 LED 2
8 Test board 1
9 Wire
10 Capacitor 1 10uF

b) Circuit

Picture 1 and 2
c) Proteus

37
 Picture 1 running by Proteus

Picture 2 running by Proteus

d) Conclusion
A dual operational amplifier (op-amp) integrated circuit (IC) contains two independent
op-amps in a single package. Each op-amp can function as a voltage amplifier,
comparator, or filter.

The LM358N op-amp operates based on the principle of voltage comparison.

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The input voltage is applied to the two non-inverting (+) and inverting (-) inputs.
The op-amp compares the voltage between these two inputs to the reference voltage
applied to the reference input.
If the input voltage is higher than the reference voltage, the output voltage will be high
(positive saturation).
If the input voltage is lower than the reference voltage, the output voltage will be low
(negative saturation).
If the input voltage is equal to the reference voltage, the output voltage will be 0V

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 VII. IC555
1. IC555 CIRCUIT
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Battery 1 12V
2 Resistor 6 1K,10K,470 (Ohm)
3 IC 555 1
4 LED 2
5 Capacitor 2 1uF
6 Test board 1
7 Wire
8 Button 1

b) Circuit

Picture 1 and 2
c) Proteus

Picture 1 running by Proteus

40
 Picture 2 running by Proteus
d) Conclusion

41
The internal resistance will operate as a voltage divider circuit, with the non-inverting
input connected to the top of the divider and the inverting input connected to the
bottom of the divider.
In most applications, the input control voltage cannot be adjusted, so it will be held
fixed at Vcc. Whenever the voltage at the threshold exceeds the control voltage, the
top comparator will set the flip-flop to its maximum high state, and the Q output of the
flip-flop will be connected to the base of the transistor, driving it into saturation.
To change the flip-flop output back to a low state, the threshold voltage needs to drop
below Vcc. When this happens, the output of the bottom comparator (LC) will
immediately be connected to the reset (R) of the flip-flop, forcing the output low and
cutting off the transistor, pulling pin 3 high.
However, this condition will remain independent of the activation input voltage, and
the bottom comparator can only force the flip-flop output low.
Since the reset (pin 4) output of the 555 IC will be low when active, this corresponds
to the transistor being in conduction. The transistor will continue discharging and the
power amplifier stage will output a low level.
In this state, it will remain until the reset input is driven high again. This allows
synchronizing or resetting the entire circuit. The Vcc supply is connected to the reset
when not in use.

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 B. POWER SUPPLY REPORT
POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT
a) Equipment
No. Devices Quantity Value
1 Alternator 1 220V,50HZ
2 Resistor 1 110 Ohm
3 Rheostat 1 1k Ohm
4 VOM 1
5 Diode Zener 1
6 Test board 1
7 Capacitor 2 1000uF
8 Capacitor 2 100uF
9 LM7815/7812/7805 1
10 LM371 1
11 Wire

b) Proteus

c) Conclusion
Power Supply Circuit Description:
The provided text describes a power supply circuit that converts 220VAC mains input
to regulated DC outputs of 5V, 9V, 12V, and a variable voltage.
Transformer: A step-down transformer (TRAN-2P2S) reduces the 220VAC input to
12VAC.
Rectifier: A full-wave bridge rectifier composed of four diodes converts the 12VAC to
pulsating DC.
Smoothing Capacitors: Two electrolytic capacitors (1000uF 25V 2A) filter the
pulsating DC, smoothing out the voltage ripples.

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Voltage Regulators:
- 7805: A 7805 voltage regulator provides a stable 5V output.
- 7809: A 7809 voltage regulator provides a stable 9V output.
- 7812: A 7812 voltage regulator provides a stable 12V output.
- LM317T: An LM317T variable voltage regulator provides an adjustable output
voltage from 1.25V to 37V.
Output Smoothing Capacitors: Additional electrolytic capacitors (100nF) are placed at
the output of each voltage regulator to further stabilize the DC voltage.
Input Voltage: 220VAC at 50Hz, with a peak voltage of 311.127V
Transformer: TRAN-2P2S, with a primary-to-secondary turns ratio of 336.11
Smoothing Capacitors: 1000uF 25V 2A electrolytic capacitors
Polarized Capacitors: 100nF polarized capacitors
Voltage Regulators: 7805, 7809, 7812, LM317T

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 C. TOPIC BATTERY REPORT
Research object:
The research object of battery technology encompasses a broad spectrum of
components, systems, and applications that collectively contribute to its multifaceted
significance in modern society.
At its core, researchers delve into the intricate mechanisms underlying battery
operation, probing the electrochemical reactions, material properties, and energy
storage processes that define their functionality. This exploration spans various types
of batteries, from traditional lead-acid and alkaline variants to cutting-edge lithium-
ion, solid-state, and flow batteries, each distinguished by its unique chemistry, design,
and performance characteristics. Beyond laboratory investigations, researchers extend
their focus to real-world applications across diverse sectors.
They scrutinize the role of batteries in powering portable electronics, enabling the
electrification of transportation through electric vehicles, bolstering grid stability and
resilience via large-scale energy storage solutions, and facilitating the integration of
renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power. By assessing factors such as
performance metrics, efficiency, durability, safety, and environmental impact across
different contexts and applications, researchers aim to propel battery technology
forward, pushing the boundaries of performance, sustainability, and cost-effectiveness.
The research object of battery technology thus embodies a rich tapestry of
scientific, engineering, economic, and societal dimensions, reflecting its pivotal role in
driving the technological innovations and energy transitions shaping the landscape of
the 21st century.

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Reasons for choosing topic:

This is a field of research that is rapidly advancing and attracting significant

attention from both the scientific and industrial communities. Batteries play a crucial
role in most modern electronic devices, from mobile phones to laptops, from electric
vehicles to large-scale energy storage systems. Therefore, research on batteries has
wide-ranging applications across various sectors, from industry to consumer
electronics.

Batteries are undergoing a period of rapid development, with the emergence of

new technologies such as lithium-ion, lithium-sulfur, and lithium-air. Researchers are
focusing on improving the performance, capacity, lifespan, and safety of these battery
types.

In the context of increasing awareness of climate change and the need to transition
to renewable energy sources, batteries play a crucial role in storing and distributing
energy from sources such as solar and wind power. The development of high-
performance and cost-effective batteries will contribute to the advancement of green
energy.

The ability to create commercial and economic value: Batteries represent a large
market with significant growth potential. The development of new battery types can
create significant business opportunities for enterprises and provide clean energy
solutions for society.

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Research aim:
Creating battery types with higher efficiency to improve usage time and energy
storage capacity, addressing the growing need for longer-lasting and more efficient
power sources.
Investigating approaches to increase the lifespan of batteries, minimizing the
degradation of performance and capacity after multiple charge and discharge cycles.
Developing new technologies to enhance the safety of batteries, including
measures to prevent risks of explosions and unwanted chemical reactions, ensuring
safety for users and the environment.
Exploring and developing cost-effective methods for battery production, aiming to
reduce manufacturing expenses and facilitate widespread adoption in both industrial
and consumer applications.
Investigating and applying emerging technologies in battery manufacturing,
including the utilization of new materials, improved structural designs, and the
development of advanced production processes to enhance battery performance and
scalability.
Exploring methods to optimize the recycling and reuse of battery components,
minimizing their environmental impact.

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Research method:

In summary, literature reviews, case studies, and video studies offer valuable
research methods for exploring the topic of batteries from multiple perspectives. A
literature review provides a comprehensive overview of existing knowledge and
research trends in battery technology, helping researchers identify key concepts, gaps,
and opportunities for further investigation.
Case studies offer insights into real-world applications, challenges, and
opportunities in battery research and development, enabling researchers to explore the
complex interplay of technological, economic, social, and policy factors shaping the
battery landscape. Video studies provide a unique perspective on battery technology
by analyzing human behavior, interactions, and cultural practices related to batteries,
offering insights into how people perceive, use, and interact with battery-powered
devices and technologies.
By integrating these research methods, researchers can gain a holistic
understanding of battery technology and its implications for society, the economy, and
the environment.

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CONTENT

I. OVERVIEW OF BATTERY:
1.1 What is a battery?

-A battery consists of multiple cells, and each cell comprises a positive terminal
known as the cathode and a negative terminal called the anode. It is important to note
that in contrast to how other devices typically designate anodes as positive terminals
and cathodes as negative terminals.

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- A typical cell usually maintains a voltage of around 1.5 volts across its terminals.
The amount of current that the cell can deliver depends on its size and chemical
composition. If a higher voltage or power is required, multiple cells can be combined
in series or parallel configurations. When cells are connected in series, their voltages
add up, resulting in a battery with a higher overall voltage. On the other hand,
connecting cells in parallel increases the battery's current output capacity. Figure 1
provides illustrations of different arrangements of cells.
1.2 Some special batteries:
Battery cells are composed of various chemical components and the choice of
these ingredients has significant implications for the overall performance of the
battery. Different cells are specifically engineered to fulfill particular requirements.
1.2.1 Cells for high open-circuit voltages:
The voltage produced by the battery when no load is connected. This is essential in
applications where a stable and substantial voltage is crucial. On the other hand, some
cells prioritize providing large current capacities, making them suitable for
applications that demand high levels of continuous current.
1.2.2 Cells for light-current:
Types of cells are tailored for light-current and intermittent applications. These
cells are suitable for devices that require occasional power, and they are designed to
have optimal performance under such conditions
1.2.3 Cells exhibit varying shelf lives:

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- Some cells have a long shelf life, meaning they can retain their charge for a
significant period when not in use. In contrast, certain cells have a poor shelf life and
tend to lose their charge relatively quickly.
- Battery types can be broadly categorized as primary and secondary batteries.
Primary batteries, such as carbon-zinc and alkaline batteries, are designed for one-time
use and cannot be recharged.
- Additionally, certain types of cells are tailored for light-current and intermittent
applications. These cells are suitable for devices that require occasional power, and
they are designed to have optimal performance under such conditions. Conversely,
there are cells designed for heavy-current and continuous-use applications, where a
consistent and high level of current output is necessary over extended periods.

II: HOW CELL WORKS:

2.1 The construction of the battery:

The construction of a battery consists of three main points is:

- Cathode: is often a metal oxide or a composite material containing transition metals.
Common cathode materials include lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), lithium iron

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phosphate (LiFePO4), and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO2),
among others, depending on the specific battery chemistry.
- Anode: is typically composed of a material that can undergo reversible redox
reactions, allowing it to store and release charge. The choice of anode material
depends on the specific battery chemistry and the desired performance characteristics.
For example, lithium-ion batteries are commonly made of a carbon-based material,
such as graphite
- Electrolyte: a system that includes liquid has functions movement of ions between
the cathode and anode, enabling the flow of electrical charge during battery operation.
2.2 The operating principle of battery:

Through the reactions of the electrode and electrolyte then different materials generate
electric current. Axit sulfuric reacts to electrode materials

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Axit sulfuric is decomposed by the flow of negative charge. The active ingredient is

converted to lead sulfate.

The operating recharge

The current will have electric current flows in reverse then Lead sulfate is converted

into lead and lead oxide. After that, the electrodes are reactivated

III: COMPARING PRIMARY BATTERIES:

3.1 Carbon Battery (Zinc-Carbon):

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This is the most common type of battery, most commonly sold today in the
Vietnamese market. Carbon batteries are a compound of zinc, zinc oxide and carbon.
With low production costs, they are sold cheaply and can be easily purchased
anywhere, suitable for low-power devices such as toys. , clock, remote... Common
types of Carbon batteries such as Rabbit Batteries, Swallow Batteries... and some other
imported batteries such as Toshiba, Maxell, Sony, Panasonic…

3.2 Zinc- chloride:

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Zinc batteries are not new, they have been around for a long time, but with newly
improved technology, their energy storage capacity has increased significantly. The
full English name of this battery is Zinc Air, the word zinc means the battery uses zinc
and Air means the zinc is oxidized in the environment of air (air).

The process of generating energy from a zinc battery is quite complicated, first an
electrode will be discharged, with the help of catalysts to produce hydroxyl ions in the
water solution. Electrodes made from zinc then oxidize and produce electrons to create
an electric current. Not only is it more efficient than Li-ion batteries, it is also much

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more economical and safer because it does not contain flammable or explosive
materials.

3.3 Zinc-akaline:

Alkaline batteries (IEC code: L) are a type of disposable battery that depends on the
reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide (Zn/MnO2).

Another type of alkaline battery is the rechargeable alkaline battery, which allows
specially designed batteries to be reused.

When compared to Leclanché zinc-carbon batteries or zinc chloride batteries, alkaline

batteries have a higher density and longer life, at the same voltage.

The alkaline battery is so named because it has an alkaline electrolyte, potassium

hydroxide, in place of the acidic ammonium chloride or zinc chloride electrolyte in
zinc-carbon batteries. Other battery systems also use alkaline electrolytes, but they use
different active substances for the electrodes.
3.4 Lithium battery (Li/Mno2):

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in Lithium is the best choice for you when using non-rechargeable batteries and need
high reliability and stable discharge level. Lithium batteries have high energy density,
light weight, operate well in a wide temperature range (from –40 to 60 degrees
Celsius), and have good preservation ability.
When using this battery, you should not mix it with other types of batteries because it
has very different discharge characteristics from other types of batteries. On the other
hand, because of the higher voltage (3 Volt / battery), this battery will become the
charging source for the remaining batteries with lower voltage.
Usually 3 Volt lithium nut batteries to replace smartkeys, remote keys for cars,
motorbikes, cmos batteries…
3.5 Mercury battery:

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Mercury batteries (other names: mercury oxide batteries) are a type of non-
rechargeable electric battery. Mercury batteries use a reaction between mercury oxide
and a zinc electrode in an alkaline electrolyte solution. The voltage during discharge is
fixed at 1.35 volts, and the capacity is much larger than a zinc battery of the same size.
Mercury batteries have been used in small forms in watches, hearing aids, cameras and
computers, and in larger forms for other applications.
3.6 Silver Oxide Battery:

The Silver Oxide battery is a zinc-silver oxide (Zn-Ag2O) primary battery that
operates based on a chemical reaction between zinc and a silver oxide compound.

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Silver oxide batteries have a small, flat design like a button, have a stable voltage,
have a long lifespan and are non-toxic. This type of battery is quite expensive and has
been used for wristwatches since the 20th century until now.

Silver Oxide batteries are very small in size with a diameter of only about 20mm, a
height of about 2.9mm to 3.2mm and a capacity of about 110mAh to 150mAh. Silver
Oxide batteries are quite commonly used in today's watch models. Battery life will
range from 1 to 2 years.
3.7 Zinc oxygen battery:

The zinc-air battery is a type of battery belonging to the metal-air family, operating on
the principle of zinc oxidation with air. This type of battery has a cheaper production
cost than lithium - ion batteries (an extremely popular type of battery used in
electronic devices today), stores 5 times more electricity than lithium ion batteries and
much more environmentally friendly.

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CONCLUTION
In conclusion, the study of batteries serves as a testament to the ingenuity and
determination of humanity in the face of pressing global challenges. From their
humble origins to their pivotal role in shaping the future of energy, batteries embody
the spirit of innovation and adaptation that has propelled human progress throughout
history.
As we navigate the complex terrain of climate change, resource scarcity, and
environmental degradation, batteries emerge as a beacon of hope, offering tangible
solutions to some of the most daunting challenges of our time. However, their
significance extends far beyond mere technological advancements; batteries represent
a paradigm shift in our collective consciousness, prompting us to rethink our
relationship with energy, consumption, and the environment.
As we strive to build a more sustainable and resilient future, it is imperative that
we approach the study of batteries with humility, curiosity, and a commitment to
ethical and equitable innovation. By embracing interdisciplinary collaboration,
responsible stewardship, and a long-term perspective, we can unlock the full potential
of batteries as catalysts for positive change, ushering in an era of clean, affordable, and
accessible energy for all.
Thus, the conclusion drawn from the exploration of batteries transcends the
confines of scientific inquiry; it implores us to harness the transformative power of
technology for the betterment of humanity and the planet we call home.

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