Non-destructive Testing

Definition of NDT (NDE)

The use of noninvasive
techniques to determine
the integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure
some characteristic of
an object.

i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.

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 What are Some Uses
of NDE Methods?

• Flaw Detection and Evaluation

• Leak Detection
• Location Determination
• Dimensional Measurements Fluorescent penetrant indication

• Structure and Microstructure Characterization

• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
• Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements
• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition
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Determination
 Why Nondestructive?

• Test piece too precious to be destroyed

• Test piece to be reuse after inspection
• Test piece is in service
• For quality control purpose
• Something you simply cannot do harm to, e.g.
fetus in mother’s uterus

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 When are NDE Methods Used?
There are NDE application at almost any stage
in the production or life cycle of a component.
–To assist in product development
–To screen or sort incoming materials
–To monitor, improve or control
manufacturing processes
–To verify proper processing such as
heat treating
–To verify proper assembly
–To inspect for in-service damage
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 Major types of NDT
• Detection of surface flaws
Visual
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Inspection
• Detection of internal flaws
Radiography
Ultrasonic Testing
Eddy current Testing

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 1. Visual Inspection
Most basic and common
inspection method.

Tools include
fiberscopes,
borescopes, magnifying
glasses and mirrors.

Portable video inspection

unit with zoom allows
inspection of large tanks
and vessels, railroad tank
cars, sewer lines.
Robotic crawlers permit
observation in hazardous or
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ducts, reactors, pipelines.
 2. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
2.1 Introduction
• A nondestructive testing method used for defect detection. Fast and relatively easy
to apply and part surface preparation is not as critical as for some other NDT
methods. – MPI one of the most widely utilized nondestructive testing methods.
• MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to detect
flaws in components. The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is that
the component being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material such as
iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are materials
that can be magnetized to a level that will allow the inspection to be affective.
• The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms such as castings, forgings,
and weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection for
determining a component's fitness-for-use. Some examples of industries that use
magnetic particle inspection are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical,
power generation, and aerospace industries. Underwater inspection is another area
where magnetic particle inspection may be used to test such things as offshore
structures and underwater pipelines.

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 2.2 Basic Principles
In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively
simple concept. It can be considered as a combination of
two nondestructive testing methods: magnetic flux leakage
testing and visual testing.
Consider a bar magnet. It has a magnetic field in and
around the magnet. Any place that a magnetic line of force
exits or enters the magnet is called a pole. A pole where a
magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a north pole
and a pole where a line of force enters the magnet is called
a south pole.

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Interaction of materials with an external
magnetic field
When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the
magnetic forces of the material's electrons will be affected.
This effect is known as Faraday's Law of Magnetic
Induction.
However, materials can react quite differently to the
presence of an external magnetic field. This reaction is
dependent on a number of factors such as the atomic and
molecular structure of the material, and the net magnetic
field associated with the atoms. The magnetic moments
associated with atoms have three origins. These are the
electron orbital motion, the change in orbital motion
caused by an external magnetic field, and the spin of the
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electrons.
 Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and
Ferromagnetic Materials
Diamagnetic metals: very weak and negative susceptibility
to magnetic fields. Diamagnetic materials are slightly
repelled by a magnetic field and the material does not retain
the magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
Paramagnetic metals: small and positive susceptibility to
magnetic fields. These materials are slightly attracted by a
magnetic field and the material does not retain the magnetic
properties when the external field is removed.
Ferromagnetic materials: large and positive susceptibility
to an external magnetic field. They exhibit a strong
attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain their
magnetic properties after the external field has been
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removed.
Ferromagnetic materials become magnetized when the
magnetic domains within the material are aligned. This can be
done by placing the material in a strong external magnetic field or
by passes electrical current through the material. Some or all of
the domains can become aligned. The more domains that are
aligned, the stronger the magnetic field in the material. When all
of the domains are aligned, the material is said to be magnetically
saturated. When a material is magnetically saturated, no
additional amount of external magnetization force will cause an
increase in its internal level of magnetization.

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Unmagnetized material Magnetized material
General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force
• Follow the path of least resistance
between opposite magnetic poles.
• Never cross one another.
• All have the same strength.
• Their density decreases (they
spread out) when they move from an
area of higher permeability to an
area of lower permeability.
•Their density decreases with
increasing distance from the poles.
•flow from the south pole to the
north pole within
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north pole to south pole in air.

When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two
complete bar magnets with magnetic poles on each end of
each piece will result. If the magnet is just cracked but not
broken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at
each edge of the crack.
The magnetic field exits the north
pole and reenters the at the south
pole. The magnetic field spreads out
when it encounter the small air gap
created by the crack because the air
can not support as much magnetic
field per unit volume as the magnet
can. When the field spreads out, it
appears to leak out of the material
and, thus, it is called a flux leakage
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field.
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will
be attracted to and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the
magnet but also at the poles at the edges of the crack. This cluster
of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is
the basis for magnetic particle inspection.

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 Magnetic Particle Inspection
• The magnetic flux line close to the surface of a
ferromagnetic material tends to follow the surface
profile of the material
• Discontinuities (cracks or voids) of the material
perpendicular to the flux lines cause fringing of
the magnetic flux lines, i.e. flux leakage
• The leakage field can attract other ferromagnetic
particles

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The magnetic particles form a
ridge many times wider than
the crack itself, thus making
the otherwise invisible crack
visible

Cracks just below the

surface can also be
revealed

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MPI is not sensitive to shallow
and smooth surface defects

The effectiveness of MPI

depends strongly on the
orientation of the crack
related to the flux lines

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 2.3 Testing Procedure of MPI
• Cleaning
• Demagnetization
• Contrast dyes (e.g. white paint for dark particles)
• Magnetizing the object
• Addition of magnetic particles
• Illumination during inspection (e.g. UV lamp)
• Interpretation
• Demagnetization - prevent accumulation of iron
particles or influence to sensitive instruments
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 • Indirect magnetization: using a strong external magnetic
field to establish a magnetic field within the component

(a) permanent magnets

(b) Electromagnets

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(c) coil shot
Some Standards for MPI Procedure
• British Standards
• BS M.35: Aerospace Series: Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection
of Materials and Components
• BS 4397: Methods for magnetic particle testing of welds
• ASTM Standards
• ASTM E 709-80: Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle
Examination
• ASTM E 125-63: Standard reference photographs for
magnetic particle indications on ferrous castings
• etc….

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 2.4 Advantages of MPI
• One of the most dependable and sensitive methods
for surface defects
• fast, simple and inexpensive
• direct, visible indication on surface
• unaffected by possible deposits, e.g. oil, grease or
other metals chips, in the cracks
• can be used on painted objects
• surface preparation not required
• results readily documented with photo or tape
impression

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 2.5 Limitations of MPI
• Only good for ferromagnetic materials
• sub-surface defects will not always be indicated
• relative direction between the magnetic field and
the defect line is important
• objects must be demagnetized before and after the
examination
• the current magnetization may cause burn scars on
the item examined

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Examples of visible dry magnetic particle indications

Indication of a crack in a saw blade Indication of cracks in a weldment

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Indication of cracks running between

Before and after inspection pictures of attachment holes in a hinge
 Examples of Fluorescent Wet Magnetic
Particle Indications
Magnetic particle wet fluorescent
indication of a cracks in a drive shaft

Magnetic particle wet

fluorescent
indication of a crack
in a bearing

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication

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of a cracks at a fastener hole
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3. Dye Penetrant Inspection
Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the
most widely used nondestructive evaluation
(NDE) methods. Its popularity can be attributed
to two main factors, which are its relative ease
of use and its flexibility. LPI can be used to
inspect almost any material provided that its
surface is not extremely rough or porous.
Materials that are commonly inspected using
LPI include metals (aluminum, copper, steel,
titanium, etc.), glass, many ceramic materials,
rubber, and plastics.

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 3.1 Introduction
• Liquid penetration inspection is a method that is used to reveal surface
breaking flaws by bleedout of a colored or fluorescent dye from the
flaw.
• The technique is based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into a
"clean" surface breaking flaw by capillary action.
• After a period of time called the "dwell," excess surface penetrant is
removed and a developer applied. This acts as a "blotter." It draws the
penetrant from the flaw to reveal its presence.
• Colored (contrast) penetrants require good white light while fluorescent
penetrants need to be used in darkened conditions with an ultraviolet
"black light". Unlike MPI, this method can be used in non-ferromagnetic
materials and even non-metals
• Modern methods can reveal cracks 2m wide
• Standard: ASTM E165-80 Liquid Penetrant Inspection Method
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 Why Liquid Penetrant Inspection?
• To improves the detectability of flaws
There are basically two ways that a
penetrant inspection process
makes flaws more easily seen.
(1) LPI produces a flaw indication
that is much larger and easier for
the eye to detect than the flaw
itself.
(2) LPI produces a flaw indication
The advantage that a liquid with a high level of contrast
penetrant inspection (LPI) offers between the indication and the
over an unaided visual inspection is background.
that it makes defects easier to see
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for the inspector.

 3.2 Basic processing steps of LPI
1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid
penetrant inspection is the surface preparation. The surface must be
free of oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that may prevent
penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may also require etching if
mechanical operations such as machining, sanding, or grit blasting have
been performed. These and other mechanical operations can smear the
surface of the sample, thus closing the defects.

2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned

and dried, the penetrant material is applied by spraying, brushing, or
immersing the parts in a penetrant bath.

3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient

time to allow as much penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to
seep into a defect. The times vary depending on the application,
penetrant materials used, the material, the form of the material being
inspected, and the type of defect being inspected. Generally, there is
no harm in using a longer penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant
is not allowed to dry.

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4. Excess Penetrant Removal: This is the most delicate part of the
inspection procedure because the excess penetrant must be removed
from the surface of the sample while removing as little penetrant as
possible from defects. Depending on the penetrant system used, this
step may involve cleaning with a solvent, direct rinsing with water, or
first treated with an emulsifier and then rinsing with water.

5. Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to the

sample to draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it
will be visible. Developers come in a variety of forms that may be
applied by dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or spraying (wet
developers).

6. Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the part

surface for a period of time sufficient to permit the extraction of the
trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This development time is
usually a minimum of 10 minutes and significantly longer times may be
necessary for tight cracks.

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7. Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting
to detect indications from any flaws which may be present.

8. Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean

the part surface to remove the developer from the parts that were
found to be acceptable.

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 Penetrant testing materials
A penetrant must possess a number of important characteristics. A
penetrant must
• spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to
provide complete and even coverage.
• be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary action.
• remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the
part.
• remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part
through the drying and developing steps.
• be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see
indications.
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must notDIVISION
TECHNICAL be harmful to the material being tested or the inspector.
 Penetrant Types
Dye penetrants Fluorescent penetrants
• The liquids are coloured so that • Liquid contain additives to
they provide good contrast give fluorescence under UV
against the developer • Object should be shielded
• Usually red liquid against white from visible light during
inspection
developer
• Fluorescent indications are
• Observation performed in easy to see in the dark
ordinary daylight or good indoor
illumination

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Standard: Aerospace Material
Specification (AMS) 2644.
 Further classification
According to the method used Based on the strength or
to remove the excess penetrant detectability of the indication
from the part, the penetrants that is produced for a number of
can be classified into: very small and tight fatigue
•Method A - Water Washable cracks, penetrants can be
classified into five sensitivity
•Method B - Post Emulsifiable, levels are shown below:
Lipophilic
•Level ½ - Ultra Low Sensitivity
•Method C - Solvent Removable
•Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
•Method D - Post Emulsifiable,
Hydrophilic •Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
•Level 3 - High Sensitivity
•Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity

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 Emulsifiers
When removal of the penetrant from the defect due to over-
washing of the part is a concern, a post emulsifiable
penetrant system can be used. Post emulsifiable penetrants
require a separate emulsifier to break the penetrant down
and make it water washable.
• Method B - Lipophilic Emulsifier,
• Method D - Hydrophilic Emulsifier
Lipophilic emulsification systems are
oil-based materials that are supplied
in ready-to-use form. Hydrophilic
systems are water-based and supplied
as a concentrate that must be diluted
with waterDIVISION
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 Developer
The role of the developer is to pull the trapped penetrant material
out of defects and to spread the developer out on the surface of
the part so it can be seen by an inspector. The fine developer
particles both reflect and refract the incident ultraviolet light,
allowing more of it to interact with the penetrant, causing more
efficient fluorescence. The developer also allows more light to be
emitted through the same mechanism. This is why indications are
brighter than the penetrant itself under UV light. Another function
that some developers performs is to create a white background so
there is a greater degree of contrast between the indication and
the surrounding background.

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 Developer Types
• Dry powder developer –the least sensitive but
inexpensive
• Water soluble – consist of a group of chemicals
that are dissolved in water and form a developer
layer when the water is evaporated away.
• Water suspendible – consist of insoluble developer
particles suspended in water.
• Nonaqueous – suspend the developer in a volatile
solvent and are typically applied with a spray gun.

Using dye and developer from different

manufacturers should be avoided.
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3.3 Finding Leaks with Dye Penetrant

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 3.4 Primary Advantages
• The method has high sensitive to small surface discontinuities.
• The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and
nonmetallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic, and conductive and
nonconductive materials may be inspected.
• Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected
rapidly and at low cost.
• Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
• Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and
constitute a visual representation of the flaw.
• Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
• Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively
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inexpensive.
 3.5 Primary Disadvantages
• Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
• Only materials with a relative nonporous surface can be inspected.
• Precleaning is critical as contaminants can mask defects.
• Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor
blasting must be removed prior to LPI.
• The inspector must have direct access to the surface being
inspected.
• Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
• Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
• Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
•ASTSChemical handling and proper disposal is required.
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 4. Radiography
Radiography involves the use of penetrating
gamma- or X-radiation to examine material's and
product's defects and internal features. An X-ray
machine or radioactive isotope is used as a High Electrical Potential
source of radiation. Radiation is directed
through a part and onto film or other media. The
resulting shadowgraph shows the internal Electrons
features and soundness of the part. Material
thickness and density changes are indicated as + -
lighter or darker areas on the film. The darker
areas in the radiograph below represent internal
voids in the component.
X-ray Generator or
Radioactive Source
Creates Radiation

Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Exposure Recording Device

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 4.1 Radiation sources
X-rays or gamma radiation is used
4.1.1 x-ray source
Properties and Generation of X-ray
• X-rays are electromagnetic
radiation with very short
wavelength ( 10-8 -10-12 m)
• The energy of the x-ray can
be calculated with the
equation
E = h = hc/
e.g. the x-ray photon with
wavelength 1Å has energy
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12.5 keV
 Production of X-rays
X-rays are produced
whenever high-speed
electrons
W collide with a metal
target.
A source of electrons – hot
W filament, a high
accelerating voltage
target X-rays Vacuum (30-50kV) between the
cathode (W) and the anode
and a metal target.
The anode is a water-cooled
block of Cu containing
desired target metal.

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 X-ray Spectrum
• A spectrum of x-ray is
produced as a result of the I
interaction between the k
incoming electrons and the characteristic
radiation
inner shell electrons of the continuous
radiation
target element.
k
• Two components of the
spectrum can be identified,
namely, the continuous
spectrum and the
characteristic spectrum.

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 Fast moving e- will then be deflected or
decelerated and EM radiation will be
emitted.
 The energy of the radiation depends on
the severity of the deceleration, which is
more or less random, and thus has a
continuous distribution.
 These radiation is called white
radiation or bremsstrahlung (German
word for ‘braking radiation’).

• If an incoming electron has sufficient

kinetic energy for knocking out an electron
of the K shell (the inner-most shell), it may
excite the atom to an high-energy state (K
state).
• One of the outer electron falls into the K-
shell vacancy, emitting the excess energy as
a x-ray photon -- K-shell emission
Radiation.
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 Absorption of x-ray
• All x-rays are absorbed to some extent in passing through
matter due to electron ejection or scattering.

• The absorption follows the equation

I0 , I
 
  x 

I  I 0 e  x  I 0 e 

where I is the transmitted intensity;

x is the thickness of the matter; x
 is the linear absorption coefficient (element dependent);
 is the density of the matter;
(/) is the mass absorption coefficient (cm2/gm).
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 4.1.2 Radio Isotope (Gamma) Sources
Emitted gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity. It
is the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, with a very short
wavelength of less than one-tenth of a nano-meter. Gamma rays are
essentially very energetic x-rays emitted by excited nuclei. They often
accompany alpha or beta particles, because a nucleus emitting those
particles may be left in an excited (higher-energy) state.
Man made sources are produced by introducing an extra neutron to atoms
of the source material. As the material rids itself of the neutron, energy is
released in the form of gamma rays. Two of the more common industrial
Gamma-ray sources are Iridium-192 and Colbalt-60. These isotopes emit
radiation in two or three discreet wavelengths. Cobalt 60 will emit a 1.33
and a 1.17 MeV gamma ray, and iridium-192 will emit 0.31, 0.47, and 0.60
MeV gamma rays.
Advantages of gamma ray sources include portability and the ability to
penetrate thick materials in a relativity short time.
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Disadvantages include shielding requirements and safety considerations.
 4.2 Film Radiography
The part is placed between the
radiation source and a piece of film.
The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense
area will stop more of the radiation.
• The film darkness (density) will
vary with the amount of radiation
reaching the film through the
X-ray film test object.
• Defects, such as voids, cracks,
inclusions, etc., can be detected.
= less exposure
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= more exposure
Top view of developed film
 Contrast and Definition
Contrast
The first subjective criteria for determining radiographic quality is
radiographic contrast. Essentially, radiographic contrast is the
degree of density difference between adjacent areas on a
radiograph.

It is essential that sufficient

contrast exist between the defect
of interest and the surrounding
area. There is no viewing
technique that can extract
information that does not
already exist in the original
radiograph

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low kilovoltage high kilovoltage

 Definition
Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from
one density to another.

good poor
High definition: the detail portrayed in the radiograph is equivalent to
physical change
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produced a faithful visual reproduction.

 4.3 Areas of Application
• Can be used in any situation when one wishes to view
the interior of an object
• To check for internal faults and construction defects,
e.g. faulty welding
• To ‘see’ through what is inside an object
• To perform measurements of size, e.g. thickness
measurements of pipes

Standard:
ASTM
–ASTM E94-84a Radiographic Testing
–ASTM E1032-85 Radiographic Examination of Weldments
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–ASTM E1030-84 Radiographic Testing of Metallic Castings
 Radiographic Images

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 4.4 Limitations of Radiography
• There is an upper limit of thickness through
which the radiation can penetrate, e.g. -ray
from Co-60 can penetrate up to 150mm of steel
• The operator must have access to both sides of
an object
• Highly skilled operator is required because of
the potential health hazard of the energetic
radiations
• Relative expensive equipment

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 4.5 Examples of radiographs

Cracking can be detected in a radiograph only the crack is

propagating in a direction that produced a change in thickness that
is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and
often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appearing as
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"tails" on inclusions or porosity.

Burn through (icicles) results when too much heat causes
excessive weld metal to penetrate the weld zone. Lumps of
metal sag through the weld creating a thick globular condition
on
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TECHNICAL of the weld. On a radiograph, burn through
DIVISION

appears as dark spots surrounded by light globular areas.

Gas porosity or blow holes Sand inclusions and dross
are caused by accumulated are nonmetallic oxides,
gas or air which is trapped by appearing on the radiograph
the metal. These as irregular, dark blotches.
discontinuities are usually
smooth-walled rounded
cavities of a spherical,
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elongated or flattened shape.
5. Ultrasonic Testing
5.1 Introduction
In ultrasonic testing, high-frequency sound
waves are transmitted into a material to
detect imperfections or to locate changes
in material properties.
The most commonly used
ultrasonic testing technique is
pulse echo, whereby sound is
introduced into a test object and
reflections (echoes) from internal
imperfections or the part's
geometrical surfaces are returned
to a receiver. The time interval
between the transmission and
reception of pulses give clues to
the internal structure of the
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material.
Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)
High frequency sound waves are introduced into a
material and they are reflected back from surfaces or
flaws.
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and
inspector can visualize a cross section of the specimen
f
showing the depth of features that reflect sound.

initial
pulse

back surface
echo
crack
echo

crack

0 2 4 6 8 10 plate
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Oscilloscope, or flaw
detector screen
 Generation of Ultrasonic Waves
• Piezoelectric transducers are used for converting
electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and vice
versa
• Commonly used piezoelectric materials are quartz,
Li2SO4, and polarized ceramics such as BaTiO3 and
PbZrO3.
• Usually the transducers generate ultrasonic waves
with frequencies in the range 2.25 to 5.0 MHz

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 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation
Wave Propagation Direction
• Longitudinal or
compression waves
• Shear or transverse
waves
• Surface or Rayleigh
waves
• Plate or Lamb
waves

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Symmetrical Asymmetrical
• Longitudinal waves
• Similar to audible sound
waves
• the only type of wave
which can travel through
liquid
• Shear waves
• generated by passing the
ultrasonic beam through
the material at an angle
• Usually a plastic wedge is
used to couple the
transducer to the material

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• Surface waves
• travel with little attenuation in the direction of propagation but
weaken rapidly as the wave penetrates below the material
surface
• particle displacement follows an elliptical orbit

• Lamb waves
• observed in relatively thin plates only
• velocity depends on the thickness of the material and frequency

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 5.2 Equipment & Transducers
5.2.1 Piezoelectric Transducers

The active element of most acoustic

transducers is piezoelectric ceramic.
This ceramic is the heart of the
transducer which converts electrical
to acoustic energy, and vice versa.
A thin wafer vibrates with a
wavelength that is twice its thickness,
therefore, piezoelectric crystals are
cut to a thickness that is 1/2 the
desired radiated wavelength. Optimal
impedance matching is achieved by a Direction of wave
matching
ASTS layer with thickness 1/4
TECHNICAL DIVISION propagation
wavelength.
 Characteristics of Piezoelectric Transducers
Transducers are classified into groups according to the application.
• Contact: are used for direct
contact inspections. Coupling
materials of water, grease, oils, or
commercial materials are used to
smooth rough surfaces and
prevent an air gap between the
transducer and the component Contact type
inspected.
• Immersion: do not contact the
component. These transducers
are designed to operate in a
liquid environment and all
connections are watertight.
Wheel and squirter transducers
are examples of such immersion
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applications.
immersion
• Dual Element: contain two independently
operating elements in a single housing.
One of the elements transmits and the
other receives. Dual element transducers
are very useful when making thickness
measurements of thin materials and when
inspecting for near surface defects.
Dual element
• Angle Beam: and wedges are typically
used to introduce a refracted shear wave
into the test material. Transducers can be
purchased in a variety of fixed angles or in
adjustable versions where the user
determines the angles of incident and
refraction. They are used to generate
surface waves for use in detecting defects
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on the surface of a component.
Angle beam
5.2.2 Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMATs)
When a wire is placed near the surface of an electrically conducting object
and is driven by a current at the desired ultrasonic frequency, eddy currents
will be induced in a near surface region of the object. If a static magnetic
field is also present, these eddy currents will experience Lorentz forces of
the form
F=JxB
F is a body force per unit volume, J is the induced dynamic current density,
and B is the static magnetic induction.

EMAT: Couplant free transduction allows operation without contact at

elevated temperatures and in remote locations. The coil and magnet
structure can also be designed to excite complex wave patterns and
polarization's that would be difficult to realize with fluid coupled
piezoelectric probes (Lamb and Shear waves). In the inference of material
properties from precise velocity or attenuation measurements, use of
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EMATs can eliminate errors associated with couplant variation, particularly
in contact measurements.
 5.3 Ultrasonic Test Methods
• Fluid couplant or a fluid bath is needed for effective
transmission of ultrasonic from the transducer to the
material
• Straight beam contact search unit project a beam of
ultrasonic vibrations perpendicular to the surface
• Angle beam contact units send ultrasonic beam into the
test material at a predetermined angle to the surface

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5.3.1Normal Beam Inspection
Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can
determine the location of a discontinuity in
a part or structure by accurately
measuring the time required for a short
ultrasonic pulse generated by a
transducer to travel through a thickness of
material, reflect from the back or the
surface of a discontinuity, and be returned
to the transducer. In most applications,
this time interval is a few microseconds or
less.
d = vt/2 or v = 2d/t
where d is the distance from the surface
to the discontinuity in the test piece, v is
the velocity of sound waves in the
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material, and t is the measured round-trip
transit time.
 5.3.2 Angles beam inspection
Angle Beam Transducers and wedges are typically used to
introduce a refracted shear wave into the test material. An
angled sound path allows the sound beam to come in from
the side, thereby improving detectability of flaws in and
around welded areas.

• Can be used for testing

flat sheet and plate or
pipe and tubing
• Angle beam units are
designed to induce
vibrations in Lamb,
longitudinal, and shear
wave modes
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 The geometry of the sample below allows the sound
beam to be reflected from the back wall to improve
detectability of flaws in and around welded areas.

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 Crack Tip Diffraction
When the geometry of the part is relatively uncomplicated and the
orientation of a flaw is well known, the length (a) of a crack can be
determined by a technique known as tip diffraction. One common
application of the tip diffraction technique is to determine the length
of a crack originating from on the backside of a flat plate.
When an angle beam transducer
is scanned over the area of the
flaw, the principle echo comes
from the base of the crack to
locate the position of the flaw
(Image 1). A second, much
weaker echo comes from the tip
of the crack and since the
distance traveled by the
ultrasound is less, the second
signal appearsDIVISION
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the scope (Image 2).
Crack height (a) is a function of the
ultrasound velocity (v) in the
material, the incident angle (2)
and the difference in arrival times
between the two signal (dt).
The variable dt is really the
difference in time but can easily be
converted to a distance by dividing
the time in half (to get the one-way
travel time) and multiplying this
value by the velocity of the sound
in the material. Using trigonometry
an equation for estimating crack
height from these variables can be
derived.
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 Surface Wave Contact Units
• With increased
incident angle so that
the refracted angle is
90°
• Surface waves are
influenced most by
defects close to the
surface
• Will travel along
gradual curves with
little or no reflection
from the curve

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 5.4 Data Presentation
Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed
in a number of different formats. The three most
common formats are know in the NDT world as
A-scan, B-scan and C-scan presentations.
Each presentation mode provides a different
way of looking at and evaluating the region of
material being inspected. Modern computerized
ultrasonic scanning systems can display data in
all three presentation forms simultaneously

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 5.4.1 A-Scan
The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received
ultrasonic energy as a function of time. The relative amount of
received energy is plotted along the vertical axis and elapsed
time (which may be related to the sound energy travel time
within the material) is display along the horizontal axis.

Relative discontinuity size

can be estimated by
comparing the signal
amplitude obtained from an
unknown reflector to that
from a known reflector.
Reflector depth can be
determined by the position
of the signal on the
horizontal sweep. ASTS TECHNICAL DIVISION
 5.4.2 B-Scan
The B-scan presentations is a profile (cross-sectional) view of the a
test specimen. In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the
sound energy is displayed along the vertical and the linear position
of the transducer is displayed along the horizontal axis. From the B-
scan, the depth of the reflector and its approximate linear
dimensions in the scan direction can be determined.

The B-scan is typically

produced by establishing a
trigger gate on the A-scan.
Whenever the signal intensity
is great enough to trigger the
gate, a point is produced on
the B-scan. The gate is
triggered by the sound
reflecting from the backwall
of the specimen and by
smaller reflectors within the ASTS TECHNICAL DIVISION
material.
 5.4.3 C-Scan:
The C-scan presentation provides a plan-type view of the location
and size of test specimen features. The plane of the image is parallel
to the scan pattern of the transducer.
C-scan presentations are produced with an
automated data acquisition system, such as a
computer controlled immersion scanning
system. Typically, a data collection gate is
established on the A-scan and the amplitude
or the time-of-flight of the signal is recorded
at regular intervals as the transducer is
scanned over the test piece. The relative
signal amplitude or the time-of-flight is
displayed as a shade of gray or a color for
each of the positions where data was
recorded. The C-scan presentation provides
an image of the features that reflect and
scatter the sound within and on the surfaces
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of the test piece.
High resolution scan can produce very detailed images.
Both images were produced using a pulse-echo
techniques with the transducer scanned over the head
side in an immersion scanning system.

Gray scale image produced using Gray scale image produced using the
the sound reflected from the front sound reflected from the back surface
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surface of the coin of the coin (inspected from “heads” side)
 6. Eddy Current Testing
Electrical currents are generated in a conductive material by an
induced alternating magnetic field. The electrical currents are
called eddy currents because the flow in circles at and just
below the surface of the material. Interruptions in the flow of
eddy currents, caused by imperfections, dimensional changes,
or changes in the material's conductive and permeability
properties, can be detected with the proper equipment.
• Eddy current testing can be used on all electrically conducting
materials with a reasonably smooth surface.
• The test equipment consists of a generator (AC power supply), a
test coil and recording equipment, e.g. a galvanometer or an
oscilloscope
• Used for crack detection, material thickness measurement
(corrosion detection), sorting materials, coating thickness
measurement, metal detection, etc.
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 6.1 Principle of Eddy Current Testing (I)

• When a AC passes through a

test coil, a primary magnetic
field is set up around the coil
• The AC primary field induces
eddy current in the test
object held below the test coil
• A secondary magnetic field
arises due to the eddy current

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 Mutual Inductance
(The Basis for Eddy Current Inspection)
The magnetic field produced by circuit 1
will intersect the wire in circuit 2 and
create current flow. The induced current
flow in circuit 2 will have its own
magnetic field which will interact with
the magnetic field of circuit 1. At some
point P on the magnetic field consists of
a part due to i1 and a part due to i2. These
fields are proportional to the currents
producing them.

The flux B through circuits as the sum of two parts.

B1 = L1i1 + i2M
B2 = L2i2 + i1M
L1 and L2 represent the self inductance of each of the coils. The constant
M, called the mutual inductance of the two circuits and it is dependent on
the geometrical arrangement of both
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TECHNICAL DIVISION
Principle of Eddy Current Testing (II)

• The strength of the

secondary field depends on
electrical and magnetic
properties, structural
integrity, etc., of the test
object
• If cracks or other
inhomogeneities are
present, the eddy current,
and hence the secondary
field is affected.

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Principle of Eddy Current Testing (III)
• The changes in the secondary
field will be a ‘feedback’ to
the primary coil and affect
the primary current.

• The variations of the primary

current can be easily
detected by a simple circuit
which is zeroed properly
beforehand

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 6.2 Eddy Current Instruments
Voltmeter
Coil's
Coil magnetic field

Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents

Conductive
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material
 Depth of Penetration
Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes
perpendicular to the magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to the
coil's winding and flow is limited to the area of the inducing magnetic field.
Eddy currents concentrate near the surface adjacent to an excitation coil
and their strength decreases with distance from the coil as shown in the
image. Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth. This
phenomenon is known as the skin effect.

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The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e, or about 37%
of the surface density, is called the standard depth of penetration ().
 Three Major Types of Probes

• The test coils are

commonly used in
three configurations
• Surface probe
• Internal bobbin
probe
• Encircling probe

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 6.3 Result presentation

The impedance plane

diagram is a very useful
way of displaying eddy
current data. The strength
of the eddy currents and
the magnetic permeability
of the test material cause
the eddy current signal on
the impedance plane to
react in a variety of
different ways.
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 6.4 Applications
•Crack Detection
•Material Thickness
Measurements
•Coating Thickness
Measurements
•Conductivity Measurements For:
•Material Identification
•Heat Damage Detection
•Case Depth Determination
•Heat Treatment
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 Surface Breaking Cracks
Eddy current inspection is an excellent
method for detecting surface and near
surface defects when the probable defect
location and orientation is well known.

Successful detection requires:

1. A knowledge of probable defect type, position, and
orientation.
2. Selection of the proper probe. The probe should fit the
geometry of the part and the coil must produce eddy
currents that will be disrupted by the flaw.
3. Selection of a reasonable probe drive frequency. For
surface flaws, the frequency should be as high as
possible for maximum resolution and high sensitivity. In the lower image, there is a
For subsurface flaws, lower frequencies are necessary flaw under the right side of
to get the required depth of penetration.
ASTS TECHNICAL DIVISION the coil and it can be see that
the eddy currents are weaker
in this area.
 Applications with Encircling Probes

• Mainly for automatic production

control
• Round bars, pipes, wires and
similar items are generally
inspected with encircling probes
• Discontinuities and dimensional
changes can be revealed
• In-situ monitoring of wires used
on cranes, elevators, towing
cables is also an useful
application

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Applications with Internal Bobbin
Probes

• Primarily for
examination of tubes
in heat exchangers
and oil pipes
• Become increasingly
popular due to the
wide acceptance of
the philosophy of
preventive
maintenance

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Applications with Internal
Bobbin Probes

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 6.5 Advantages of ET
•Sensitive to small cracks and other defects
•Detects surface and near surface defects
•Inspection gives immediate results
•Equipment is very portable
•Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
•Minimum part preparation is required
•Test probe does not need to contact the part
•Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive
materials
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 Limitations of ET
•Only conductive materials can be inspected
•Surface must be accessible to the probe
•Skill and training required is more extensive than other
techniques
•Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
•Reference standards needed for setup
•Depth of penetration is limited
•Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the
probe coil winding and probe scan direction are
undetectable
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7. Common Application of NDT

•Inspection of Raw Products

•Inspection Following Secondary
Processing
•In-Services Damage Inspection

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Inspection of Raw Products
• Forgings,
• Castings,
• Extrusions,
• etc.

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Inspection Following
Secondary Processing
• Machining
• Welding
• Grinding
• Heat treating
• Plating
• etc.

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 Inspection For
In-Service Damage

• Cracking
• Corrosion
• Erosion/Wear
• Heat Damage
• etc.

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 Power Plant Inspection
Periodically, power plants are
shutdown for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current
probes into heat exchanger
tubes to check for corrosion
damage.

Pipe with damage Probe

Signals produced
by various
amounts of
corrosion
thinning.

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 Wire Rope Inspection
Electromagnetic devices
and visual inspections are
used to find broken wires
and other damage to the
wire rope that is used in
chairlifts, cranes and other
lifting devices.

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 Storage Tank Inspection
Robotic crawlers
use ultrasound to
inspect the walls of
large above ground
tanks for signs of
thinning due to
corrosion.

Cameras on
long
articulating
arms are used
to inspect
underground
storage tanks
for damage.
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 Aircraft Inspection
• Nondestructive testing is used
extensively during the
manufacturing of aircraft.
• NDT is also used to find cracks
and corrosion damage during
operation of the aircraft.
• A fatigue crack that started at
the site of a lightning strike is
shown below.

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 Jet Engine Inspection
• Aircraft engines are overhauled
after being in service for a period
of time.
• They are completely disassembled,
cleaned, inspected and then
reassembled.
• Fluorescent penetrant inspection
is used to check many of the parts
for cracking.

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 Crash of United Flight 232
Sioux City, Iowa, July 19, 1989
A defect that went
undetected in an
engine disk was
responsible for
the crash of
United Flight 232.

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 Pressure Vessel Inspection
The failure of a pressure vessel
can result in the rapid release of
a large amount of energy. To
protect against this dangerous
event, the tanks are inspected
using radiography and
ultrasonic testing.

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 Rail Inspection
Special cars are used to
inspect thousands of miles
of rail to find cracks that
could lead to a derailment.

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 Bridge Inspection
• The US has 578,000
highway bridges.
• Corrosion, cracking and
other damage can all
affect a bridge’s
performance.
• The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted in
loss of 47 lives.
• Bridges get a visual
inspection about every 2
years.
• Some bridges are fitted
with acoustic emission
sensors that “listen” for
sounds of cracks growing.
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Pipeline Inspection
NDT is used to inspect pipelines
to prevent leaks that could
damage the environment. Visual
inspection, radiography and
electromagnetic testing are some
of the NDT methods used.

Remote visual inspection using

a robotic crawler.

Magnetic flux leakage inspection.

This device, known as a pig, is
placed in the pipeline and collects
data on the condition of the pipe as it
is pushed along by whatever is being
transported.
Radiography
ASTS TECHNICAL DIVISION of weld joints.