:...... Cemider...a..Re..X).

=A CoS C4t+o)
whese..A...and.4eare...Cnstants...and.O.
unitem.rande vanjale..veg..C-n.I]
Show hat.xE).js. WSs.

O)n..In.0des..to..prove.Aou.he. -ven..R:P:..xE )..a...

a wide- Sense stahonay...p.xoceLA....it.is..cceJary.
to.shewAat.
)..he..Ensemole.. meam is in dependent ot tim
3)Aucorpn fune?...krnc..tine.derene.Ctata)
CGiven.-...Ran dom. proces..xcE)..ACos Cwetto).
9....umijom..sendem.vaniable....over..C-nT].

..PE.s.give.y
Coiven,
..5..0.. Asewhere
to)

We kmow thut Hae area umder the PDF crve

21

2|
elsewhere
2..0ktaining. the...sasemd!e...asge..
(he..ensemble. me89.is...1vn.y.,.

.......Acos (wet+), 1. de.

21

21

A
....X.Q.
27

-P...
D.o..odtain. he..autocercelahionune".

Raalttt).ExCt)...xCttz).

do

2
. . e s .(wzt t6a 4ett.ez+6).
2

.cese. cos3.=...ces.lat6).t..CoS.6-BD......

A..casla).[n.-tn)].
-Acosta)
 Hexe...L=ttd.
Constam and auto corrn e
As He mean od XE) is

-precels is. WSs.

(wetto)
(2.)Show. Rat he..Rip.x)ACosdistibuted
Wheneo.is a.R.
in he
Co, Gn).4...9.. WSS.

ara = 1

ko27.=...1

21

Sin. (2¢t.t )J
 BO
8. Two...tandern. p.Coceu...XC6)...am..N6).an..qiu en.bys
XCEJ = A Cos (wt+ e)..CE)=.ASin Cot.to)
cohere A amod ane Comstant amd 9 is a nandem
Nariale..haoiny..a.4nitam..distributien..oNeA Co.2n].
Eind the..<ross. correlaien....KE) 9nd.G).

...D.. .2he...cross.-. corcs.iuen

= E ACas(wt t) .A Sin (wt + 0zto)
-A.c.Sin C2wt.+.2a.t.)SinC. -4w7].
2

2 2

21

2
A."(Sin.Caak.t.29t.uz).t.. ine)do

2
2T1

..A.imob
2

Cross Correlaben ot nelfon Y and NcE).wllbe.

and chee amer.

 Grgodr frocas
.fasHe.obseavahien.intd.ss....tim.e..e.
de.ualue..f.he..sample..uns"..E).is.iven
(x<2dk..
2..ke..mean.alue....he...im..ag.g"o..

Condtions..fo..Ergodieity.in..mAl i.
<amiens.are oe.he.mean
....he...Paoceus..x)ia.said..to...

..Ihe.valuz.f.kime. ayg.ma).be cemes.eyanl. to

theensembk ay.mx...Qhen. the.oksevalica.. intevel
.I.ia..tending tointnity..
Rim..ms(r).:Ma.
T0

2)..he...Jarians..f..matr)...shicheis...kreated.s4..a.
fandem..yariable..wilbecome.zere..citk..the..bseJatea,.
inienval.I.tendiy..ta.9. appraches ZerO
Um...ar. Cmatr)].=..
Tim.ayg.Qutocornfnc?:
Time.au1..autocor?.tun..RyaltaT). is.dehinad.
feohe Sample funx(E) and oven the obsevahon ntevad
a..ollgws:

Condition. o...e9odiuty..n...the.euocerrn.Tune)
¬.ke.proses. x(E).Js.said..te..be..ergoie.ine...
.cutoserrm.funs.if. ts...elkwi..edina.
Saiefiecd.
Lim...Ryalzt)..de).
autocor fuy beomes ey aal to he auoce ry
Tine..awge.
to oo

.im..JarCRt.IJ:s.
T
’ That mean he varjane wheh de a

..obs.eovahien.nkeavl.J..temsig- to.9.
 let
A a
CAPectaien. wsS through
dZ e.is.a. As Transmicsion
fop.wSS proces
a
Com
Vo xe)
-0 luth
-ht Linean
inean is. Impuse o
RP.
.. app!ied a
dummy.vaniakle.e . Intefpaen.Maniobk. me
TiRandom
Lt), gpereka,.we.cán
t-z)Jt.
hlzi) asile.o.
Invariant
mea Proces
rspnde
GTI..ble,
should CLTI)
Change
ef
be fle
oder.. file
he.inpuye
¢ cona
e
is
hity
 sys iseua to
meam he p Ramdom proces Gd LT1
e.procuct. ot..meAM...ap.nande. prace..ACE).4nA..PS.

...sApens.4..ear.

tims...
Where t amd..a..denoles.two vales t
at ohica.he e..prSes. 0s. .gbseved.

-00

..edet...f..aa2dz..Bxxltuty.una).

A Let z b-4, time dit-4t2

 If
hut..Blka
tenoe.s
Vadue..o...0/p....a9derm.proces..ie.
ty..putiy.=0..in.he.cqp,. .MeAD.squATE.
-jiven he
E.Cqea].E...Ryyle).
Mearn.squate.Ualue..f...p..proces.. p
to
a
gglo)..E.Cyl.
Aka..is.9..stalemap..proce4....
staleLTI
Conutantvalue..
be..a.sttenar..proceu.
iwl.abo.
ad To praceld a Keolcmitmocdelatedthe
belh
hegfe, Gncenhratcod
we fllsThe CSSmally prouilsonkaThe Norrow Erplaim
ampliktoe noise
amale spechl
appears fnd cKceLsi Receives
clled Baod narrow
wik hat ve
the abo receus undistoed,
componentE
ohon a and gomelhat aCompenendy nos reproceuin bap
modulatet Noise
a
utnarrow
efkts pha sampe e
some hoouh - no'se
aypearing
bandnois but CS
of ot
Undlae
Simular
olulates une? malbad not ane
je parrowband eceld the
clalcsunlly
m, arro tomE) at he so
aimnindgs represen
wbane a feg vecele Jaage
He
slouly
eedWe
a hawingginewave includes
ofp
nolue such tfe) 1oise ad
Darrowkan DATE PAGENO.
Faliomlirg ain o to
sm such
n oth ot a ic some
fhe
 Jt
Represenahon cnvelepe
phase e
We is (Narrowbamd
amd Compenenk.
In- heDepending
nat)
Here mey centereel phalc
Compenenknarrow
represent noie represenabons
band upm
norrowband qnd o
m Saomyle clld He
n-phac > is
Karrew
auadrature narrow
tequeny fe a nose isapphcatien
n2 21fe nlts ane? roandem the
noise ot
band o bameproces:jn-phaje
n nE) dehned narrow
pesent stand omponens norrow ot
goise noise, the
cat have intemy band-nol Ine
qeadrahreand
fm bandwitk band anple rat,
n n
f teams noice temstunsin
s nt CCanonical ofa Here
nlt y o are
2R tyTt, le pair
f) cenoe
 quadratureand
The Let Ertraettoy
sckemeThe Componenk of Cempenents
Jncmbng Re
tso d
qre
nt)
lowpaly in-
narro -23inoct
Comemenb s 2loswet arrowbamd phase
hus cw
baoe tllers
extTated carriers
Sineamd amd
slnol Cilteó pa stow
at passedare wed
the are quadrpraeyakure
o i E) the
In-phase ided f
is
LR
hs
Op muliplieaare oenerathon
Ihe Componenk
quadratureand
e
¢
he
mphase
is of
adde,
c
wilhn,lt) Coset a
nls) Narrouwb
au coine and
rreubA annd
quadrature
am
Aelser procees
Block
aine
ndare
procesadded,carrjer, phese jrom
DATE
ss
is malt
reapeciuly
A in-phate
taiad he cmpsens
 Reprekenkaon f narrou band moise in terms o
svelope and phse Compomenls
he narrow bond nle) Can be represened in feons
of enebpe and phase Comnents as -

re) - emuelpe nt)

YE)=phase ef mE)

I is assumed that Ke) amad yE) boh ane sampk untins

tandem procejes

Shous Rample tun cliens ef narroubamd soise

Jn Bg2 succesis peak od enyebpe rt) are

intemal apaat,

When sample tunetion o the narrowband proces

0s vjewed am osclloscepe the elseved wavelm
ppears sisoid of radom emnplitude aDd phase
for this reasm the narrowbamd no)ce AE) s

Comenenty reprntd - the

 PAGE No.
DATE :

Properhes f inphasce and qusdrahue jphase compenonl

meoya Vqmfohco
Same

4(¬) ano noct) are uncerrelaled wiA each chen

3 alo

dentitýes felaled to tRat ne) by -

oherwise

Here, Snylt) psD inphase component

pSD 7 q uadraue Comnen
PSD o the narrow bamd noisc
T n6) is stabem 44 them nlt) and alt) are jpint
shatiomaay
Aicker noise - Also called / oise (one by f).
It occurs in almost all active clectroie devices att
negr dc and a eo Hz and is
wually wcak and neglqike above kiz.
The PSD of this Toie is approximately
Pes f> kHz he powep spcctrum 0s lal

Flicker noise is Carriers Hat are

pandomly trapped and releAed b] w the intefaces of
tao mate niale This phenmemen typically
Semionductes Hhat ane used in ampliiers to receod
elettrical aigne
I is alaa called asr Pink noise

lrasit time Noise

"Transit time Dojses are high rey noite
Thy are obsemvedn fhe semicomductoo devices
tuhen He transiE time of a chamge Carriep whle
cossing a junchion is inilag to he timeperiod
o tha siq nal
Trans it ime nelse OACArs in tranuistos, and in
deuices

Parihem moise
’ Paothen nolse ohenees current ha a
dside b/w two os more pahs It resules facn.
the randem luehations im the diuisiem
 PAGE H
DATE

Dioisio cument
Wheh Causes
Cmitee, dale, col
lette
ss noisy han
le
dicde cwbula be
T Cnpaned,

Miscelan eous Nojs

Resistance cue to bass,
Noises
Noise ue to
emitte 4d aollecers intemal peisane

BurstNojse -
"he most Commo) Qause f the bunst noise A
ramdom rapplzy and release of cherge carrie s
at hin fm tesfaces or at ekct sites in.

If appears as a Qudden step like transishiony

as high al severa hundaes mcro volk, at nden

and unpredic tasle tned.(last em sweral s to
sccondy)
Jt Sounds like popcarn we attache!
to an audo gpeaken.
poppig f

Avalanche Neise
When diode is in YeNere bias conditien
avalanche break dowm, Aeverse biay Currenater
increases rapisly
Avalanche noise is procuee d when
undiade aperatd at hepeint awalanche
 / PAGE NO.
DATE

breakdow) close toL

Due to this
breakdos , yeny lange Crrent Hou
genensl s high level of naise olled as qvalanhe nisc
Jt occurs de to jncreAsC in
actien of atems ionizahon ty collösiem.
he collisjomsocured atte TaDdom n
nature a a enle
mojse spikeçs are preSent in he dvalanche eurent

Freg domain Represenkakon of n~e

Way fney demain RepD is necded ?
Jn comu nlcahon Sptems jnput sigd (aleng wllw nojse)
is often passeol fkoougt flkecs
t These flks are descnbed in teoms of their feg dmai
characteoshcs
to detemine the efkct of hese Blksog, eise, it
is Deceyary to kave a fsy demain representason of noie

Cigasls fourier series and fourier tranafn

But hene ojse is a randem sipmal and to wiee
he tourler series es nose waveoon, mois e
wavekom ehoue? be periosic

Thus e get a penlodie wavelem fem he ranckm

DOise waudem uing Fllowiny steps
Selet a prialan Saonple SacHm od ke roise
 DATE

nose, select
tunchen
from this Cample
hene he
periodle wavcfea
Aec get t selecked
nteaval
wavefemm in he

) d periede wavelem
Henaise

Noy Ca expand Hhis peolodie

we
wauekmm is
a fourser senles

we
assu-me fhat the ce
then he Sample mske slgn Component is Kefo
wsng jurjer senes as cam be epreserko
,(E) = 2. (ak Cos
2nkaf t + be Sin 27
kafb)
 nct= (ak Cos Hwt t bk sin hot)
/PAGE NO.
Ck CosCtswt + Or) DATE

Coc heien
Suprposiion of Noises -
We can represent nojse mt) in he arter senles feon.
That meqns noise is repneSenled as " SuperposiHen'
indisjdual Dojse copemenkr
Jt has beem proved that, eNeS he
are
ovealapping Kan ado toted noise pouzr s kyzen -
positen e pewens st indioiaed spccta cempanenh,
Procf: Suppose we have two nojse proceses Mit)
ond M>4)wkote spechd angs oueatap fully
partially
The total nojse ce to thesc to compnent ie
iven ty
Lhy superposiHen)
Then he normalized po wer Rg of he sym

+nzlb]2
2 DCt).n24)

P2 = Pi t Pe t 2 Dle). n ()

Here P a9d Pe are He mosmaized pawecs

yabe cf the produt, whie is
nahiny hut
Cross -cerrelahen ot the proceues nt) amd nak)
As, thee prpceyes ane, uncorpelased he cer
KpresinN compomenk
Ke Deise no. kFo
compenk neise indieidua
pocs cuperposion
he of abtalned
by
power n
noiseomalized
tot the Kat
we
Cal expreusn, above ren
he hu
will
k )eqn
Kefo cornelaticn
bewill
DATE
 DATE

Toisc uing onhomoms eoordinstes

Frequeny demain repreIendalien o nojse shos that it
S possible to represent a mojse proces as
catheneamal nctiend, ohich anc he cincs and cosi nes

aram sdmudt odthegenalzalen proces alw w bo

frantom a set ot iauy indepeodont vecks into a
vectes kat span he sam space
spammed by he oistnel sel

intema!T then in that inteave, noise nlt) ic givena

where
Here n(t)=

Chauuion nandom prnocels wl mea

Valne of zene Benni i ihe gaaien nandom vaniaka
with xene meam yalue

coelleien ot Hhe jth compomen

nini ’ onelaien behw een aelhiujens, hen ennemble averae o it

SNo