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Meteorology
What is the relationship between pressure, density and temperature?

By using the general gas law formula we can obtain the following relationship : ρ = P / (R x T)

ρ: Density

P: Pressure

T: Temperature

R: Specific gas constant

Using the formula above we observe that:

For constant density, as temperature decreases pressure also decreases

For constant pressure, as temperature decreases density increases
For constant temperature, as pressure increases density also increases

What is relative humidity?

It is the ratio of how much moisture is in the air compared to how much moisture the air can hold before becoming saturated

What is the dew point?

It is the temperature at which the air will become saturated (cannot hold any more moisture)

What is the relative humidity when temperature and dew point are equal?

Relative humidity is 100%

[Updated] What is the relationship between temperature and dew point?

When temperature and dew point spread is small, it is an indication of very moist air and you can expect visible moisture (fog, mist, rain etc.)
As a rule of thumb, (temperature in oC – dew point in oC) x 400 = cloud base
For example, if temperature is 3 °C and dew point is 2 °C, you can expect a cloud base at approximately 400 ft
When temperature and dew point spread is large, it is an indication of very dry air

Note:

Dew point cannot be higher than temperature

[Updated] What is the difference between mist and fog?

Fog is a cloud on the ground

It can be formed when the dew point spread (difference between temperature and dewpoint) is very small (i.e. less than 3° C)
The difference between fog and mist is their density and visibility
Fog is more dense than mist
For fog to be reported visibility needs to be less than 1000 m
For mist to be reported visibility needs to be greater than or equal to 1000 m and less than or equal to 5000 m

What is radiation fog?

Radiation fog is fog that forms overnight as ground surface releases the heat that absorbed during the day
As heat is released, ground air temperature falls. This cools surrounding moist air to temperatures near the dew point, creating fog
Conditions favouring radiation fog are clear skies (no clouds to keep the heat in) and light winds (not clearing the fog)
Radiation fog can only form over land and is more common during autumn and winter, when nights are longer
After sunrise, as the sun heats the ground surface, ground air temperature rises increasing the dew point spread which clears the fog

What is advection fog?

Advection fog is fog that forms when a moist warm air mass moves over a cold surface and its temperature cools to the dew point, creating fog
Unlike radiation fog, it can be formed during day or night, over ground or water and does not necessarily require clear skies to develop
It also requires stronger winds than radiation fog (up to approximately 15 kt) so that the warm air mass can be moved over the cold surface
Unlike radiation fog, which usually clears after sunrise, advection fog can persist for days if conditions that created it persist

What is the difference between SAT (OAT) and TAT?

TAT is SAT corrected for temperature rise due to aircraft’s speed

Practically speaking, it is the temperature that the aircraft’s outer surface feels

Note: TAT can’t be lower than SAT

[Updated] How does temperature affect an aircraft’s altitude?

If temperature is lower than ISA, the aircraft’s altitude will be lower than indicated on the altimeter (altimeter over reads)
If temperature is higher than ISA, the aircraft’s altitude will be higher than indicated on the altimeter (altimeter under reads)
Remember the saying “from high to low, look out below”

Let’s see why:

The altimeter is calibrated to ISA conditions which means that our true altitude will only match our indicated altitude when in ISA temperature conditions
Temperature error is 4ft per 1000 ft height AAL for every degree of ISA deviation. To calculate it we use the formula 4 x height AAL/1000 x ISA deviation
If actual temperature is greater than ISA, altimeter will under read (true altitude will be higher than indicated) and vice versa

Background info:

The published approach path of a non-precision approach (e.g. 3°) will be the actual approach path flown by the aircraft only in ISA conditions
A temperature higher than ISA will result in a steeper actual approach path whereas a temperature lower than ISA will result in a shallower actual
approach path

Example:

Let’s say we are flying a VOR approach with a 3° path, FAF 3000 ft airport elevation 0 ft and temperature ISA + 20°C
Temperature error will be: 4 x 3000/1000 x 20 = 240 ft. This means that if we cross FAF at 3000 ft our true altitude will be 3240 ft
Since we will start our final approach segment at a true altitude of 3240 ft (and not 3000 ft), our actual final approach path will be steeper than 3° and a
higher ROD will be required to maintain the path
Therefore, if temperature higher than ISA, our actual approach path will be steeper than published during NPA and shallower if temperature lower than
ISA
This means that although the altitude vs distance cross checks may show we are on profile, the PAPIs may show 3 whites or 3 reds (for high or low
ground air temperatures respectively) because we are on a different approach path than the PAPIs (with PAPI angle and published non-precision
approach path angle exactly the same)

How does pressure affect an aircraft’s altitude?

If altimeter setting is lower than local QNH, the aircraft’s altitude will be higher than indicated (altimeter under reads)
If altimeter setting is higher than local QNH, the aircraft’s altitude will be lower than indicated (altimeter over reads)
Remember the saying “from high to low, look out below”

Let’s see why:

When in ISA temperature conditions, with QNH set on altimeter sub-scale, altimeter will indicate aircraft’s altitude in relation to a reference pressure datum
of Mean Sea Level (i.e. Altitude AMSL)
As we know, air pressure decreases with increasing altitude. This means that the higher the QNH we set on the altimeter the lower the reference pressure
datum of MSL

Example:

Let’s say that we set QNH 1015 while the actual QNH is 995. Our altimeter will indicate the altitude above the reference pressure datum of 1015 hPa.
However, since the actual QNH is 995, our true altitude will be the altitude above reference pressure datum of 995 hPa, which is 540 ft higher than the
reference pressure datum of 1015 hPa (1 hPa = 27 ft , 20 x 27 = 540 ft)
This means that our true altitude will be 540 ft lower than indicated on the altimeter
Therefore we can see that if we set a higher QNH than the actual one, our true altitude will be lower than the indicated altitude on the altimeter because it
measures altitude in relation to a lower (and incorrect) reference pressure datum

Background info:

During a non-precision approach, the DME distance vs altitude crosschecks (performed after the FAF) will not reveal the error of setting an incorrect QNH
The reason is that the altimeter will incorrectly show that you are on path as it will be based on an incorrect QNH

[Updated] What is the tropopause?

It is the boundary between troposphere and stratosphere

Over the tropopause, temperature stops decreasing with height and there is typically no weather significant to aviation
Cold air results in lower tropopause heights whereas warm air results in higher tropopause heights (e.g. tropopause during winter is lower than in summer)

Note: Although temperature stops decreasing, pressure and density continue to decrease with increasing height

Additional information:

Tropopause generally marks the top of CBs due to temperature stopping to increase with height (hence the anvil shape of CBs)
Highest areas of CAT occur just below tropopause, where jet stream speeds are the highest. Above tropopause conditions are generally smooth
Above tropopause wind speed stops increasing with height. This means for example that if strong headwinds are expected en-route, performance
permitting it would be preferable to climb to level above tropopause and cruise with less headwind
As temperature stops decreasing with height, but pressure and therefore density decreases, less thrust is available above tropopause

How is tropopause height calculated?

The height at which temperature stops decreasing with height, is considered to be the tropopause height
ISA height of tropopause is approximately 36000 ft at mid-latitudes
The closer you are to the Poles, the lower the tropopause height

What is the difference between stable and unstable air?

Stable air is cooler than surrounding air and stops rising due to being more dense and heavier than the surrounding air
Unstable air is warmer than surrounding air and continues to rise due to being less dense and lighter than surrounding air

What type of clouds are associated with stable air?

Stratiform clouds (e.g. stratus)

What type of clouds are associated with unstable air?

Convective clouds (e.g. cumulonimbus)

When will unstable air stop rising?

When it reaches an altitude at which surrounding air has the same temperature
That’s why over tropopause there is no significant weather to aviation, as temperature stops decreasing with height

Background info:

Ever wondered why cumulonimbus clouds have this anvil shape?

This is because the cloud has reached a layer at which temperature stops decreasing with altitude (often the tropopause)
As temperature stops decreasing, air stops rising which forces the air horizontally outwards below this layer, creating this anvil shape of cumulonimbus
clouds

How should you avoid thunderstorms?

By at least 20 NM laterally and 5000 ft vertically

You should deviate from the upwind side, as this will give you the least chance of encountering turbulence, ice crystals and hail

Background info:

If needed to deviate from the downwind side, a good rule of thumb is to avoid the thunderstorm by at least as many NM as the wind speed at your altitude

What are the three stages of a thunderstorm?

Developing stage (or towering cumulus stage)

Characterized by updrafts due to warm unstable air rising

Mature stage

Characterized by both updrafts and downdrafts due to air continuing to rise and heavy precipitation starting to fall

Dissipating stage

Characterized by downdrafts as air stops rising due to falling precipitation which in turn stops the development of new water droplets inside the cloud

[Updated] What is wind shear and how does it affect aircraft’s performance?

Wind shear is a rapid change in wind speed and/or direction

Wind shears can occur at any level, but the most dangerous to the aircraft are the ones occurring at low level close to the ground
Rapid change in wind speed and/or direction can either improve aircraft’s performance (positive wind shear) or degrade aircraft’s performance (negative
wind shear)
A sudden increase in headwind component or reduction in tailwind component will increase airspeed. As airspeed increases, lift increases which
subsequently results in aircraft being high and fast. This is called positive wind shear
A sudden increase in tailwind component or reduction in headwind component will reduce airspeed. As airspeed decreases, lift decreases which
subsequently results in aircraft being low and slow (aircraft sinking close to the ground at low speeds). This is called negative wind shear

Additional information:

Aircraft systems that can detect wind shear are the weather radar and the EGPWS system

[Updated] What is a microburst and how does it affect aircraft’s performance?

It is a strong downdraft that can be associated with thunderstorms

When downward accelerated air from the thunderstorm (and precipitation in case of a wet microburst) hits the ground, it spreads out in all directions
As the air spreads out in all directions, it means that an aircraft entering a microburst will initially encounter a strong headwind
As it encounters the headwind, airspeed will increase and rate of descent will be reduced
As it passes the headwind part and enters the downdraft part, headwind decreases. As the headwind decreases, the airspeed that the aircraft gained
when it encountered the headwind is lost and aircraft’s rate of descent increases
Finally, as it exits the microburst it encounters a strong tailwind, which leads to a further reduction in airspeed and rate of descent

Note:

Microbursts may exceed the aircraft’s performance capability and must be avoided!
They typically have diameter of less than 4 km and last no more than 5 minutes

What is temperature inversion?

Temperature inversion is a layer in which the temperature elapse rate (ELR) inverts and starts increasing with altitude instead of decreasing (i.e. warm air
over cold air)
Some of the main hazards that can be potentially associated with temperature inversion are fog, windshear and freezing rain
In winter, during long nights with clear skies (no clouds to keep the heat in), the ground surface releases the heat that absorbed during the day. As heat is
released and ground air temperature falls, the air close to the ground cools down to temperatures lower than the layers above, resulting in a temperature
inversion (radiation inversion). In conditions of high humidity and light winds, this temperature inversion may lead to fog (radiation fog). In conditions of
strong winds, it can lead to windshear
Temperature inversions can also be associated with freezing rain. If snow falls into a layer with temperature above 0° C, it will melt and become rain. If
temperature on the ground however is less than 0° C, this rain will immediately freeze once it hits the ground (freezing rain)

[Updated] What is freezing rain?

It is rain that freezes immediately upon hitting a surface with temperature less than 0° C
For freezing rain to occur, it requires ground air temperature of less than 0° C and a layer above the surface with temperature more than 0° C (melting
point of water) so that snow can become rain before hitting the surface

Why wind speeds increase with increasing altitude?

As altitude increases, temperature difference between different columns of air generally increases
These larger temperature differences create larger pressure differences which in turn create stronger winds
Also as altitude increases air density decreases
This means that the air is thinner thus bringing less resistance to the winds

How does wind direction change with increasing altitude?

In the Northern hemisphere, wind veers (increases in direction) with increasing altitude
In the Southern hemisphere, wind backs (decreases in direction) with increasing altitude

[Updated] What is the Coriolis force?

Earth makes 1 full rotation every 24 hours and moves counterclockwise when viewed from above the North Pole (West to East)
The closer to the Equator, the wider the Earth becomes and vice versa
Because of this, as latitude increases, earth rotates slower and slower as it has less distance to cover during the 24 hour period
The above however means that an air mass flowing on a straight line away from the Equator will not be able to maintain a straight line relative to the
surface of the Earth
Instead, it will travel a curved line relative to the surface of the Earth. This is because of the slower movement of earth surface at higher latitudes
In the Northern Hemisphere, it will deflect more and more to the right as it moves away from the Equator, whereas in the Southern Hemisphere it will
deflect more and more to the left as it moves away from the equator
In essence, Coriolis force is the result of the direction the Earth rotates and also its speed of rotation varying with latitude

[New] What is the Buys Ballot’s Law?

In the Northern hemisphere, if you stand with your back to the wind, the low pressure system is to the left
In the Southern hemisphere, if you stand with your back to the wind, the low pressure system is to the right

What are the jet streams?

They are high altitude (near the tropopause) strong winds with westerly direction (i.e. blowing from West to East) and wind speed of at least 60 kts
They are associated with CAT (clear air turbulence)
Jet streams are created when warm tropical air masses meet cold polar air masses
This large difference in temperature creates a low and a high pressure area
This is because as cold air is more dense than warm air, air pressure decreases more quickly inside the cold air mass than it does inside the warm air
mass
The result is that at a given level near the tropopause, the pressure at the side of the cold air mass is lower than at the side of the warm air mass
This difference in air pressure together with Coriolis force create the westerly jet streams

Example:

In Northern Hemisphere warm tropical air masses come from the South and cold polar air masses come from the North
This means that the high pressure area will be South of jet stream and low pressure area will be North of jet stream
As air moves from high to low pressure system, this would create a southerly jet stream. However, the Coriolis force causes the air to move to the right,
causing the westerly jet streams

Background info:

The only easterly jet stream (i.e. blowing from East to West) is the tropical jet stream (near the Equator)

What are the trade winds?

Trade winds are winds blowing near the Equator with Northeasterly direction in the Northern Hemisphere and Southeasterly direction in the Southern
Hemisphere
Their easterly direction is the result of the Coriolis force, the low pressure area near the Equator and the high pressure areas created at higher latitudes
Near the Equator, the temperatures are very high. Because warm air rises, this results in lower air pressure (i.e. less weight of air acting over the surface)
Moving away from the Equator, the temperatures are lower. Because cold air descends, this results in higher air pressure (i.e. more weight of air acting
over the surface)
These pressure differences create winds, blowing from an area of high pressure towards an area of low pressure
Because the earth rotates faster near the equator than it does at higher latitudes, the coriolis force makes the wind in the Northern Hemisphere (blowing
from North to South) turn to the right, making its direction Northeast, and the wind in the Southern Hemisphere (blowing from South to North) turn to the
left, making its direction Southeast

What is the ITCZ and what weather conditions are associated with it?

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a zone near the tropics which generally has the highest temperatures on earth, resulting in low air pressure
ITCZ should not be confused with the Equator. As earth moves around the sun throughout the year, the angle at which the sun hits the surfaces of the
earth changes and thus location of the ITCZ changes, moving North or South of the Equator depending on the time of the year
It is called Convergence zone because ITCZ is the location at which the Northeast trade winds coming from the Northern Hemisphere converge with the
Southeast trade winds coming from the Southern Hemisphere
The Northeast trade winds carry the tropical continental air mass coming from the Sahara, which is warm and dry, whereas the Southeast trade winds
carry the tropical maritime air mass coming from Atlantic Ocean, which is warm and moist
As the trade winds converge they are forced to rise. Because the tropical air masses are very warm and tropical maritime air mass coming from the
Southern Hemisphere is very moist, this leads to the development of convective activity, creating a line of cumulus clouds with showers of rain and
occasional thunderstorms. These thunderstorms are generally short in duration but have very high tops and heavy precipitation
Because tropical maritime air (coming from the South) has moist air whereas tropical continental air (coming from the North) has dry air, locations that are
North of the ITCZ as it moves have dry weather without rain or clouds whereas locations over which ITCZ moves have wet weather with rain showers and
occasional thunderstorms

[Updated] What is the Foehn wind?

Foehn wind is called the warm and dry wind blowing down the downwind side of a mountain (e.g. Alps in Europe)
As air hits the mountain, it’s forced to move up towards the top of the mountain
As it moves up its temperature drops and at some point reaches the dew point (i.e. becomes saturated). This causes clouds and precipitation on the
upwind side of the mountain
As air continues to move towards the top of the mountain, its temperature drops at the Saturated Adiabatic Lapse rate (SALR) which is approximately 1.5°
C / 1000 ft
Once it reaches the top of the mountain it will have become very dry as its water vapour will have precipitated at lower altitudes (e.g. rain or snow)
From the top of the mountain, the dry air then starts blowing down the downwind side of a mountain
As the dry air moves down the mountain, its temperature increases at the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) which is approximately 3° C / 1000 ft ,
resulting in the warm and dry wind, called Foehn wind
As temperature on the downwind side increases faster (DALR) than it decreases on the upwind side (SALR), this creates a big temperature difference
between the upwind and downwind sides of the mountain
Contrary to the upwind side of the mountain which has cool moist air with clouds and precipitation, the downwind side has warm dry air with clear skies

[Updated] What is the difference between anabatic and katabatic winds?

Anabatic wind blows up a mountain. It occurs during daytime due to air near the bottom of the mountain being heated which makes it lighter, resulting in
the air blowing up the mountain
Katabatic wind blows down a mountain. It occurs during nighttime due to air on top of the mountain being cooled which makes it heavier, resulting in the
air blowing down the mountain

[Updated] On which side of the mountain would you find mountain waves and what are the hazards associated with them?

Mountain waves are waves of oscillating air formed on the downwind side of the mountain
They are developed when strong winds (more than approx 20 kt) hit the mountains at an angle approximately perpendicular to the mountain range, with
stable air on top of the mountains (e.g. temperature inversion) and unstable air above and below
The combination of stable air on top of the mountains (i.e. resisting to rise) with unstable air above and below (i.e. rising air) creates the wave oscillations
The wave oscillations produce updrafts and downdrafts which result in clear air turbulence (CAT)
Visual cues for mountain waves are rotor clouds (beneath the waves) and lenticular clouds (e.g. altocumulus or cirrocumulus clouds) on the downwind
side of the mountain

[Updated] Can you detect CAT?

Weather radars detect turbulence associated with precipitation

As CAT is associated with clear air and not precipitation you cannot detect it
You can however anticipate CAT under certain weather conditions (e.g. flying through a jet stream, significant weather charts etc.)
Another good indication to anticipate CAT is large temperature differences between waypoints along the route

Note: CAT is usually strongest at the cold side of the jet stream

[New] What precipitation levels do weather radar colours indicate?

Green: light precipitation

Amber: moderate precipitation
Red: heavy precipitation
Magenta: turbulence (horizontal movement of precipitation)

What is wake turbulence?

It is turbulence left behind an aircraft generating lift

It is created by wing tip vortices

Note: The main factors that increase the threat of encountering wake turbulence are i) preceding aircraft flying at low speed-high angle of attack (e.g. takeoff and
landing), ii) high weight of preceding aircraft and iii) light crosswind conditions (upwind vortices of the preceding aircraft stay on path of the following aircraft)

What are supercooled water droplets?

Supercooled water droplets are water droplets that remain unfrozen at temperatures below 0° C
When supercooled water droplets come in contact with any parts of the aircraft’s surface that are less than 0° C, airframe icing occurs

Background info:

The melting point of water is approximately 0 °C

The melting point and the freezing point are not always the same
This is because although 0° C is the highest temperature that water can freeze, it can stay in liquid state up to approximately -40 °C, when it will turn into
ice crystals

Do ice crystals pose any threats of icing to the aircraft?

Ice crystals are formed at high altitudes at temperatures that water can no longer maintain a liquid form and do not pose a threat for airframe icing
because they bounce off cold airframe surfaces
However, If small ice crystals coming out of thunderstorms at high altitudes, come in contact with hot surfaces of the aircraft (e.g. pitot probes, engine
components behind the fan etc.) then they may melt on these surfaces and can pose significant problems, such as:
Melting on pitot probes can cause pitot probe blockage leading to airspeed unreliable
Melting inside the engine can lead to engine flameout, surge or stall and/or engine damage

[Updated] When is the aircraft susceptible to icing?

When i) OAT (on the ground) or TAT (in flight) are less than or equal to 10 °C and ii) there is any kind of visible moisture

Note:

Visibility less than or equal to 1600 m (1 statute mile) is considered visible moisture

What are the effects of icing on an aircraft?

Reduced lift
Increased drag
Increased stall speed
Reduced critical angle of attack

What weather is a high pressure system associated with?

High pressure systems are associated with descending air

This prevents the development of clouds and thus results in clear skies. However, descending air may also result in fog and poor visibility close to the
ground as air is prevented from rising
High pressure systems are also associated with calm winds

What weather is a low pressure system associated with?

Low pressure systems are associated with rising air

This helps the development of clouds and thus results in clouds and precipitation. Rising air also results in good visibility close to the ground, unless
visibility is reduced due to heavy precipitation
Low pressure systems are also associated with strong wind conditions

[Updated] What is a warm front?

It is the boundary between a warm air mass meeting a cold air mass and rising over it due to being lighter and less dense
Warm fronts move slower than cold fronts because they are less dense
Warm fronts are associated with stratus clouds, light rain and poor visibility, extending over a wider area and last longer than cold fronts
As they approach, they cause a decrease in air pressure. As they pass, air pressure remains approximately the same, temperature usually increases,
precipitation stops and visibility improves, however sometimes accompanied with low level clouds

[New] What is a sea breeze?

It is wind blowing during day time (most commonly in spring and summer) from sea towards land
The cause of the sea breeze is uneven heating of sea and land during the day. This is because lands heats quicker than water
Because land heats quicker, warm air over the land rises and therefore creates an area of lower pressure than the pressure over the sea
This pressure difference during day time causes the sea breeze, as air flows from high pressure (over the sea) to low pressure (over the land)
Note:

Easy way to remember from which direction sea breeze blows is that winds are always named based on the direction from which they are blowing and not
the direction to which they are blowing

[New] What is a land breeze?

Land breeze is wind blowing during night time (following a sea breeze) from land towards the sea
The cause of the land breeze is uneven cooling of sea and land during the night. This is because land cools quicker than water
Because land cools quicker, warm air over the sea rises and therefore creates an area of lower pressure than the pressure over the land
This pressure difference during night time causes the land breeze, as air flows from high pressure (over the land) to low pressure (over the sea)

[Updated] What is a cold front?

It is the boundary between a cold air mass meeting a warm air mass and pushing under it due to being heavier and more dense
Cold fronts move faster than warm fronts because they are more dense
Cold fronts are associated with cumulus clouds, heavy rain and local thunderstorms and last shorter than warm fronts.
As they approach, they cause a decrease in air pressure. As they pass, air pressure increases fast, temperature drops and weather clears. However,
sometimes temperature may rise and can lead to development of convective activity (e.g. Cbs)

What is a cloud ceiling?

It is the lowest cloud base that covers more than half of the sky (reported as broken or overcast)
It refers to cloud base height above airfield level (AAL)

What is METAR?

METAR stands for Meteorological Terminal Air Report

METAR is a weather observation at a given time, typically published hourly or half-hourly

[New] What is a TREND in a METAR and for how long is it valid?

Trend is a forecast included at the end of a METAR (e.g. BECMG, TEMPO etc.) to indicate any significant changes to weather expected to occur within
the next 2 hours

What is TAF?

TAF stands for Terminal Aerodrome Forecast

TAF is a weather prediction for a specific time period which is 9 to 30 hours and is updated every 3 to 6 hours

What area does a TAF cover?

It covers the area within 5 statute miles (8km) of the airport

In Canada, it covers the area within 5 nautical miles of the airport

What is the difference between METAR and TAF?

METAR is a weather observation whereas TAF is a weather prediction

METARs start with aerodrome name and date-time issued (e.g. LGAV 162150Z VRB03KT CAVOK 09/00 Q1020 NOSIG)
TAFs start with aerodrome name, date-time issued and date-time of the forecast period (e.g. LGAV 161700Z 1618/1718 050/14KT 9999 FEW020)

What is the difference between METAR and ATIS?

METAR is a weather report in a text format whereas ATIS is a weather report in an audio format (i.e. you listen it through a specified VHF frequency)
ATIS contains more information than METAR, such as runway in use, type of approach, taxiway closures etc.

Should you use METAR wind or ATIS wind to calculate takeoff performance?

ATIS wind must be used for all performance calculations

The reason is because ATIS wind and runway heading are in degrees Magnetic whereas METAR wind is in degrees True

Background info:

Wind given by the tower is in degrees Magnetic as well

There is an old aviation saying “If you read it it’s True, if you hear it it’s Magnetic”.

What is the difference between NOSIG and NSW?

NOSIG means that no significant changes in weather are expected to occur within the next 2 hours
NSW means that there has been significant weather around the airport (i.e. Cbs etc.) but now there is no significant weather

What is the meaning of BECMG in a TAF or a METAR?

BECMG in a TAF indicates a permanent change to the weather occurring during the period of a specified time
BECMG in a METAR, used as a TREND, indicates a permanent change to the weather occurring over the next 2 hours

What is the meaning of TEMPO in a TAF or a METAR?

TEMPO in a TAF indicates a temporary change to the weather occurring during the period of a specified time. It can last up to 1 hour, or, if reoccurring, up
to half of the time period specified. After the end of the period, the weather becomes the same as before
TEMPO in a METAR, used as a TREND, indicates a temporary change to the weather occurring over the next 2 hours and can last up to 1 hour

What is the difference between BECMG and FM?

BECMG indicates a permanent change in weather occurring at some point during the time period specified
FM indicates a permanent change in weather occurring rapidly at the time specified

What is the meaning of PROB30 or PROB40 in a TAF?

It means that there is a probability of 30% or 40% of a weather change happening

The reason why only 30% and 40% are used, is because any probability of less than 30% is not considered significant to operations and any probability of
50% or greater would be forecasted as TEMPO, BECMG or FM

What does CAVOK mean?

It stands for Ceiling And Visibility OK

Visibility 10 km or greater
No Cb or clouds below 5000 ft or MSA whichever is higher
No weather significant to aviation in the vicinity of the airport

[New] When is Visibility reported in km instead of m?

When Visibility is 5 km or more

[New] In what sequence is the runway condition code given by the SNOWTAM?

Runway condition code is given for each third of the runway starting from the runway with the lower designator number and not from the runway in use

The following section has been added to help you with METAR / TAF decoding

[New] METAR examples

Example 1: OJAI 201000Z 30010KT 5000 HZ SCT030 25/14 Q1014 NOSIG

OJAI observation time 10:00 z on the 20th wind 300/10 kt, visibility 5 km, haze, clouds scattered at 3000 ft AAL, temperature 25° C dew point 14° C, QNH
1014, trend: no significant changes expected within the next 2 hours

Additional information:

Haze is a condition of reduced visibility to 5000 m or less which, unlike mist and fog, is not associated with small water droplets, but with small dry
particles such as dust, pollutants etc.

Example 2: LFBL 201600Z 21010KT 160V250 900 R21/1200U +RASH BKN030TCU 14/12 Q1015 RETS

LFBL observation time at 16:00 z on the 20th wind 210/10 kt direction variable between 160° and 250° visibility 900 m RW21 RVR 1200 m with upward
trend, heavy rain showers clouds broken at 3000 ft AAL towering cumulus temperature 14° C dew point 12° C QNH 1015 recent thunderstorm (i.e.
thunderstorm since previous report but not present now)

Example 3: EDDB 201020Z 31007KT 280V340 9999 SHRA FEW///TCU 20/18 Q1015 RETS TEMPO 4000 SHRA

EDDB observation time at 10:20 z on the 20th wind 310/7 kt direction variable between 280° and 340° visibility 10 km or more rain showers clouds few
towering cumulus temperature 20° C dew point 18° C QNH 1015 recent thunderstorm (i.e. thunderstorm since previous report) trend: temporary visibility
4000 m with moderate rain showers

Example 4: LFBD 201030Z 11008KT 090V150 9999 -RA VCTS FEW047/// SCT090/// OVC100/// ///CB 18/16 Q1010 TEMPO 3000 SHRA

LFBD observation time at 10:30 z on the 20th wind 110/8 kt direction variable between 090° and 150° visibility 10 km or more light rain thunderstorm in the
vicinity clouds few at 4700 ft AAL scattered at 9000 ft AAL overcast at 10000 ft AAL, cumulonimbus, temperature 18° C dew point 16° C QNH 1010 trend:
temporary visibility 3000 m with moderate rain showers

Additional information:

VC is used to report weather that is approximately 9-16 km away from the airport
For example, if thunderstorm was within approximately 8 km from the airport it would be reported as TS whereas if it was between approximately 9-16 km
from the airport it would be reported as VCTS (same applies for VCSH vicinity showers, VCFG vicinity fog etc.)

Example 5: LFTW 201200Z 16017KT CAVOK 30/18 Q1013 BECMG 17015G30KT

LFTW observation time at 12:00 z on the 20th wind 160/17 kt ceiling and visibility ok temperature 30° C dew point 18° C QNH 1013 trend: wind becoming
170/15 kt gusting 30 kt

Example 6: LGMK 231550Z 36025G35KT 9999 SCT030 26/15 Q1005 WS RWY34

LGMK observation time at 15:50 z on the 23rd wind 360/25 gusting 35 kt visibility 10 km or more clouds scattered at 3000 ft AAL temperature 26° C dew
point 15° C QNH 1005 windshear runway 34

Example 7: EGGW 250820Z 25027G39KT 220V300 1300 +SHSNRAGS FEW006 SCT015 BKN025CB 06/02 Q0993 RETS BECMG AT 0900 9999 NSW
SCT020 BKN090

EGGW observation time at 08:20 z on the 25th wind 250/27 gusting 39 kt direction variable between 220° and 300° visibility 1300 m heavy showers of
snow rain and snow pellets or small hail clouds few at 600 ft AAL scattered at 1500 ft AAL broken cumulonimbus at 2500 ft AAL temperature 6° C dew
point 2° C QNH 993 recent thunderstorm (i.e. thunderstorm since previous report) Trend: becoming at 09:00 z visibility 10 km or more with no significant
weather and clouds scattered at 2000 ft AAL broken at 9000 ft AAL

[New] TAF examples

Example 1: TAF LEBL 191200Z 1913/2013 04008KT CAVOK TX28/1914Z TN21/2005Z PROB40 TEMPO 1917/1919 6000 SHRA BKN020CB BECMG
2002/2005 06015KT 8000 NSC FM201100 03005KT 0900 BCFG

LEBL 191200Z 1913/2013: LEBL TAF issued on the 19th at 12:00 z valid from 13:00 z on the 19th until 13:00 z on the 20th
04008KT CAVOK TX28/1914Z TN21/2005Z: initial forecast is wind 040/8 kt , CAVOK , maximum temperature 28° C on the 19th at 14:00 z and minimum
temperature 21° C on the 20th at 05:00 z (see note 1)
PROB40 TEMPO 1917/1919 6000 SHRA BKN020CB: there is a 40% probability that during the period between 17:00 z and 19:00 z on the 19th the
visibility temporarily reduces to 6000 m with moderate rain showers and cumulonimbus clouds broken at 2000 ft AAL (see note 2)
BECMG 2002/2005 06015KT 8000 NSC: during the period between 02:00 z and 05:00 z on the 20th, the weather is expected to gradually become 060/15
kt, visibility 8 km with no significant clouds (see note 3)
FM201100 03005KT 0900 BCFG: from 11:00 z on the 20th, an immediate change in weather conditions is expected with wind becoming 030/5 kt, visibility
900 m and patches of fog (see note 4)

Note 1: This is the initial forecast. If any permanent weather changes are expected to occur after this time (e.g. BECMG, FM etc.) the new weather changes
become the valid forecast

Note 2: Remember after the end of the TEMPO period, the weather becomes same as before. Also weather changes during the TEMPO period will not last for
more than 1 consecutive hour and if reoccurring will not last for more than half of the time period specified

Note 3: Remember that after the end of the BECMG period, any changes occurred during this period will remain and any previous forecast is invalid. In this case
after 05:00 z (i.e. by 05:00 z the gradual weather changes will have been completed) the new valid forecast is wind 060/15 kt, visibility 8 km and no significant
clouds. The initial forecast wind 040/8 kt and CAVOK conditions is no longer valid after 05:00 z

Note 4: Remember that FM indicates an immediate permanent change to weather occurring from the time specified (contrary to BECMG which indicates a
gradual permanent change). The new weather changes become the new valid forecast with immediate effect from the time FM is mentioned

Additional information:

In some countries (e.g. France, Spain etc.) the maximum and minimum temperature expected during the TAF period is mentioned as TX and TN
respectively, followed by the date and time at which they will occur

Example 2: TAF LFPG 190800Z 1909/2009 09010KT 8000 FEW035 TX25/1915Z TN19/2008Z BECMG 1913/1915 4000 BR BECMG 1917/1919 18006KT 6000
FEW030 SCT100 BECMG 1921/1923 27015KT 9999 PROB30 TEMPO 1923/2005 VRB15G40KT 1000 TSRAGR BECMG 2004/2006 220/5KT 7000 FEW040
SCT050

LFPG 190800Z 1909/2009: LFPG TAF issued on the 19th at 08:00 z valid from 09:00 z on the 19th until 09:00 z on the 20th
09010KT 8000 FEW035 TX25/1915Z TN19/2008Z: initial forecast is wind 090/10 kt, visibility 8 km clouds few at 3500 ft AAL, maximum temperature 25° C
on the 19th at 15:00 z and minimum temperature 19° C on the 20th at 08:00 z (see note 1)
BECMG 1913/1915 4000 BR: during the period between 13:00 z and 15:00 z on the 19th, visibility is expected to gradually become 4000 m with mist (see
note 2)
BECMG 1917/1919 18006KT 6000 FEW030 SCT100: during the period between 17:00 z and 19:00 z on the 19th weather is expected to gradually
become wind 180/6 kt, visibility 6 km clouds few at 3000 ft AAL scattered at 10000 ft AAL (see note 3)
BECMG 1921/1923 27015KT 9999: during the period between 21:00 z and 23:00 z on the 19th wind is expected to gradually become 270/15 kt and
visibility 10 km or more (see note 4)
PROB30 TEMPO 1923/2005 VRB15G40KT 1000 TSRAGR: during the period between 23:00 z on the 19th and 05:00 z on the 20th there is a 30%
probability of wind temporarily changing to variable 15 kt gusting 40 kt and visibility reducing to 1000 m with moderate thunderstorm with rain and hail (see
note 5)
BECMG 2004/2006 220/5KT 7000 FEW040 SCT050: during the period between 04:00 z and 06:00 z weather is expected to gradually become wind 220/5
kt, visibility 7 km and clouds few at 4000 ft AAL scattered at 5000 ft AAL (see note 6)

Note 1: This is the initial forecast. If any permanent weather changes are expected to occur after this time (e.g. BECMG, FM etc.) the new weather changes
become the valid forecast

Note 2: Remember that after the end of the BECMG period, any changes occurred during this period will remain and any previous forecast is invalid. In this case
after 15:00 z (i.e. by 15:00 z the gradual weather changes will have been completed) the new valid forecast is visibility 4000 m with mist. The initial forecast
visibility 8 km is no longer valid after 15:00 z

Note 3: Again after the end of the BECMG period, any changes occurred during this period will remain and any previous forecast is invalid. In this case after
19:00 z (i.e. by 19:00 z the gradual weather changes will have been completed) the new valid forecast wind 180/6 kt, visibility 6 km clouds few at 3000 ft AAL
and scattered at 10000 ft AAL. The previous forecast wind of 090/10 kt and visibility 4000 m with mist is no longer valid after 19:00 z

Note 4: Again after the end of the BECMG period, any changes occurred during this period will remain and any previous forecast is invalid. In this case after
23:00 z the new valid forecast is wind 270/15 kt and visibility more than 10 km . The previous forecast wind of 180/6 kt and visibility 6 km is no longer valid after
23:00 z. The cloud base forecast clouds few at 3000 ft AAL and scattered at 10000 ft AAL remains valid as there was no change in this part in the BECMG
period

Note 5: Remember after the end of the TEMPO period, the weather becomes same as before. Also weather changes during the TEMPO period will not last for
more than 1 consecutive hour and if reoccurring will not last for more than half of the time period specified

Note 6: Again after the end of the BECMG period, any changes occurred during this period will remain and any previous forecast is invalid. In this case after
06:00 z (i.e. by 06:00 z the gradual weather changes will have been completed) the new valid forecast is wind 220/5 kt, visibility 7 km and clouds few at 4000 ft
AAL scattered at 5000 ft AAL . The previous forecast wind of 270/15, visibility more than 10 km and clouds few at 3000 ft AAL and scattered at 10000 ft AAL is
no longer valid after 06:00 z

Additional information:

The most intense type of precipitation takes place first. For example TSRAGR means more rain than hail whereas TSGRRA means more hail than rain

Example 3: TAF EKYT 200800Z 2009/2109 14008KT 9999 SCT020 TEMPO 2009/2011 BKN012 BECMG 2016/2019 08008KT TEMPO 2022/2105 3000 MIFG
BR TEMPO 2105/2109 2500 SHRA BR BKN008 BKN040CB PROB40 2105/2109 TSRA

EKYT 200800Z 2009/2109: EKYT TAF issued on the 20th at 08:00 z valid from 09:00 z on the 20th until 09:00 z on the 21st
14008KT 9999 SCT020: initial forecast is wind 140/8 kt visibility 10 km or more clouds scattered at 2000 ft AAL
TEMPO 2009/2011 BKN012: during the period between 09:00 z and 11:00 z on the 20th clouds are expected to change temporarily to broken at 1200 ft
AAL
BECMG 2016/2019 08008KT: during the period between 16:00 z and 19:00 z wind is expected to gradually become 080/8 kt
TEMPO 2022/2105 3000 MIFG BR: during the period between 22:00 z on the 20th and 05:00 z on the 21st visibility is expected to change temporarily to
3000 m with shallow fog and mist
TEMPO 2105/2109 2500 SHRA BR BKN008 BKN040CB : during the period between 05:00 z and 09:00 z on the 21st visibility is expected to change
temporarily to 2500 m with moderate rain showers, mist and clouds broken at 800 ft AAL broken at 4000 ft AAL cumulonimbus
PROB40 2105/2109 TSRA: during the period between 05:00 z and 09:00 z on the 21st there is a 40% probability of moderate thunderstorm with rain

Example 4: TAF OJAI 200442Z 2006/2112 VRB02KT 5000 BR SCT030 BECMG 2008/2010 28012KT HZ PROB30 2012/2016 30016KT 4000 BLDU

OJAI 200442Z 2006/2112: OJAI TAF issued on the 20th at 04:42 z valid from 06:00 z on the 20th until 12:00 z on the 21st
VRB02KT 5000 BR SCT030: initial forecast is wind variable 2 kt visibility 5 km with mist and clouds scattered at 3000 ft AAL
BECMG 2008/2010 28012KT HZ: during the period between 08:00 z and 10:00 z on the 20th weather will gradually become wind 280/12 with haze
PROB30 2012/2016 30016KT 4000 BLDU: during the period between 12:00 z and 16:00 z on the 20th there is a 30% probability that wind will be 300/16
kt visibility 4000 m with blowing dust

Example 5: TAF LFRB 200500Z 2006/2112 VRB05KT 9999 BKN030 TEMPO 2006/2008 3000 BR BKN003 PROB40 TEMPO 2006/2007 0300 FG VV/// TEMPO
2008/2012 BKN008 BECMG 2010/2012 22010KT TEMPO 2021/2109 BKN005 BECMG 2022/2024 VRB05KT BECMG 2108/2110 22010KT

LFRB 200500Z 2006/2112: LFRB TAF issued on the 20th at 05:00 z valid from 06:00 z on the 20th until 12:00 z on the 21st
VRB05KT 9999 BKN030: initial forecast is wind variable 5 kt visibility 10 km or more and clouds broken at 3000 ft AAL
TEMPO 2006/2008 3000 BR BKN003: during the period between 06:00 z and 08:00 z on the 20th visibility is expected to temporarily change to 3000 m
with mist and clouds broken at 300 ft AAL
PROB40 TEMPO 2006/2007 0300 FG VV///: during the period between 06:00 z and 07:00 z on the 20th there is a 40% probability that visibility changes
to 300 m with fog and vertical visibility unknown
TEMPO 2008/2012 BKN008: during the period between 08:00 z and 12:00 z on the 20th clouds are expected to temporarily change to broken at 800 ft
AAL
BECMG 2010/2012 22010KT: during the period between 10:00 z and 12:00 z on the 20th wind is expected to gradually become 220/10 kt
TEMPO 2021/2109 BKN005: during the period between 21:00 z on the 20th and 09:00 z on the 21st clouds are expected to temporarily change to broken
at 500 ft AAL
BECMG 2022/2024 VRB05KT: during the period between 22:00 z and 24:00 z on the 20th wind is expected to gradually become variable 5 kt
BECMG 2108/2110 22010KT: during the period between 08:00 z and 10:00 z on the 21st wind is expected to gradually become 220/10 kt

Example 6: TAF EBBR 200510Z 2006/2112 13005KT CAVOK TEMPO 2014/2019 VRB15G28KT 4000 SHRA TSRA BKN040CB PROB30 TEMPO 2014/2018
VRB22G38KT 1500 +TSRAGR SQ BKN009 BKN035CB

EBBR 200510Z 2006/2112: EBBR TAF issued on the 20th at 05:10 z valid from 06:00 z on the 20th until 12:00 z on the 21st
13005KT CAVOK: initial forecast is wind 130/5 kt CAVOK
TEMPO 2014/2019 VRB15G28KT 4000 SHRA TSRA BKN040CB: during the period between 14:00 z and 19:00 z on the 20th weather is expected to
temporarily change to wind variable 15 kt gusting 28 kt visibility 4000 m with moderate rain showers and moderate thunderstorm with rain, clouds broken
at 4000 ft AAL cumulonimbus
PROB30 TEMPO 2014/2018 VRB22G38KT 1500 +TSRAGR SQ BKN009 BKN035CB: during the period between 14:00 z and 18:00 z on the 20th there is
a 30% probability that weather will temporarily change to wind variable 22 kt gusting 38 kt visibility 1500 m thunderstorm with heavy rain and hail, squalls
and clouds broken at 900 ft AAL broken at 3500 ft AAL cumulonimbus

Additional information:

Squalls are similar to gusts but last longer (i.e. for minutes instead of seconds) and are also generally associated with bad weather (e.g. thunderstorms
etc.)

Example 7: TAF EGAA 201058Z 2012/2112 21006KT 9999 SCT025 PROB40 TEMPO 2012/2020 3000 +SHRA +TSGS PROB30 TEMPO 2104/2107 6000
BKN006 PROB40 TEMPO 2109/2112 7000 SHRA

EGAA 201058Z 2012/2112: EGAA TAF issued on the 20th at 10:58 z valid from 12:00 z on the 20th until 12:00 z on the 21st
21006KT 9999 SCT025: initial forecast is wind 210/6 kt visibility 10 km or more and clouds scattered at 2500 ft AAL
PROB40 TEMPO 2012/2020 3000 +SHRA +TSGS: during the period between 12:00 z and 20:00 z on the 20th there is a 40% probability that visibility will
temporarily change to 3000 m with heavy rain showers and thunderstorm with heavy snow pellets or small hail
PROB30 TEMPO 2104/2107 6000 BKN006: during the period between 04:00 z and 07:00 z on the 21st there is a 30% probability that visibility will
temporarily change to 6 km and clouds broken at 600 ft AAL
PROB40 TEMPO 2109/2112 7000 SHRA: during the period between 09:00 z and 12:00 z on the 21st there is a 40% probability that visibility will
temporarily change to 7 km with moderate rain showers

Additional information:

GS means snow pellets or small hail < 5 mm

GR means hail > 5 mm

Example 8: TAF LFOK 201100Z 2012/2112 VRB03KT CAVOK TEMPO 2012/2016 2000 TSRA SCT010 FEW060CB BECMG 2022/2024 0400 FG VV001
BECMG 2104/2105 9999 NSW TEMPO 2100/2112 SHRA SCT030TCU

LFOK 201100Z 2012/2112: LFOK TAF issued on the 20th at 11:00 z valid from 12:00 z on the 20th until 12:00 z on the 21st
VRB03KT CAVOK: initial forecast is wind variable 3 kt CAVOK
TEMPO 2012/2016 2000 TSRA SCT010 FEW060CB: during the period between 12:00 z and 16:00 z on the 20th visibility is expected to temporarily
change to 2000 m with moderate thunderstorm with rain and clouds scattered at 1000 ft AAL and few cumulonimbus at 6000 ft AAL
BECMG 2022/2024 0400 FG VV001: during the period between 22:00 z and 24:00 z on the 20th visibility is expected to gradually become 400 m with fog
and vertical visibility 100 ft
BECMG 2104/2105 9999 NSW: during the period between 04:00 z and 05:00 z on the 21st visibility is expected to gradually increase to 10 km or more
with no significant weather
TEMPO 2100/2112 SHRA SCT030TCU: during the period between 00:00 z and 12:00 z on the 21st weather is expected to temporarily change to
moderate rain showers with clouds scattered at 3000 ft AAL towering cumulus

The following section has been added to help you with significant weather charts:

[New] How can you check for which Flight Levels and until what time is a significant weather chart valid?

You can see this information in a box at the corner of the significant weather chart
For example, FL100-450 VALID 00 UTC 21 AUG 2023 means that the chart is valid for Flight Levels between FL100 and FL450 until 0000 z on 21st of
August 2023

Note:

Significant weather charts are usable between 3 hours before and 3 hours after the chart validity time

Additional information:

Mid level significant weather charts used by the airliners are valid for FL100-450

[New] Which jet streams are included on significant weather charts?

Jet streams with wind speed ≥ 80 kt

Note:

Although jet streams have wind speeds ≥ 60 kt, jet streams with wind speed < 80 kt are not included

Additional information:

The Flight Level at which jet stream speed is the highest (jet core) is indicated next to the jet stream
If a jet stream has wind speed ≥ 120 kt, then the Flight Levels between which the wind speed is ≥ 80 kt will be indicated as well

[New] How can you measure the wind speed of a jet stream depicted on a significant weather chart?

1 pennant = 50 kt
1 feather = 10 kt
1/2 feather = 5 kt

Example:

If a jet stream is shown to have one pennant, four feathers and one 1/2 feather, wind speed is 50 + 40 + 5 = 95 kt

[New] Where are the feathers / pennants of jet stream line shown on the significant weather chart?

At the position of the maximum jet stream speed (jet core) and at the low pressure side of the jet stream

[New] What does XXX mean?

It means that the tops or base of a cloud, turbulence, icing area etc. is above or below the Flight Levels for which the chart is valid

Example 1:

Frequent CBs with cloud tops higher than the maximum Flight Level for which the chart is valid and cloud base lower than the minimum Flight Level for
which the chart is valid

Example 2:

Frequent CBs with cloud tops at FL300 and cloud base lower than the minimum Flight Level for which the chart is valid

Example 3:

Frequent CBs with cloud tops higher than the maximum Flight Level for which the chart is valid and cloud base at FL120

[New] What is the symbol for moderate turbulence?

Note:

Areas with CAT are shown on the chart with dashed lines
Light turbulence areas are not shown on significant weather charts

[New] What is the symbol for severe turbulence?

[New] What is the symbol for moderate icing?

[New] What is the symbol for severe icing?

Example:

Moderate turbulence starting from a Flight Level lower than the minimum Flight Level for which the chart is valid extending up to FL230 and moderate
icing between FL110 and FL230

[New] How are CB areas described on a significant weather chart?

Horizontally indicating also if CB will be embedded in cloud layers (ISOL EMBD CB, OCNL CB, OCNL EMBD CB, FRQ CB) + vertically (cloud base and
tops)
These descriptions are connected with an arrow pointing to the scalloped area in which CBs are forecast. Note that the scalloped area depicted on the
chart does not mean it is fully covered by CBs. It shows the area in which isolated, occasional, or frequent CBs are forecast

[New] What does ISOL EMBD CB indicate?

Individual CBs (isolated) with less than 50% spatial coverage embedded in cloud layers (i.e. hidden)

Example:

Isolated embedded CBs with cloud base lower than the minimum Flight Level for which the chart is valid and cloud tops at FL360

Note:

Isolated CBs that are not embedded are not shown on significant weather charts

[New] What does OCNL CB indicate?

Well separated (occasional) CBs with 50-75% spatial coverage

Example:

Occasional CBs with cloud base lower than the minimum Flight Level for which the chart is valid and cloud tops at FL370

[New] What does OCNL EMBD CB indicate?

Well separated (occasional) CBs with 50-75% spatial coverage embedded in cloud layers (i.e. hidden)

Example:

Occasional embedded CBs with cloud base lower than the minimum Flight Level for which the chart is valid and cloud tops at FL390

[New] What does FRQ CB indicate?

CBs with little or no separation between them (frequent) with greater than 75% spatial coverage

Example:

Frequent CBs with cloud base lower than the minimum Flight Level for which the chart is valid and cloud tops at FL350

[New] How is the tropopause height indicated?

It is depicted by showing the lowest tropopause heights (associated with cold air), the highest tropopause heights (associated with hot air) and the
tropopause spot heights

Tropopause high of FL430

Tropopause low of FL320

Tropopause spot height of FL360

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