]ENG][ N]ts]E]R]tNG ]KNOW]L]E]DG]E

]FOJR TVI[AS][-]E]RS AN]D MtA]f]ES

Vikram Gokhale
ENTERPRISES l{. Nanda
ENGINEERTNG KNOWLEDGE F R
MASTERS AND MATES

Vikram Gokhale / N. Nanda

N G SERIES
Edition: 'October 2Ot6

@ N(6 ENGEE ENTERPRISES

Mumbai, India.

Printed in Mumbai, lndia.

Price: Rs 420.00

All rights reserted. No part of this publteation may be reproduced in any

materialform (including photocopy or sioring in any medium by electronic
means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of
this publication), without the written permission of the copyright holder.
CAPT. H. SUBRAMANIAM, Principal.
!.1{.Mct.S., M.R.l.N., }.N.1., l.C.M.M.l., L.B.S. College of Advanced
M I Mar.'l cch., M.l.Mct ,S., lixtra Mastcr Maritime Studies & l{escarclr.
(Ministry of Surface Transport,
Govt. Of India),
Hay Bunder, Mumbai 400033
9th January 1998..

Foreword

Mr.V.M. Gokhale and Mr. N. Nanda have sailed as Chief Engineers on

ships of the merchant navy. They are now teaching engineering subjects in this
college.

. Marine engineering is a fascinating subject for Masters of ships. They

need to know just enough to manage the ship but not enough to operate or
maintain the machinery. Nautical Officers studying this subject for their
examinations would find this book verv useful.

This is the first book on marine engineering, written by Indian authors,

for nautical offrcers of the merchant navy. Being an author myself, I understand
the hard work involved and the courage required to write a book on a technical
subject.

Ifuowledge is one thing that can be given continuously and endlessly

without any loss to the giver!

I wish the authors, Mr. Gokhale and Mr. Nanda, all success in this
venture.

ph.f\ ,d*e*e^
(Capt, H. Subramaniam).
 lPrr,elParce

This book has been thoroughly updated and revised, to suit the recent changes
rnade in the syllabus of the subject 'Engineering Knowledge'. It is suitable for
candidates appearing for the paper 'Engineering Knowledge' for Master and Mates
(F G ) - Phase ll, and is a good source of reference for the Orals of Second Mates, as
well as the various pre-sea Nautical courses. The subject has been treated in a simple
rlanner, and is suitable as a reference while attending a course.
At every stage, additional information, on various engineering equipment foturd
on board, has been included, so that the vital principles of engineering are clearly
understoocl. The chapter on Auxiliary equipment has been expanded to include as
many auilliary equipments, as can be found on rnost Merchant vessels. Nunerotts
worked numericals have been supplemented and sketches have been re-drawn, in a
c)ear dragrammatic form, so as to be of use in examinations.
All this has been possible only because of the good response received to the
earlier edition. It is earnestly hoped that the revisions and additions, in this edition,
make it of much more use to students.

Vikram Gokhale
N.Nanda
Lal Bahadur College of
Advanced Maritime Studies and Research,
Mumbai.
 {

lfarhll,e,o,JF co]nr[e;ni[s
Pagc Nos

Glrapter I 1.-14
Basic Theory
l. Definitions
Properties of Gases
3. Properties of Materials
Numericals

t5-48
Internal Combustion Engines
I' Types
2. Four / Two strokc ryclc
3. Crash stop
4. Tuming gear
5. Indicated power
6. Mean effective pressure
7. Indicator diagrams
8. Numericals
9. Engine structure
10. Lubricatiqr
I l. Piping systems
t2. Bridge control of Main engine.
.
13. Fixed i C.p. propellers t4. Materials ofPistons
15. Differences of 4/2 stroke pistons
16. Piston cooling
17. pre-heating
18. Starting of Main engine
19. Controlling ofspeed
20. Reversing of Main engine
21. Control devices
22. Types of scavenging, Crankcase
23. Turbochargers - fouling, turbine washing
24. Scavenge fires Explosion
75: Preparation of the propulsion plant 26. Difficulties in rough weather
27. U.M.S. vessels - precautions taken
28. Purification of oilrB ulxcl Sanplurg

Gha.pterr III 49-62

Boilerr and Turbines
Types of marine boilers 2. Raising steam
Treatment of feed water and tests
4. Boilermountings
Superheated steam
6. Safety valves
Soot blower
8. Gauge glass
Effects of bad combustion
l0 Effi cient steam utilisation
Boiler blow-down , Boiler Sr.rrveys t2. Regenerative condenser
Types of marine turbines
14. Turbine contructiorr
Wa nning through tu rbines
16. Gas turbines
 Of-tU Page Nos
63-80
Rrdders, Steering and Shafting
Ruddcr dcsign and typcs : F:
Ruddcr drop a !- Er---=:l3nts
I I 2 ram Hydraulic steenng gz i iEr=
I - T
Rotary vane stecring gear
Steering Tests, drills and exam f -.[ x:-. -:uiic oil
Charging systcm
iF
5, rEM
Stccring gear - large Tankers t fu,sls
Thrust shaft / Thrust block f trfi
Typcs of Propcllers I fi;,- riir-cated stcrn fubes
Shaft seals I - re=anent poker gauge

Repairs of stern tube seals

H tt -92
Propellers
I
Definition
a h',-
J. Numericals { =E?ElensUCS
-
93 - 112
Fire Protection
l. Fire Dctectors a
3. Carbon Dioxide system tl -frrE
ql-tt
5. Explosimeter O fcqr lEFes
7. Sprinklcr system I Taai flooding
9. Fixed foam

Auxiliary Equipment
ry r13 - 154

l. Fin Stabiliser, {nfi-ftelling T-ir bL

3. Elcctro-magnetic log a lr-
5. Fresh lvater Generator e, E )s,ilate treaUnent

7. Domestic water treatlnen: : -:-: I :trF rG *.ccr.-\tr Poilution

9. Prevention of Pollution frcrn Ctcn' I
.F
Hran
ll, Sovagc Rcgulations JiL
- )sct*xred
- exhaust
- rG! cderd5
13. Tips forpollution control I
15. Incinerator I lF
-t t' b -.-:rrifugal.Gear
17. QH / NPSH curvcs I : Fre r-rrp
19. Cargo pumping systems for TuEr I TF f cler =tterials
21. Rcfrigcrants - propcrties -crrng c],cle

23. Faults in thc Refrigcration +sE l Cfr d rr*'-r

25. lnsulation of reefer holds arvl boi. :- I f:EtE
27. Lcak dctcction and charging- il;F (lilE t rfur
 Page Nos
tOha.lrter\IIII 155 - 164
Electricnl llquiprnent and Deck Machinely
l. Generators and Motors. 2. Electrical Distribution System
3. Parallel Operation - Generators 4. Maintenance
5. Air whistle. 6. Windlass.

Chapter f>< 165 - l8s

Automation and Control systems
l. Basic rcquirements
2. Reversing, Bridge control
3. Hydraulic / pncumatic control valves 4. Maintenance - control systcms
5. Scnsors for control sJ-stems
6, Control terminology
7. Opcn and Closed loop controls 8. Cascade control
9. Computerapplications

Miscellaneous numericals from examination papers

with solutions lg6 _ 204
 lU[rnril.rrs

Unit Abbreviatior/symbgl

Kilogram Kg
Gram g
Tonne t
Force Newton N
I
Kilonewton KN
I
Moment of force Newton-Metre Nm
I
Kilonewton-metre kNm
Work, ener6ry Joule J:Nm
Kilo joule KJ
Kilowatt-hour kwh
Kilowatt kw
Power Watt W:J/s
:N m/s
Kilowatt kw

I
I

Pressure Newton per metre2 N/m2

milli bar mbal
mm of Mercury mm Hg'
mm of water mm water

Temperature Degree Kelvin .

K
Degree Celsius oC

Volume Cubic mehe per second mVs

Cubic mehe per hour m3/lr
Litre per hour tlh
 tCJhaip,rretr .ii"jhre,o,rry
li Bia s [,c
Definitions

Mass is the quantity of matter in a body. The unit of mass is the Kiloeram
(kg)

Force is that which tends to cause a body, at rest or in motion, to

alter it's
state of rest or rnotion. The unit of force is ttre newton (N).

lN: lKg rn / s2

Velocity is the rate of change of position of a point or body; it may be linear

or angular- Linear velocity is measured in metres per second (.lrj. Angular
velocity is measured in radians per second (rad / s).

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity; it may be linear or angular.

Linear acceleration is measured in the metres per second squared(m/sr).
An-
gular acceleration is measured in radians per second squared (rad
) sr).

Work is done when a body is moved against a resistance. It is the product of

the force required to overcome the resistance and the distance throqpfovhich
the body is moved. The unit of work is the joute (J). one joule e{uds one
newton metre.

lJ: lNrn
Enerry is the capacity for doing work. The various forms of energy are
kinetic enerry, potential energy, heat energy, elecfical en€rry, chentical
nuclear enerry and radiant enerry. All forms of energy except radiant "o"rg5,,
enelgy
can exist only in the presence of matter. The unit of energy used in mechanical
and marine engineering is the same unit of work.

Potential eners/ is the energy contained in a body by virtue of it's position.

It's value is measured by the work that could be done-by the body in passing
from one defined position to another defined position.

Kinetic enerEy is the energy contained in a body by virtue of it's velocity. It,s
value is measured by the work done by tlre body dunng some change in veloc-
itv.

Momenturn is the product of the mass and velocity of a moving body.

7
 Power is the rate of doing work; the unit of power
is the watt (w). one watt is equal
to one joule per second.

lW :
lJls
thp (metric) : 735.5W
lhp (British; u.S.) : 746W

Pressure is the intensity of force or the force per

unit area. Unit pressure is the
result of unit force acting on unit
y"u. The unit of pressure is the Newton per
square metre also called as pascal.
Pressure : force /area:N/m'
Another term used is the bar, and I bar lOt N / m,:
The pressure of the atmosphere at sea level
is taken as 1.013 bar

absolute pressure : gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure

volume is.the amount of physical s ace occupied by
a body. The unit of volume is
them , ild its multiples and submultiples.
I m- : 1000 litres

Temperature is jhe degree of hotness or coldness

of a body. It is measured in the
celsius scale, and writte' u, 'c, where Ooc is the freezing
is the boiling point of water.
point
"f
*;;;;
ffi6;
An absoltf-t- t"|L" has been devised on the Triple point
of water, called as the Kel-
vm, and I K: I C + 273-The Triple point is the point at which all tluee phases i.e.
water, ice and water v our can exist.

Moment of force is a measure of the tendency of force

a to turn a body on which it .

acts about some axis' It's value is the product

of the force and the perpendicular
distance from it's line of action to the axis.

couple' A couple consists of two equal forces acting in opposite

directions along
separate parallel lines of action. The moment
of a ro,,pl. is thl product of one of the
forces and the perpendicular distance between
thtl lines of action.

Torque and twisting moment are synonymous

with the moment of a couple.
Centripetal force. When a body moves in a circular path,
it has an acceleration
acing towards the axis of it's orbit. The force.required
to produce this acceleration is
called centripetal force.

Centrifugal force is the reaction to centripetal force. Centrifugal

force acts radiallv

8
rl outwards, centripetal force acts radially inwards and ccnstrains the hody to inoys in
a circular path.

Inertia is that property of a body which resists changes in it',c state of rest or tnirlornr
motion in a straight line.

l\'Ioment of inertia of a rotating body is the sum of the products of eacir particle of
rnass and the square of it's distance from the axis of the rotatine bodv.

Moment of inertia : [,r,, +mrrrt*....

W1lere ll),fmr+pr1... : total mass Of bOdy.

Note The tenn motnent of inertia can have various definitions depending on it's nse
arrd application.

Radius of gyration is the radius at which the whole mass of a rotating body may be
considered as acting. If K is the radius of gyration, then

moment of inertia m k2 :
where m :
total nrass of body.
:
and k the radius of gyration

Stress may be defined as the load that is applied externally to a body, or in effect as
the force acting between the mcllecules caused by the deformation or strain.

Strain is the chzmge that occurs in the shape or dimension of a body subject to the
action of stress.

unital stress is the stress acting on rnit area of material

Load I uea resisting load : unital stress

Unrtal sL'airr is thc ralio of tlre change in dirnension to the original dimensir:1 of the
body belore stress was applied.

\ote Wherr the terms stress and strain are used in the following text tlre single word
strcss will imply urlital stress and the single word strain will irnply
unital strail. Sl6uld
it be required to distinguish between the terms they will be written in full.

Load I 'arearesisting load : stress

Changc in dirnension / original dirnension : strain

9
 which
Heat is a form of energy associated with the movement of molecnles
constitute the heated bodY.
(J).
The basic unit of all energry including heat, is the Joule

Specific heat of a substance is the quantity o,{ heat required to

raise the
sttbstances have
temperahrre of unit mass of the substance by lu, Different
dillbrent specitic heat values.

Latent heat is tlre heat which supplies the energy necessary to overcome
some of tfue bindilg fbrces of attraction between the molecules
of a substalce
and is responsible iot it changing its physical state from a solid
into liquid, or
in
from a liquid into vapo*, th. change taking place without any change
teutperatt-ue.

Saturated steam is stearn which is in physical contact with the boiling water,
fi-onr which it was generated, and its temperature is the same as
the boiling
water, eurd tfuis is refened to as the Saturation temperature'
lf the vapour produced is pure steam at this temperature, it is called dry
saturatcd stcam.
ll'tlre steam contains water (usually very fine particles held in sttspension in
the lbnn of a mist) it is called as wet steam'

Dryness fraction is the expression of the qtrality of wet steam. lt is ths ratio
of the lnass of pure stearn in a given lnass of steam plus water mixture'

its
Supcrheatctl steam. ln orcler to ittcrease the temperatttre of steam, above
satigation temperattre, without increasing the press6e, the stearn mrrst
be

takerr away fi'orn its contact with the water from which it was
generated, and
heated externally
Stearn wtrose temperahrre is higher than the saturation temperahtre
is
oorrespolrdilg to its pressure, is tenned as superheated stearn' When steam
superlieated, lts volume increases approximately in proportion to
its increase
in absolute temPerature.
As superlrsated stealn is at a highcr tetttperature and greater voltune tltan
satru'ated steam at the sarne pressure, more.heat energy is stored
h each
kilogrant.
power
This extra euergy gives the advaltages of usilg less lirel fbr the siune
and also less likelihood of water haulner in steam piping.

t0
 Pro;ierties af fuIaterials

'i l:c cl;orute ol'iuty material, for use

as an engineering corllpCIfient, depends
upcr; the
rved.
fonn of a material's rnechanical properties.

l. Ductility.
l. Brittleness.
3. Malteabilitv.
-1. Elasricity.
5. Plasticity.
6. Haldness.
.7 Strength.
8. 'lbughness.
9. Con-osionresistance.
I 0. Electrical conductivitv.
I l. 'l'hennarl
conductivity.

when selecting materials for specific cornponents

have to be considered :
- the following factors also
Consider the working conditions of
the component, the shape of tlre component,
method ofmanufacture (r'iz' c it,s
machining), Repaimbitity (abilitiy to be
subjected to brazing, welding
g) and Cost.

sive, easierto repair, increase in corrosion

Testing of Materials

dri out on rnaterials to detennine their

j fensile test.
L Flardness test.
-r. IrnpacL Lcst.
J. Creep tcst.
5. Fatigue test.

\on-destrucfive tests incrude : Ultrasonics

and Radiography.
II
 PROPERTIES OF, GASES

Gases can be compressed into smaller volumes

and expanded to larger vol-
umes. A perfect gas is a theoretically ideal gas
which strietly follows Boyle,s and
Charles's Gas laws.

Boylets Law :
This states that the volume, of a given amount
of a gas, varies inversely as the
pressure, if the temperature of the gas
remains constant.

Px V: Constant (if temperature is constant).

P,V, : pry, for any points I and2.
n is termed as ..fsotherrnat,,.
een the gas and any external source, i.e.
eration is termed ,,Adiabatic".

PV': constant.

'
t
Prvr' : P,Y,,

where, y :
CrlC,
'= ( specific heat at constant pressure) / ( specific heat at constant volume)
In such a basic law, the pressure and the temperature
must be absolute values, that is,
measured from absolute zero, and not
measured fiom some artificial level.

Polytropic Compression

In practice, neither isothermal nor adiabatic,

The process is then termed as polytropic.
compression of a gas can e place.

P V" : constant

or p,V,n = prYr", forpoints I and 2.

Charles's Law : This states that, the change in
volume of a given amount of gas is
directly proportional to it's absolute tempeiaflre,
when the pressure of the gas
remains constant.

Vc T ( if pressure is constant).
t2
 Or y, /y, : Tt /T2, for points I and 2.
combining these laws, we get the chiracterlstic
equation of a gas. This gives the
relationship between the pr' ssure,
specific volume, and the temperature
gas. of a perfect

tn gas constant
or !;=-&,:til:ffi,'l:
Tr T'
Exampre r.
In a Diesel engine cylinder, 0.25 m3
of air at 90 kN / m2 ancl l0"c is compressecl,
volume of 0.05 m3, the law olcompression to a
being

carcurate : (r) Fina, o,.rr:I:' l,l'ilii?ll-0".u,u,,

(l)
prVrr'4: prYrr.o
90x0.25t.+ = pzx 0.05r.4
Pz:90x0.25!a : 90 x 0.25t.a
4
0.05r 0.05r.4
:90x5la : 856.7 kN /m2 ( Final pressure.)
t2)
PrYr : %Yz
T, T2-

T, = 283 x 856.7 x 0.05 = 538.8K

90 x0.25

538.8 _ 273"C = 265.goC (Final Temperature).

Example 2_
0'14 m3 of a gas, at 31.5 bar is expanded
in a closed systemto a volume of
Final pressure is r.2 bar. If expansion
:"[i#. takes prace io the law _ p vn :
Finl the value 0f .n'.
P,V,n : PrYr."

31.5 x 0.014" = 1.2 x 0.154"

31.5/ t,2 = 10.1s4/0.014)'
26.25 = lln
0r log26.25 nxlogll
n 1.363
1a
IJ
 AT CONSI'ANT

DUAL CYCLE

Modern Compression ignition engines, or''diesel' engines, as they are commonly

known, operate on the Dual combustion cycle. The theoretical Dual or mixed
combustion cycle is a combination of the constant-volume (Otto) cycle and the
constant-pressure (Diesel) cycle.
14
 t e rtmarll tC,o, rnm hiur t[ ittcr tni lE rnr g iln'e
C)hrarp,ter 2 l[ m ss
"s

What is it ?
is burnt within the combustion
An Internal combustion Engine is one, in which fuel
chamber of the engine. combustion of fuel
and conversion of heat energy from
the cylinder'
combustion to mechanical energy takes place within

Types
l. Compression lgnition Type' They u
the air in the cylinder is compressed
temperattrre. Fuel oil is injected, throu
above its Self Ignition temperature'

2. Spark lgnition Type. In petrol engines' the is comparatively

th*erignit the fuel' The fuel
lower, thus the air does not reach
is ignited by an electric sPark'

Stages in the operation of a Diesel Engine

The main stages are as below :
l. Supply of fresh air to the cylinder (scavengng)
to the serf Ignition temperature
2. compression of air, so that temperature of air rises
of the fuel,
3. Fuel injection.
4. Expansion of the hot high pressure gases (Power sfroke)'
5. Rernoval of combustion products (Exhaust)'

4 Stroke awl 2 Stroke Cycle Diesel Engines

The above stages of operation can be performed in
takes place in four separate
a) 4 Stroke diesel .ngin.r, where the above sequence
strokes, i.e. two revolutions of the engine'
takes place in only two sfrokes'
b) 2 stroke diesel engines, where the entire sequence
i.e. one revolution of the engine'

Crash Stop
When the shp is moving Full Ahead and Double ring
Astern order is given from the
Bridge, the Engine Room fuel lever is brought to stop'
Ahead rpm, air braking is
After the engine's rpm drops to about 20%1o 40%o of Full
commencerl i.e. the engine is reversed and an air kick
is applied' even thou the
'way' on the vessel'
engine is still turning in the atread direction, tlue to the
Brake' until the
(!,ery Important - No fuel is released to the engine, during this Air
engine stops and actually turns in the Astern direction).

15
 FLEL
INJECTION

ruELINJECTOR

CYI,]NDET
 EIiEI,INJ]:CTiON
ENDS

\( AVLl,t(_iL p[_,Rl's $cAVUNGij l\]Itfs

( t()sl (t'l:l\i

r:XI i.U is'l' l'( rn'rS

OPFN

TWO STITOKE TIMINC DIACIIAM

SC.{VljNCilr
P()RTS

&) FTRTNG b) EX}LAUST

c,) SCAVENGL d) C]OMPRESSTON

t,oR ili SC.4\,'I;NGT:

PORTS

,I'WO
S'I'ITOKE CYCLE,

t7
When the engine is on Britlge control, the Officer on the Brielge has only to put the
'Ielegraph on Emergency Full Astern. The above sequence is automatically carried
cui, without tlre Bridge officer having to operate any other controls. Note that Air
Brake will only come into action, when the rpm. has dropped to the required 20% '
40oA, even when on Bridge control.

Effects of'a Crash Stop on the Engine

1. Thermal stresses are induced in the working parts of engine suoh as the liner,
piston and cylinder head. 'O'-rings in the Cooling water circuit may start leaking.
2. Mechanical stresses induced in the engine during braking - following parts get
affected - liners, coupling bolts, thrust bearing.
3. lf the Main engine is on heavy oil, the fuel system is affected. There may be a
surge of oil from the mixing column vent.
4. Thermal stresses in Turbocharger.
5. Excessive vibration of hull and engine, which could lead to other problems'

'Ibrning Gear
T'he l urning Gear is a reversible electric motor driven wolrn gear, which is connected
with the Flywheel ofthe engine, and helps in turningthe engine slowly. It is used when
carrying out repairs and any operations involving the running gear. A slow speed
drive is thus provided, to enable positioning of the engine PartS, for over-hauls.
The turning gear is also used for turning the engine for a few revolutions,
just prior to
starting after a long interval. This is a safety check to ensure that the engine is free to
turn, and that no water leakage has taken place in the cylinders. The Indicator cocks
are opcnecl wtren the turning gear is operatecl, so that any leakage of water can easily
be observed. This precaution is taken every tirne the engine is started after atry tnaitt-
tenance work, since tlre turning geal' electrical load curreut cau be observed - any
abnormal rise in the current would indicate that something is wrong in the nmning
gear.
Thcrc is an interlock in the control syst rm, which prcvcnts the enginc from being
started if the turning gear is engaged.

Power
Indicated Power
Indicatcd powcr is the total power produced lrom all the cylinders of a Main Engine.
The Basic unit of Power is the watt 'W', or its metric equivalent 'PS' (metric
horsepower)
1kW:lxl03 J/sec
: 1 x 103 N m/sec
Metric horsepower, 1 PS: 0.736 kW
The British unit of horsepower' I bhp : 0'7457 kW
Brake Power : Indicatecl Power Power lost in friction in the engine.
-
l8
Brake Power
The power output from the engine to the shaft is the Brake output.
where frictional
power is the Power absorbed, in overconring f ictional resistances
ious rubbing
surfaces such as Piston rings, bearings. The power available
at the
is termed as

the Brake horse power. This can be measured by means of Dyn

ometers'

Mechanical EfficiencY
Mechanical efllciency, rl :
Brake horse Power (BHP)
lndicated horse Power (lHP)
This will always be less than 1, since friction is alwaYs Present.

Mean Effectivc Pressure

Net useful w<lrk done in the cycle is meas
this area is divided by the length of the dia
Multiplying average height by the spring c
by oylinder
Mean Eft'ective pressure of the ."gin.. This value, when multiplied
constants and the rpm, will give the Indicated power output of
the engine'

Average height (mm) : fuea

Length

Engine tnclicator instrument has a spring constant in N/m2 per mm

nil.E.P. (N/r11z) : Average height (nyn) x spring constant (N/m'per mm)

lndicator Diagrams
of pressuro
An indicat'r diagram is a pressure/volume saph taken from the variations
in the cylinder of an It is plotted as a continuous line showing all pressure
"ngir,".
e complete engine cycle. Indicator di tance

the operationlf an engine. In man cated'

trace
measuring devices n1uy U. fitted to record cylinder pressures as an oscilloscope
or printout.
Engine Indicator
compressed in
Briefly, this consist of a spring loaded piston on which the spring is
proportion to the cylinder ptttt*t acting on it. This piston move! a Per\
to
an arm through a parallel link mechanit-. R card with a sensitised
sgrface ed
is tlrst blown
around the indicator drum. The indicator cock for the chosen cylinder
ftrough, to clear it of carbon and the indicator is then connected to
it' The cord on
tbe indicator drum is attachedto some fo
fiom the cross-head or a cam. The cock i
against the card, tracing a diagram for on
sprmg'
to a vertical scale according to the stif&ress of the indicator compresslon
scale due to rotation
Corresponcling cylincle, sweft volume is recorded on ahorizontal
19
 of ttre drum by its cord. By closing the indicator cock, a horizontal line representing
atmospheric pressure is added to the diagram. This can act apressure datum line.
Four types of indicator diagram can be obtained. Power card is takenwith
the indicator
drum rotation in phase with pis-ton movement. The area within this di am represents
the work done during the cycle to scale. This may be used to calculate the power
produced or the mean indicated pressure (Mrp) for the cylinder.

TNDICATOR

IJseof Indicator cards

Power Card is the measurement of the variation of pr'essules in a cycle.
Inegularities in the shape of the diagram will show operational faults. Maximum or
peak pressure may be measured to scale between the atmospheric line arrd the highest
point on the diagram.
Conrpression diagram is taken in a sirnilar'manner to the power card but with the
fuel shut offli'orn the cylinder. The height ofthis curye shows mo<inrum cdrnpressiol
pressure. lf compression and expansion lines coincide, it shows that the indicator is
correctly synchronised with the engine. Reduction in height of this diagram shows
low compression, which may be due to worn cylinder liner, faulty piston rings,
insufficient scavenge air or leaky exhaust valve, any of the which wii cause p*t
combustion.
Draw card <,rr <lut of phase diagram is taken in a similar rnanner to the power card,
with fuel punp engaged but with the indicator dnirn 90"C out of phase piston stroke.
This illustfates more clearly the pressure changes druing fuel combustiol. Fuel timilg
or injector fbults may be detected from its shape.
Light or Weak spring diagram is again similar to the power card ancl in phase
with the ettgitte, but taken with a light cornpression spring fitted to the inclicator
showing pressure changes during exhaust and scavenge to an enlarged scale. It can
be used to detect faults and scavenge to an enlarged scale. It can bi wed to detect
operations. zo

E-
 Numericals
is rate of doing work, i'e. work done in given time'
(Watt) : I Joule/sec
: I N m/sec
lH P :0.746 kW or 746 watts
p- : mean effective Pressure (N/m)
A : area of Piston (m2)
L : Length of stroke (m)
n : Number of power strokes per second
Average force (N) on Piston
: P. x A Newton'
Work-clone(I)in I PowerStrokeip.xAxL N-m
:P'XAxL J'

Power: Work done Per sec (W: J / s)

= po,xAxLxn W.
Indicated Power : P, X A x L x n W'

- :
englne rpm I 2' while
The number of power strokes per second for a Four Stroke
- for a Two stroke eogine, there i* u po*.t stroke for every
revolution'

a i-e. n
: rpm 12 forFour stroke engines, and n : rpm for TWo stroke engines
of a 4 cylinder' 4 -
Erample : Area of the Indicator Diagfam, taken off one cylinder
stroke, I.C, engine was 378 mm2; Length of the diagram:
70 mm;
:
250 mm ;
lndicator spring constant is lmm lbar ; Diameter of cylinders
-
stroke - 300mm ; and Rotational Speed
:
5 revolutions / second.
all cylinders develop equal
calculate the Indicated power of the ,ngrn., assuming that
power. May 2005

Answer
Mean height : area of diagram
length
378
70
: 5.4 mm
P' (rndicateo'
:TilJ;'tltio'tll*:'1: x r00 kN/ m2
n: 5 :2.5 (because it is a 4- stroke engine)
2.,
x 2'5 kw
lndicated power: p,L A n: 540 x 0.3 x 3.t42 I 4 x(o.25)-
: 19.87 kW per cylinder
Therefore, Indicated power for 4 cylinder = 19.87 x 4
: 79.48 kw'

2l
MAIN ENGINE STRTJCTLJRE
CYLINDER COVER Mountings
- l.'ucl lnjeck:
- Air starting
- Relief vah'e
- Indicator co
- Exhaust val

CROSSHEAD GUIDES

MONOBOX FRAME

TIE.ROD

MAIN BEARTNG CAP

BEDPLATE

CRANKSHAFT
Lgbrication
Pistons grooves, piston rings and cylinder liners are lubricated either by oil splashed
from the crankcase (as in trunk piston engines) or by cylinder oil injected into the
cylinders (as in crosshead type engines). The oil is injected inio the cylinders by
means of a Quill, which is a fitting in the liner, having an accumulator, and a non-return
wlve.

Purpose : l. To lubricate rubbing surfaces, reducing friction.

2. Act as a coolant in carrying away heat from rubbing surfaces.
3. Assist piston rings in sealing the cornbustion space.

Desirable Properties
l. Viscosity : This is the ability of oil to flow. Viscosity Index is the variation of
viscosity with a change in the temperature.
2. Oiliness : This is the property of adherence of the Oil to the surface, which allows
the fluid film to be retained under running conditions.
3. Anti Corrosiveness : Lubricating oil must not be alfected by corrosive acids,
when in storage or service.,
4. Alkalinity : lt rnust be able to counteract the disastrous effects of acids which tend
to get formed, when burning high sulphur fuels in diesel engines.
5. Dispersancy : Lube Oil should have the ability to disperse deposits and not allow
sludge to deposit on sufaces.
6. Demulsibility : Lube Oil must not emulsifu with water.
7. Flash Point : This should be sulficiently high, to prevent the possibility of fire, in
case of any source of heat, in storage or in use.

Contamination of Fuel Oil

This is caused by
(l) Solid Particles,
(2) Salts
(3) Water

Piping systems

Piping systerns, as found on board ship, are shown on the following pages. These
are the
l. Lubricating oil systern,
2. Fresh water cooling system,
3. Sea water cooling system,
4. Fuel oil systern zurd
5. Starting air system.
6. Bilge ald Ballast system.
23
 l. Lubricating oil system : Lubricating oil for the engine is stored in the Lube oil
storage tanks, and the oil in use is in the sump. The oil is drawn from the sump
through a strainer by the lube oil pumps and filtered'before passing through the
cooler, and thence to the engine. This may be distributed to various bearings and
other lube points inside the engine. An alarrn system ensures that adequate lube oil
pressure is always maintained while the engine is running. After use in the engine,
the lube oil drains back into the sump. A centrifuge is provided for purifying the
system oil. The lube oil cooler may be either sea-water cooled or by means of a
cqntral cooling system. -:

CYLII{DBR OIL
TANK

LUBRICATORS

COOLER

LIJBE OIL
FILTERS

LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM

24

I'
)il Fresh water cooling system ;
rp The fresh water cooling system is the system for cooling the engine and rnay be in
rc two circuits as shown in the sketch.
rd One circuit cools the engine cylinders, including the liners, cylinder heads and
iil trnbochargers, while the other circuit is used for cooling the pistons.
P
v) Piston cooling in some engines may also be done by oil.
t€ A heater is provided for pre-heating ofthe cylinders prior to starting, to reduce the
a stresses and enable easier manoeuwing.
t
-l

fr

E}PANSTONTANK

PRE.IIEATER T,ACKETW-4.TER

PISTON
HEATER COOLER

FRESH WATER COOLING SYSTEM

25
2 Fresh water cooling system :
The lresh water cooling system is the system for cooling the engine and rnay be in
two circuits as shown in the sketch.
One circuit cools the engine cylinders, including the liners, cylinder heads and
turbochargers, while the other circuit is used for cooling the pistons.
Piston cooling in some engines may also be done by oil.
A heater is provided for pre-heating ofthe cylinders prior to starting, to reduce the
stresses and enable easier manoeuvring.

T
JACKE.
H(PANSIONTANK WATER

I
I

PRHEA'IEB JAcKET wATER

MAID{
ENGINE

PISTON

HEATER COOLER

FRESH WATER COOLING SYSTEM

25
3. Sea water cooling system :
The tigure shows a typical sea-water cooling system . Coolers of various systems
are cooled by means of sea water.
The seawater pumps take suction from the sea chests ( high and low), through
filters, and circulate the sea water through the lube oil, piston, jacket water and
scavenge air cooler, and discharge overboard.
There is a re-circulation line, whichis used incold climates fortemperature control.
Sacrificial anodes are used inthe sea-chests and coolers, while a Cathodic protection
system is also used to prevent comosion.

SCAVENGE
AIB
COOLER

HIGH
SEA SUCTION
LOW

SEA WATER COOLING SYSTEM

26
4. Fuel oil system:
The fuel oil is stored in Bunker tanks, from where it is transferred by the Transfer
pumps to Settling tanks.
Here, the oil is heated and drained of water.
The Prrifiers take suction from the Settling tank, and fill up the Service
tanks with
purified oil.
The Mixing Column gets oil from the Heavy oil and Diesel oil Service
tanks through
a change-over valve.
The booster pumps take suction from the Mixing column, and send the fuel
to the
fuel purnps through the Viscotherm, which monitors the viscosity, and controls
the heating to maintain the viscosity for proper dombustion of the ftiel.
The fuel pumps on the engine deliver fuel to the fuel injectors via high pressure
pipes.
Modem engines have a fuel recirculation system, whereby heated fuel is kept
circulating even when the engine is not running. Thus the modern engine .* b,
kept throughout on heavy oil, from pier-to-pier, unlike the earlier engines which
needed to be changed over to diesel oil after sufficient notice was given. However,
if the boilers are to be shut down, or any work is required to be carried out on the
fuel system, then the engine is changed over to diesel oil.

IUBTEEg

VAFOT]R'TRAP

MXINGCOLUMN

CITANGE-OVER
VALVE

\4SEOIIERM

FUEL OIL SYSTEM

2'7
 5. Starting air system :
The starting for marine engines is usually by means of compressed air.
Tlre compressed air is stored in Air Receivers, and is sent to the cylinder air
starting valves on the engine via the starting air manifold.
Thcre is a Master Air starting valve, which is controlled by the Air starting'lever in
the control room.
The ahead or astern direction is controlled by the Distributor.
There are Lnterlocks for preventing mal-operation, such as the Tuming gear inter-
lock , which prevents starting, in case the Turning gean is still engaged.
6. Ballast and Bilge piping systems
Ballast system is provided to fill and empg ballast tanks and thus maintain stabil-
itv.
Bilge system is provided to take care of water accumulation inside compartments
of the ship. The suction side is fitted with screw down, non-return valves (to
prevent flooding back to bilge wells). The bilge pump delivers the contents of
bilges through an Oily Water Separator, where the oil is removed, and stored for
incineration or discharged to shore reception facilities. The clean water is tested
for oil content (usually 15 ppm or less is allowed), before it can be discharged.
There are strict penalties for any discharge of oily water, and the relevant rules
must be obeyed. An Emergency Bilge Injection valve is provided to take care of
iuly emergency flooding of the Engine room, and is normally connected to the
largest sea-water pump in the Engine room.

ovrrborrd * arfbord
Hreh Low Ovsrbortd
stlon ar<rtrca dlr'||nF
dttcnangt dirhrrgc Suctiofi or di*hrrgp
-grd,q
oll doublcbottorn tmh
to
oily Forurdr
bilgp bllgr v.l,
Att pon
bilgc wcll FTom
hold !il|pr

Emcrgrrcy
From tunnel $ction
well

From alt
peak tank
i

Frcm
hdd bllg

Alt storboafU
bilge well

grction or dirdrqrgr
double bottom tr*r

BILGE AND BALLAST SYSTEM

28
 AIR BOTTLE

I -lF
oPE!
I

;OSEI
IT
TO ;r
IP.
RDVER,8ING
:l
ir ING
rl l:
IEI,ECRAPIT
INTERLOCI( 'llt
lll
n
'Ll

STARTTNG
r.Evf,R

.\-l
T}ISTRIDTITOR

6TARTING
VALlIE SI.JLZER RNI)

29
 Controllable pitch propellers
In tlre 'cpp system' thi Main Fngine
arways runs at a constant R.p.M.
when the pitch is zero, the ship and
doei not *onl. when the pitch is a
ship's speed gets altered. , , ^ usted, the
The pitch of the propeller and.
engine speed can be changed either
the Maneuvering panel at the lle from
Bridge c"ontoir or trtr Engine Room
In some ships there may be two reierc C sole.
orrn, ,onrolr, Jne to .t *g. the pitch
of the propeiler and the other to match
the conesponding R.p.M of the
engine' oilrerwise one combination
knob witi be provided, which does
the functions of changrrg pitch of both
the proprttri and corresponding
The Ahead and Astern directions.can R.p.M.
easily be achiruri withoirt change
enginc direction, thus simplifying in
the maneuvering.
il'oY.'
Iht ll{at from
tunnel shaft)'The
the seiector is received by the actuator
actuator through a Hydra-p*k anr*r,
(located in the
oil, depending upon arread o, urt.h no* of hydraulic
This servo-piston is rocated in th; :igrlr 19 ;r one side of the servo_piston.
hoiiow'propelrer shaft. This axiar
movement of the servo-piston gets
converted into a rotary motion through
crosshead / crankpin ring and a
th'is rotates th; bi;l.r *a uiri.sfi
As soon as the pitch pitch.
-gr. is changeo, tt, propette, wilr deverop
pushing the ship ahead oiastern.- a thrust
rrri signai Jiroorsponding engine R,p,M.
through the governor fitted on the
meeting fhe higher power demand.
E In., *rures more ruit nlw thereby
feed back potentiometers to
T rvum"ir* a feed back control with
Confol panels.
MAN - B&w Arphatronic contrgr syglem (For cpp propeilers)
'fhe conrror
system wiil consli orilre rori.*i,\i,rmponents
. Manoeuvring panel fbr Bridge
v as shown:

r Manoeuvring panel for Engine Control

Room
o Responsibilitypanels
o Control / Interface unit
o optionar Load program unit (If required
by Engine maker)
In case of Emergency
ln oase the control michanisrn faits
the Engine Room console, the
ei er fiom the Bridge console or fiorn
Hand confol-(trro*nl on the actuator
used in emergencies. can be
During this operation, an immediate
communication must be established
between the person operating
console duty personnel. oepeioing
the Hand .dt *othe Bridge/Engine
on how this Hand control (solenoid)
actuated, the hydra rric oil flows is
tJthat r;;; ;f the servo_piston, resurting
the rotation of the propeller in
blades.

30
trI E!
trlE
trtr
trl

HTDNAPACK

REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEM

( SUITABLE FOR CPP PROPELLER )

Selecto.

Actuslor
Pitch control
mechanim
1

Actual
pirch

-t

3l
 Ptston tlbc
rod

CONTROLLA BLE PITCH

PROPELLER

Disadvantages of cPP Propeuers

iil;;fff:./ v/s Fixed pirch propeilers

can be conveniently altered from

easily run at a bare minimum
speed,

in one direction, no time is lost

in
.Ft
nere ls no need to re-start
I
the Engines. Therefore
there is reduced
consumption of compressed air. This also leads t"-
maintenance. ,.Ju.rO

, Engine room personnel will be free

o{ constantly turning propeller (Cpp)

mooring launches. Extra bare may be a constant hazard to
has to be taken on running/letting
ilnes. go
a
o
ility compared to Fixed pitch.
boss, there could be a possibility

Propeller pitch setting mechanism

and additional equipment invorves
rn creased maintenance.

particular pitch angle, thereby

e ofthrust.
ether it is a left or rtght handed
f rotation.

32
 Pistons

Material :
a) Cast Steel for piston crowns (for 2 stroke Crosshead engines.)
Aluminium for pistons (for 4 shoke Trunk piston engines).
b) Forged steel for piston rod.
c) Cast iron for piston skirts.

Differences between Two stroke and Four stroke pistons

l. A Four stroke piston is usually of the trunk type, i.e. it is directly connected to the
crankshaft, via connecting rod.
It has a Cudgeon pin, which helps in converting the reciprocating motion of the
piston to the rotary motion of the crankshaft.
2. A Two stroke piston is usually of the cross-head type, i.e. it is connected via the
piston rod to the Cross-head bearing, which reciprocates along with the piston. The
connecting rod connects the crosshead to the crankshaft.
3. The Four stroke piston is usually shorter in length.
It is cast in one piece, and carries compression as well as oil-scraper rings.
The piston is usually splash-lubricated, and hence the need for oil scraper rings.
4. The Two stroke piston is usually made in separate parts -
a) tlre pistorr Crowrr,
b) the pistorr Skirt, and
c) the piston Rotl.
All of the above oomponents are normally of clifferent rnaterials.
There are rnainly compression rings, there being separate cylinder lubrication, hence
the absenue of oil scraper rings.
The older Sulzer Two stroke pistons wor.rld shut the exhaust ports, and hence were
made with long skirts.
Wear bands were fitted to assist in the running-in process.

Piston Cooling
Pistons nray be
l) Freslr water cooled or
2) Oil cooled.
Enclosed sketctres show fresh water cooled and oil cooled Pistons.

Advantages of water cooling :

l. W'ater is cheap and available easily.
2. lnterual sruiaces are kept free from deposits (if cooling water is treated regularly).
3- W'ater can be operated at higher temperatures (oil would carbonise).
4. Watcr is able to lransfer nearly twicc as much heat away as oil, since it's speoific
lrctil is ircarlv lwiuc llral ol'oil.

33
 CROWN

COOLING
SPACE

OIL IN

OIL COOLED PISTON

C,q'^ST ALUMINIUM

PISTON
RINGS

OIL SCRAPER
RINGS

+..J ie
(i
Ir
i,*-i'
t,i
lr' ll

CONNECTINGROD

FOUR STROKE ENGINE PISTON

34
Disadvantages of water cooling i
l. Leakap.e into crankcase will lead to water contamination of lube oil.
2. Addit;nal pumps and coolers required.

Advantages of oil cooling :

l. Simptitied supply system is achieved ( no additional pumps and coolers required).
2. Leakage will not contaminate Lube Oil in the sump.

Disadvantages of oil cooling :

1 . Temperature must be kept relatively low, in order to limit oxidation and carbonising.
2. lf rhere is overheating at any moment, carbon deposits courld fonn on internal
surfac:es, which are clifficrrlt to clean, and which reduce the heat transfer rate'

Prchoating or Wanning through Engines

a ) Heating thc cooling water. Water rnay be heated by an elechic heating elenrent or
b-v- steam passing through a coil. The water is the,n circulated through the cylinder
jackcts, pistons, and cylinder heads.
b ) Alternatively, the generator cooling water outlet may be circulated through the main

engine, to preheat the main engine, whenever engine is stopped and being made
ready for departure.

Why Preheating
l. If the engine is preheated, it can easily reach the self ignition temperatue of the
luel, tlrus liring iuunediately. Also, less Starting air is required, thus giving nore
r'€SurVe tlf air' lor furtl'rer tliovetnetlts.
2. Minimises any cold corrosion.
3. N{inirnises stresses due to uneven expansioq during starting.
4. Whcn the engine is warq the clearances are correct, thus lubrication is made
easier, and there is less chance of undue wear of moving parts. It has been fbund
that maximum wear takes place dr:ring the starting period of any machinery since
lubrication is not adequate.

Sterting of Main Enginc,s

Starring Air valves are provided on each unit tlf the Main Engine.
These operr in the correct slarting sequence by uteans of the Distributor.
No rnaltct what positi<ln tlie Engine is, at least oirc unit will always have a starting air'
valve opcl). Wren the engine attains a certain utiuittttutt speed, the sclf ignition
teniperature ofthe injected fuel is reached, after which it fres.The starling ail pressure
for a Main Engine may range from 25 to 30kglcrfi.
The Air Bottles provided must be able to give 12 or more starts, fbr ships having
reversible engines, and 6 or more starts for vessels titted with C.P.P. propeliers.
{\
Controlling of speed
It is very important that the nrain engine speed be gradually increased frorri Full
Ahead to the Full Away or Maximum rated speed.
This is because the engine is only producing about 25% - 30o/o of its power at Full
Ahead, and thus has not reached its proper operating parameters.
If speed were to be suddenly increased, the Tubochargers would be unable to supply
sufficient air fsr proper combustion, resulting in unbumt fuel coating the uptakes,
possibly leading to an uptake fire.
Also, insufficient air supply would lead to deterioration of combustion in the cylinders,
possibly causing danrage to exhaust valves and turbochargers.
The 'lag' in the Turbochargers can be takgn care o{, by gradually increasing speed. In
case of Bridge control of main engines, this is done by a Load-up Program.

Reversing
The reversing mechanism is different for different makes of Main engines.
In older Sulzer engines, it involves rotation gftfe. camshaft, which shifts the Fuel and
Distributor carns to the desired position. In modern Sulzer engines, the camshaft is
stationary while servomotors are used for shifting only the cams.
In older B&W engines, the camshaft is rotated, as in the case of old Sulzer engines,
while in rhodern B&W engines, the fuel pump rollers are shifted pneumatically.

In 4 stroke engines, the cycle is completed in two engine revolutions, thus the camshaft
rotates at half the speed of the crankshaft.
In 2 stroke engines, the camshaft rotates at the same speed as the crankshaft, since
there is a power stroke in every revolution. They have fewer catns, as they do not
require Air inlet valves ( Scavenge ports are used)n and incase of older Sulzer engines,
exhaust ports were rxed, thus there were no exhaust valves.
A camshaft may be assembled from a number of similar part lengths. This is driven
either by gears (Sulzer) or chain drive (B&W); so that they always remain in phase
with the crankshaft

Control devices
The main control device of an engine is the Governor. It confuols the engine speed at
sorne fixed value, while power output changes to meet the demand,
This is done by automatically adjusting the fuel pump racks to meet the desired load
at the set speed.
The safety devices are the Interlocks, which prevent mal-operation, due to either
human error, viz. Turning gear not disengaged, or tnechanical defects, such as
Distributor not changing over, wrong direction ofrunning low lubricating oil pressu'e
and so on.

36
Scavenging
Scavenging is the process of replacing the spent charge after combustioq with a
fresh r"ppfy of air. Efficient scavenging is essential to ensure a suffrcient supply of
fresh air for combustion. [n a 4- stroke, there is adequate overlap between air irrlet
valve opening and exhaust valve closing.
ln a 2- stroke engine, the overlap is timited to a few degrees of crank angle, thus
intermixing of exhaust and fresh air takes place.
With the four stroke engine, in which each cycle occupies two revolutions of the
crankshaft, removal of the exlraust gases from the cylinder presents no problem. In
the two-stroke engine, on the other hand, replacement of exhaust gases by fresh air
occupies only a comparatively short period, and complicated arrangement are required
for scavenging the cylinder and recharging.it with air.
In any engine at a given speed an increase in the weight sf air available for combustion
allows a grcater quantity of fuel pressure and the engine torqr.rc ale increased. The
power ouput of an .nginr can, therefore, be increased in relation to its weight and
size by pressur€ charging i.e. by supplying the cylinder with more air than it would
normally take at atmospheric pressure.
The maximum cylinder pressgre does not become very much higher, but the amount
of heat released is greater.

Types of Scavenging
l. Cross flow.
2. Loop.
3. Uniflow

Cross flow scavenging

In Cross scavenging G r.uu.nge ports are on one side, and the extrbut ports on
the opposite side of the cylinder, as showri ih tlie sketcfu-

CROSS-FLOW SCAVENGING
37
Loop flow scavenging
Due to the greater degree of intermixing of exhaust and fresh alr, in the Cross t
the Loop tlpe evolved. Here the fresh air is directed upwards in a I p and flows
through the exhaust ports. This improved the scavenge effrciency. This type
scavenging was found on earlier engines of Sulzer.

LOOP SCAVENGING

Uniflow scavenging
However, as the shoke length increased, it was found that this tpe of
was not able to adequately remove the exlrarxtgasgq fromthe increased height of
combustion chamber. Thus the Uniflow type of scavenge was found to be ttre
efficient wherein the fresh air enters the cylinder from the lower part of the liner
flows upwards and drives out the exhaust through a cenhally mounted exhaust
This design is now found on most modern engines of MAI.I-B&W Sulzer and
types.
 Crankcase Explosion
sequence of events leading
to Crankcase
' For an explosion ureru rnus
to o".u. the.e mul p
e a€ ni_ /^-__,
of air_(oxygen)
and ignitiln. O*yg. fuel
oil :, but the lubricating.
sp'iashinga.ouid droplets to start
burning at ihe speer :,1g-t
slon; and the oil/air
concentration is too
r If however a mech
of moving parts then consequent mbbing
. when the temperatur :ankcase.
splashing on to this h I the lubricating oil
coolerpu'rt, of the cra ur then circulates to
r The size of the oil drl
,form an oil mist.
r When the concentrat ricrons diameter.
mist - air ratio) it is af g/l (about l3Yo oil
' If this o' mist is now ignit.d spot (temperature of about g50t)
then an explosion ll,hgt
w'r Jccur. tiiis is calleia crankcase
Exprosion.
Common Causes
(l) Locarised hot spot due to friction
(overheated bearings)
(2) Cracked piston Crown
(3) Blow-by or an external
fire
(4) rnletpipe forpiston .ooiin!
falring off due to inco ct tightening

kcase Explosions;

. cra,i.;;;;.",r;;ffi;_,-_ve s _
t:*
v small and practicable.
),

Prccsure

R.*t.b. n g|Eu dliE

9,iDry.Elaio
P
o

Crankcasc Relief Device

urHphciic
sFffifyar$*odmomu h an(t

Volvc corrlcr
G!uz, r$ombly
y.|"".O.ring

Crankcase explosion
relief vatve

39
 Turbocharging
The rnass of fuel that can be burnt in the
engine cylinder depends on the mass of air
present in the cylinder at the end
of torpr.-rrion. Hence by increasing the pressurc
ofthe scavenge air in the engine a greatermass
,
More fuel can then be burnt, which produces
co
of air for supplied-
air is supplied, so that more fuel can be
morepower. essure of
burnt, the engine is said to be supercharged-
A Turbo'blower or Turbocharger is an air-compressor,
which is driven by the
exhaust gas' The single shaft has an exhaust
gas turbine on one end and the air
compressor on the other' Suitable casing
design and shaft seals ensure that the two

::X"*::,]'ljir, guT from the macilinery space through a filter, and then
compressed, and then sent to the scavenge
of the casing is usually water-cooled.
space via an Air cooler. Th;';h;;r;;
There are two basic designs of turbochargers.
one in which the exhaust gases
led directly to the turbine, tull.d as Pulse
1e tle-, *a the other, in which the exhausr
is collected in a Exhaust receiver, where
the-iressure pulses are damped o*t. This
type is called,the Constant pressure type.
The constant pressure type is more
efficient, and thus finds widespread use in
main engine design' The drawback of
the constant pressure type is the reduction of
air quantity during slow speed operation,
which can be ou.i*tr1. by means of an
Arxiliary blower.
Tlre Pulse type is frequently found
on Generators, where the exhaust pipe is
constructed of a smaller diameter, and
is quickly pressurised to form a pressure
pulse' This is fi'uther expanded in
the nozzlesof the tubine. Thus complete expansion
of the cornbustion gases can be achieved.
Breakdown :
In the event of darnage to the turbocharger,
the engine should be stopped, to
prevent progressive damage. If it
cannot be immediately repaired due
the rotor of the damaged unit must
to,fack of time, -
be locked and immobilised as per manufacftrrers
instr'ctions' The engine can now be
run at a reduced speed. i,'
Fouling of exhaust turbochargers
Excessive deposits sometimes build
up on the nozzles, rotor and stator blading of
exhaust turbochargers and it is generally
difficult to remove them. The most cntical
factor.goveming their formatioi is-
exhaust-gur i.*perature; if for any reason
exceeds about 450"c, deposit rnainly this
rrom fu-il combustion products, build up fairly
quickly.
Rurning at overload increases exhaust
temperatures and makes deposit formation
rno.e likely than non,al load and temperaturq
conditions.
Any restriction of air supply decreases the air-to-fliel ratio and increases
the-
the
;#H:::mperarure.
Like ovirioading, rl,i, ;;;;.rr',r,.'i.niin., ro deposit
The fuel may sometimes be contaminated
with salt water, and sodium salts are
fonned during combustion and deposited
on trre blades.
40
 TUBEOEIIARGER

TURBINE SIDE
COMPRESSOR
SIDE

COOLING
WATER

s
ATIX.BLOWER
,t

I
f
I

'I'URI}O-CI IARGUR

\ctv ur<iu AtR c'(x)t.lJR

sc'^vliNcocnn, l,^n L^.,r,*
RECEIVF,B

4l
Turbocharger Ttrrbine washing
lf deposition is due mainly to ash from fuel or the lubricant, twbine can probably
bc

cleanecr by water washing or probably by water or steam injection during low-load

-..,
running. Certain engines in fact, permafrenlly fitted with steam connections for
soditrm salts
tlris purpose. The cleanirg methods are usually effective because the
that iiequently bond the deposits togettrer are highly soluble
in water. g is less

effective for carbo1u".o,,, deposits, to remove which a chemical so manual

is more
cleaning may be necessary. If a turbine is prone to fouling, cleaning
trouble-free period
economically effective when done at regular intenvals well within the
power, since the
of operation. tt is inadvisable to waii for an appreciable loss of
may
effect, of fouling are cunulative, once it has started, the rate of deposition
rapidly increase. This lower the turbine's efficiency, thus reducing the
engine's

tluoughput of air. If constant power is maintained the turbine's

inlet temperature
increases and this in turn increases the probability of deposit
formation. In additioru
more difficult to remove'
deposits formed at higher temperatures tend to be harder and

Scavenge Iires
Causes :

I . Accrnnulation of oil and residue in scavenge spaces.

2. Excessive Cylinder lubrication, leading to above'
3" Slack, worn or broken piston rings, causing blow-past'
4. Uneven cylinder liner wear, causing blow-past'
5. Defective sealing of Sttrffing bo*' causing crankcase oil
to gain access into the
Scavenge spaces.
into the scav-
A Fire Inay occur when flames from the combustion space blow-past
enge spaces, and ignite the oily residues there. Also sparks
formed by rubbing metal
a scavenge fire"
surfaces, such as liston rings lau.ing loss of lubrication) can cause

Indications
l. Excessive black smoke
2. Higlr exhaust and coolant temperatues of affected units.
3. Paint blistering / peeling from scavenge trunking'
4. Sparks from scavenge drains of affected units'
5. Uneven running of Turbochargers, possibly leading to Surging'
6. Drop in rpm, due to loss of Power.

Action to be taken (Small Fire)

l. Cut-offfuel to the unit concerned. This. will reduce the temperature.
2. Increase cylinder lubrication, to avoid seizing'
3. Slow down engine. If the fire is localised, and ftiel has been cut-ofl the fire may
burn itself out.

1a
qL
 It will be necessary to evenhrally stop the Main engine, tr_r as*eriail: the cal.isil oi fire.
and rectif,i any. damage.
(Large Fire)
l. Slow down the Main engine to dead slow, before finally stopping the engine Keep
the engine tundng on Turning geaq to prevent seizure, and continile rnanual lubrication
of the liners.
2. Keep all coolant/ lubricant pumps on, since they are carrying away heat from tlle
fire.
3, Switch off the Aux. Blower, and cover the air intakes, and shut the exhaust fire
damper, to stop the ingress of fi-esh air to the fire.
4. Use the installed fixed CO, srnothering system / steam smothering system for the
Scavenge spaces.
5. Make sure everybody is clearofthe reliefvalves, which rnay lift, as also the Crankcase
relief doors.
Ensure that the fire is put out, and give adequate tirne for the engine to cool down,
before atternpting to investigate into the cause.

Preparation ofDiesel Propulsion plant

24 hours prior vessel's deparfure
Procedure
Upon receipt of departure notice, the following is to be carried out,24 hours ahead of
the event :

1. Check that the stock of fuel oils, lubes, stores, gases, chemicals and spares are
sufticient for the intended voyage.
2. Maintain a sufficient level of fuel in the dieseV heavy oil service tanks.'Transfer cil
to till up settling tanks (H.O. and D.O. ) prior to arrival in port. No oil transfer to
be carried out in port, as far as possible.
3. Drain offwater from Fuel tanks, while rnaintaining the tank ternperatures.
4. Ensure Filters in L.O. and F,O. pipelines are clean.
5. Check operation of safety equiprnent including emergency generator.
6. Check temperature of Jackef cooling wate.r and adjust preheating, well in advance,
in order to have the engine sufficiently wanned up.
7. In cold climates, when necessary open steam to main engine syqtem oil (transfened
to settling tank prior arrival in port) and run the oilback to sunp tank after sufficiently
wanned up. Supplernent any water or lubribant to the respective systems, as
needed for safe operation.
8. Take soundings of all oil tanks and engine room cofferdarns.
9. Start the Exhaust gas boiler water circulating pump well in advance.
l0.Within 12 hours before departrue, check the operation of the steering gear, including
the ernergency steering.
I l.Fill up both Air bottles to full pressue and drain off the condensate frorn the
bottles,
l2.Records of the above, must be maintained in the log book.
+J
 Two hours before vessel's departure
Procedure
On receipt of Notice :

I' Start the second Generator, check for normal operation d parallel onto
Busbars.
2. Start the followingMain engine auxiliaries :
t) M / E Jacket cooling water pump
ii) M / E Piston cooling water pump
ru)M lE LO pump
iv)M / E FO booster pump
v) Steryr tube L.O pump
vi)Anv other pumps associated with nrnning of the Main engine.
vii)Ensure that the stand-by pumps are in good working order, and all relevant
are open,
While switching on various pumps mentioned above, ensure that the operations
smooth and trouble free and that pressures are normal.
3. Stop all preheating, if carried out for J.C.w, p.C.w,, etc. prior to start of the
engine.
4. Verifu that tbllowing are adequate for safe operation :
) Main L.O. sump tank ;

ii) Turboaharger L.O gravity tatk(if fitted)

iii)Main and auxiliary engine cooling water expansion tanks.
iv)Turbocharger L.O. levels.
v) Fuel valve nozzle cooling tank
vi)Stern tube L.O. overhead and gravity tank
vii)F.O. / D.O. service tank
viii)Boiler Hot-well tank.
5. Ensure that L.O. Filtration system is clear and that the differential pressure
nonnal.
6. Obtain Propeller clearance.
7. Open all Main engine Indicator cocks, engage ttuning gear, and turn M / E for a I
minutes, while manually operating the eylinder lubricators. Check that there is
liquid emerging liorn any of the Indicator cocks, while engine is turnilg on
geu,
8. Disengage turninE getr, and drain the Air bottles and the Stzuting air line of
9. Blow through engine and shut all Indicator cocks. Close drains on coolers. sc
' spaces, edraust manifold and the Economizer.
10.Try out the Main engine in ahead / astern direction. Verify that all alarms,
devices and recorders are functional.
I l.l'est steering gear. Ascertain smooth operation and check for any leaks.
l2.Air whistle and Telegraph to be tried out.
l3.Check operations of windlass and mooring ypc{res.
44
 Arrival Port
Procedure
I On receiving two lrours notice for arrival port, start additional generator and parallel
onto the Busbars.
L Shut the heating, for changing over to Diesel oil ( in modern engines this is not
neoessary, since Pier-to-pier operation is possible on Fleavy oil itself.) Change
over frorn H.O. to D,O.(if required).
3. Check the Starting systern ald put on standby all other Air compt'€ssors, while
filling up both the Air bottles.
{. Stop the Fresh water generating plant.
5. Test the firing of the Auxiliarl' oil fired boiler.
6. Start up the second Steering motor.
-' comutence recluciug the rnain engine revolutions graduallv and allow the Main
lves
engine to reach milnoeuvring speed. NOTE : Nonnally require about 45 rninutes
uue [o recltroe, li-onr Full Away to Full Alread (manoeuwing revolutions.)
8. Main cngine cylinder lubrication to be slightly increased, prior manoeuvdng the
{ain engine, if autornatic adjustrnent is not provided.
9. Respond to bridge commands for rnanoeuvring and enter movements in the
Move nrcut book.( In caso of Bridge control, the above is done automatically frorn
the Bridge itself.)

Finished with Engine

On Finished with Engine, do the following :
L Open all Indicator cocks of the Main engirte.
2. Open various drain such as scavenge space, exhaust manifold, turbine casing,
exhaust economizer, main air starting line.
3. Enguge 'l'uruing gear and tturr the engine for at least l0 minutes with rnarttral cylincler
lubrication.
4. Shut offSteering gear.
5. Shut offair to Whistle
One hor.rr after F.W.E., main punps for the propulsion plant rnay be stopped. This
ew
is to ensure that engine has cooled down suffrciently, Failure to do so could lead to
I lr,J
problerns like oarbouising <lf oil in piston cooling spaces, which are difficult to
ulg
access and clear.

er.
Difficulties faced by the Duty Engineer in rough weather
lge
Heavy spares and over-head crane should be lashed up. Main Engine speed to be
reduced to safe level. Tank levels to be checked, especially sump and service tanks,
ety
since rolling may cause false alarms at low levels. Water levels in boiler gauge
glasses to be monitored carefully. Owing to rolling causing shifting of liquids in
tanks, pumps may lose suction, which can be checked by monitoring punp
pressures.

45
 Precaufions to be taken for a UMS
vessel

I '
Persotlnel should never enter or
remain in an Unmanned machinery
alone, without authorisation trom space
til E;;t.;er offcer in charge.
2' A'Permit to.work,', dury authorised, ,to"uilbe
in Unrnanned machinery spaces. used, *t un*, working
3. Before entry into
an<r on
othcr means to
having'n
the
,:il"f,:til,ffit,;l,Hil::r;
ngineer Officer.
4' Notices of safety precautions to be
observed by personner working
unmanned machinery spaces, to in
be crearry disprayed at a1 entrances
the Machinery spaces. to
5' It should be ensured that warnings
are posted in unmanned machi.ery
spaces, about the likelihood
, of any machine automatically starting.
Unmanned ;;;hi;ery spaces are
il;,i;;jf,oo:,Tilfi:,lnu, adequatery
7 ' when machinery is under Bridge control, it must be ensured
Bridge is informed wheneu* uny that the
change in the machinery settings
m.ade by Engine room personner, is
and f,efore any reversion to Engine
roorn
control is rnade.
8' Bride watch-keeper must be able
''he to take any Emergency action
regarding the Machinery, during UMS oprr"riorr.
^
9. There nrust be a compiehensiv-e
rra".rrii.ry'rlu., Ararm system, which
includes Bilge level alarms.
l0' 'l'he linrergency Generator must
be capable of automatically starting
,,!r event of power failure of the Main in
,. system.
I 1' Proper check-lists should
be followed-Lg"tJi"g remote operation '

Main engine,.especiaily with regard of the

to changes in speed, and Reversar.
12' Autornatic Fire cletection
and alarm ,yrt"r-rust be checked to
operation at all tirnes. be in
t, a, essential instrumenration is tested as per
,i,r,Tfi:n:ffi:i,:iat
l4' There must b..u.n.Elergency
Headnuart€rs, remoto from the Machinery
spaces' fi"om which it is possible
to take emerg.nry action to control
ptmps, Quick-closing varves, romote Fire
extinguishing rnedia.
tripr, Fire dampers and

46
Purification
The correct treatment of diesel engine fuel on board ship is vital to ensure trouble-
hee operation. Distillate diesel fuel is usually free from impurities when delivered anel
requires only filtration to remove solid contaminants that might have been picked up
rn pipelines or in storage. Heavy fuel is much more difficult to fieat, however because
rt often contains either fresh or salt water, which could corrode the fuel injection
lrstem and impair fuel combustion. Sometimes it also contains other ccmtaminants
>uch as sediment and abrasive material derived from dust or catalyst fines. It is
asential that water and solid contaminants be removed from the fuel before it reaches
the engine, ild there are three principal ways of removing them.
r a) Centrifuging, (b) Filtration and (c) Homogenising and ultra-sonic heatment.

DISC'TYPE ROTOR

/
TUBULAR BOWL
TYPE ROTOR

Clarification
In clarification there is no heavy fluid (water) effluent and all separated matter
remains in the centrifuge bowl. There is little advantage inthis if the fuel contains
u'ater, and it is usually preferable to operate the centrifuge as a clarifier in series with a
purifier. Clarification is useful to fteat ftiel sirspected of contamination with solid
matter such as rust or scale in ships tanks.

Separation
Water is usually the main insoluble contaminant of the ftiel. Apart from removing
the water, some of the sludge in the fuel is also removed. Accumulation of deposits
on the bowl wall is thereby retarded, and where considerable quantities of matter are
being rernoved, the machine may be nur for longer periods, between desludging. This
s of particular advantage where the bowl has to be cleaned manually. In the disc type
of centrifuge, the water and contaminants are separated between the discs. Centnfu-
gal force results in the lighter component (the fuel) flowing inwards, while the heavy
components (water and sludge) move outwards to the edge of the bowl. In the disc
tlpe of centrifuge, it is essential to use the gravity ring (dam-nng ) that accords with
the densitv of the fuel.
A1
Bunker Sampling
It is important to carry out Bunker Sampling to ensure that Bunkers
supplied to vessel for combustion purposes meet the fuel oil
requirements as per regulation 18 of Annex VI, MARPOL 73178.
1, Fuel oil shbuld not contain unacceptable percentage of
contamination i,e. IYo for heavy oil (180cst) and0.25o/o for Diesel oil.
2. It should be free from inorganie acid and'its properties confirmed.
3. It should not include any added substance or chemical waste whi
jeopardises safety of ship or affectS machinery performance
4. It should not be harmful to personnel.
A drip sample is taken at the manifold. If the bunker sample is not taken
acceptable procedures no claims on quality of fuel can be made by shipowner
against bunker supplier.
A sealed sample duly signed by supplier's representative and Chief Engineer/
Master is retained on the vessel foy l2.months.

Chief Mate's duties during bunkering

l. Prior commencing Bunker operations, a meeting should be he held with
all deck officers and crew, to make them aware of their responsibilities
& spill contingency plan discussed.
2. 'Vessel should be properly moored.
3. All SOPEP equipment, kept standby near bunker manifold.
4. All scuppers should be closed / qqal.t{, .. ...
5. All accommodation doors closed and air-conditioning kept on r1F
circulation mode.
6. Co-ordinate with Chief Engineer and fill up safety checklist.
7. Crew to be standby with all safety gear and equipment.
8. lt should be ensured that proper communication between ship
bunker barge has been established.
9. Vessel should be in upright position and any ballasting/de-ballasting
operations completed before commencement of bunkers.
l0.Bunker manifold tray should be ciean.
I l.Time of commencement of bunkers recorded.
lL,Area around vessel to be monitored to ensure no spillage leaks.
13.Co-ordinate with Engineer in-charge of bunkering operations.
l4.As Chief Mate fully in-charge of vessel's safety and regular rounds
should be taken.
l5.A crew member must always be standby at the bunker manifold.
l6.Any change in trim or list must be monitored and Engineer in-charge
duly informed.

48
 rClhrarprrerr tsio il.ll,errss Guilrdl ]t-rurrrjb, ii nr,e s
ters s
Jity Boilers

lter Two types of rnarine boilers are used on Merchant Navy vesseis:
il. l. Smoke Tirbe Boilers:
ln this type, the hot gases from the furnace pass through the tubes, Boilers
ich falling under this category are:
(a) Scotch Boiler : Generally used where working pressure range varies
fiorn 15 to l6kglcm2.
to (b)Cochran Boiler: (Donkey boiler) Used for working pressure ranges from 6 -
ler 7 kg lcm2 .

(c) Composite Cochran Boiler.

r/ 2- Water tube Boilers:
In this type, the water flows through the inside of the tubes, while the hot
furnace gases pass around outside. Boilers falling under this category are
(a) Babcock & Wilcox
ttr
(b)Foster Wheeler and so on.
)s
These are used in steam ships/ tankers, where higlr rated output and speed, along
with very high working pressures, are nonnally found.

These have some distinct advantages over Scotch boilers :

l) less space is taken for the s:lme output.
2) steam can be raised from cold water in a few hours, since there is a natural
circulatiorr of water.
3) Stresses can be reduced, due to the natural circulation of water when lighting
t. up,'
4) Steam and water drums are small in diameter, compared with the large shell of
the Scotch boiler.
5) l..ess Inass of water is carried, as compared to Scotch boiler, hence there is a
savirrg in weight.

L Smoke tube Boilers :

Scotch Boilers
'l'hese are
of rnild steel, cylindrical in shape, approximately 4 - 5 rn diameter,
and 3 - 4 rn long. 'I'freir working pressure nonnally is l5 - 17 kgl c;rn,.
The heating surfaces cornprise of
a) firnrace,
b) cornbustion chamber,
c) smoke tubes.
'I'he
fiulace is corrugated to give extra strength, greater heating surface area,
artd to utlbr' lrltls resistrrrrcc to cxpansion and corrtraction.
 Water Tube Boiler - Foster Wheeler Flue gases (Exhaust)

Steam &
Water [)rurtt Air Heater

Air from
<= forced draught flan

Satulratcd 'Io
Stcanr Supcrhcittr"r
+.--.+! Feed Water

Upper Header
Economiser

Super-Heater

Super-Heated steam
Side rvall
To Turbines

€----\
:-:-:-=::

I lcader
Water Drunr
lrloor
Lower Rear Header

Sirnplified lloiler Arrangelnent

To Ilptakc

Air hon lo.c.d

<F drnot frara
12.\
-; *
fnrxn llt/B ToI
Exhaust =E
1,,, t,
mll tub! n br.
Alr cool.d or locrt.d
ln bollr drum
:-:
--' /
t

[email protected] n4.
p9arl|gtd

AIXILIARY BOILER.
DIACRAMMATIC ARRANCEMENT OF A SINGLE PASS
. COMPOSITE COCHRAN BOILER
50
 2. Cochran Smoke Tube Boiler
(Oil fired Boiler cum Exhaust Gas Economiser)
In this Boiler the generation of steam can be achieved by using heat either
from the Main Engine exhaust gas or from oil firing or both. This can be
called also an Exhaust Gas Boiler'

3. Water Tube Boiler

A Foster Wheeler-Water Tube Boiler is.shoyp in the sketch. In the steam
generation process the feed water enters the boiler where it is heated and
becomes steam. The feed water circulates from the steam drum to the water
drum and is heated in the process. Some of the feed water passes through the
tubes surrounding the furnace i.e. waterwall and floor tubes, where it is
heated and returned to the steam drum' Large bore downcomer tubes are
pas
used to circulate feed water between the drums. The down comer tubes
outside of the fumace and join the steam and water drums. The steam is
produced in a steam drum. This saturated steam (wet) passes through a
superheater where it is further heated and dried i.e. ail traces of water
are

converted into steam. An 'attemperator' i.e a steam cooler may be fitted

in
the system to control the superheated steam temperafure.
Betbre f-eed water enters the economizer, it gets heated by the hot gases from
the furnace. Thereby there is increased efficiency'

Raising steam 'from cold' or Warming up

is visible in the
l. Fill up the boiler with sufficient amount of water, so that the level
gauge glass.
2. bp* the air vent.
3. Rrur the forced drauglrt fan, and purge the ftrrnace.
4. Line up all the valves, and start tire fuel booster pulnp, clreckirig to see that
enougb oil is there in the service tank'
up
5. Fire the boiler at short intervals, for very small periods, to enable it to warm
graclually. Failure to do so could lead
6, When steatn start issuing ottt of the ai
steam to the proper working pressure' es

are to be checki, and the boilerwate is to

.ke be put ittto comrnission.

position'
7 . When the cont-roller is working, run the feed pumps in the auto
size of the Boiler,
) 8. The tirne taken to bring up steam m?y vary according to the
arrd its rated capacity, and could take'upto 24 - 30
hogrs.

Impurities and treatment of feed water

reduces the stren$h
Acids cause conosion of boiler heat tr nsfei siirfaces, wluch
rates'
causing crack fbrmation and failure and also redtrces heat fansfer
5l
ELEMENTARY AUTOMATIC COMBUSTION SYSTEM

Bumer (oversiec)

Duplcx
'Iit)'frlrer

:Hi8h fluntc sPill

Solenoid
operulron

Fronr
sctr/tcc
tlnk
(Sruarn Atomising) llunrcn l{
FUELOIL SYSTEM-BOI
 The second type of problem faced is oxidation. F{ere a rnetal combines with
the dissolved oxygen in the water, to form its oxide.
Ittgress o1'oil can cause a coating to fom on heat transfer snrfaces, which
hinders elficiency and causes local overheating. Oils such as anirnal / vegetable
oils decornpose, liberating fatty acids, which corrode.
Salts causing lrardness, result in scale fonnation. Scale reduces heat transtbq
which brings about a fall in effrciency and risk of local overheating . Also salts can
cause 'fbatniug' and 'prirnirrg'. Calcitun sulphate forms a hard tenacicus scale.
Boiler water treatment is carried out in order to :
a) Prevent scale fonnation.
b) Prevent corrosion.
c) Control of sludge fbnnation and ease of removal of sludge by blow-down.
d) De-aeration to prevent corrosion.
e) To produce non-adherent sludges , a Coagulant (such as Sodium Alurninate) is
added.

Tests
l) Alkalinity - to test for the reserve of alkalinity in the boiler.
2) Chloricle - to give an indication of contamination of boiler with sea water.
3) Harchress - to check for salts causing 'hardness'.
4) Conductivity - to check for contamination.
Cornposite test kits are provided by various companies, which enable the
tests to be carried out by the ship's staff
Proper dosing and testing, along with recommended intervals for blowdown
of sludg,:s, are to be strictly fbllowed.

Boiler mountings
These cornprise of :
( l) Main stearn stop valve.
(2)Aux. Steam stop valve.
(3)Main feed check valve.
(4) Aux. Feed check valve.
(5) Feed water regulator.
(6) V/ater gauges.
(7) Pressure gauge cock.
(8) Safety valves.
(9) Circulating valve.
(10)Lllow dowu valve.
(l l)Scum valve.
( I 2)Salinorneter cock.
( l3)Air cock.
( l4)Whistlc valve.
( l5)Soot blowers.

53
Superheated Stearn
strperheaters r'vhere it receives extra
Steaur gerrer-atecl in a boiler flows through
the smoke tubes. By this effect the steatn
rreat fiorn trre exrraust gases flowing through
increase
out. The temperature rises without
becomes 6ry as water particles/rnoirt*. dri
increases efficiency of the
of pressure. Tliis steain is called superheated steam.which
,[,rre uptake body in a nest, the
e'tire ptant. superrreater tubeslnay be housecl in the
entire tody of which is called an Economiser'

Safety Valves
becomes defective the other can
At least two valves must be fitted so that if one
deal with arly exoess steam being generated' Tlt-tt
of the
to blow off at a prossure not exceedrng3%
not rise
must lift suffrciently, so that the pressure does
blow-off pressure'
Thehightifttypesafetyvalveglvesahigherliftthanthenormalvalve'toallowa
greater escape of stearn'

Soot Blowers
between the tubes' econornisers and
These are frtted to boilsrs, to clean the spaces
superheaters:
These rnay be of the following types:
(a) Hand operated, steam jet blower'
(U; Soot blower, using compressed air'
poi.ts to ensure efflective
A .uurber of soot browers may be fitted at different
ancl blowing is performed at regular
intervali' perhaps onOe every 12
coverage
hours, to rnaintain clean sttrfaces'

Gauge glass
tJffi: of a glass tube i plate type, with
ihe *ute, revel in the boiler, and it comprises
steam-tiglrtglands,steam&watershut-offcocks,andadraincock'
Details'
when the boiler is ^r +Lo
'^ at
r.^na^r.vnrkins
the oorrect working level, t will b-e nearlty half-full, and
the glass
level^ the.

the limits to which the water level ;;ny *iini" the glass. If the level should rise
"t. with a separate cut-off for very
above or below, then an alarm tftoJa be sounded;
low level.
To blow-through the gatrge glass, do the following
:

water to drain out the contents'

a) Shut the steam and
and separately' to veriff that both the
b) Crack open the steam
passages are olear.
Now water should rise to the
c) Then shut tlre drain cock, and open the water cock'
full height of the gauge glass.-
come down to the correct level.
d) Open rhe steam rlrf.,l aier which the level should
54
 STEA]\d

GAUGE GLASS

RUBBERPACKING
coNE

BALL CHECKVALVE

DRAIN COCK

55
COIVIPRESSIONNUT

SAFETY VALVE
Causes of bad combustion :
l)Dlrty / clogged bumers.
2) Water in the fuel.
3) Incorrect atomising pressur€.
4) Incorrect oil viscosity (teryeratrne).

Efiicient steam utilisation

This is achieved by :
l) Avoiding steam leakages.
2) Providing dry steam (superheated) for the process.
3) Proper insulation llaggjngof stearn pipelines.
4) Proper veirting of air from the system.
5) Minimismg any barriers to efficient heat transfer, viz. scale formation.
6) Condensate recovery.
7) Proper selection and maintenance of steam taps.

Boiler Blow-down
Blowdown is the mechnnical process of removing boiler water, which
is used to remove / lower excessive concentrations of dissolved and
suspended solids, in boiler water. This blow-down is done on a regular basis,
detennined from boiler water tests, to prevent excessive sludge build-up, as a
result of che,micals used for dosing. The excessive accumulation of sludge
md scale reducos heat transfer rates and can cause local over-heating and
frilrre. The result is a loss of efficiency (greater fuel consumption), as well as
inmeased risk oftube leakage.
Feed water needs to be monitored and processed, prior to using in the
boiler, to ensure that concentrations of nahrrally occurring solids are at their
minimun" and that chemical teatnent'is brifficient to deal with them. An
upp€r limit for dissolved solids is specified, based on the characteristics of the
system. Based on this value, the level is maintained by blow-down.

Boiler Suveys
During the Survey, all mormtings are dismantled and examined, bef,ore
being passed as fit for continued use. Safety valves are examined and set, to
the correct working pressure by the Surveyor. All safety controls and trips are
tested. Audliary boilers are surveyed every 30 months. Main boilers are
snrveyed every 30 months, upto 8 years, and every year thereafter. Lifting
pressure, of Safety valves, is 3 %o of working pressure.
Other inspections include extemal inspection of Boiler shell plate, recording
of furnace guagings and examining tubes for thinning.

57
 AI.IX. EXHAUST BLED
STEAM STEAM

STEi{IVI RETURNS
STEAMTO
FROM TI.JRBINE

!:l
MAKE- I.]P

CONTROLLER REGENERATTVE
CONDENSOR

DRAIN

O\IER-FLOW+
't.'.'
NON-REIURN VALVE

REGENERATIVE CONDENSER
( CLOSED FEED SYSTEM )

Regenerative Condenser
In stean turbine installations, having boilers, the feed water system is a closed
circuit, and often employs a Regenerative condenser, for improving the thermal
efficiency.
This system prevents the condensate from coming into contact with the
atmospheric ar, before being returned as feed to the Feed tank. If the circuit were
to be open to afinosphere, the water would tend to absorb oxygen, leading to
corrosion problems.
In the Regenerative condenser, air is taken qut b.y means of stearn ejectors, and
some steam is allowed to directly heat the condensate, in order to maintain the
temperature.
58
 isit?
fo a machine which converts heat enerry
intomech?upel energy, in the fonn of a
hting shaft.
n from the Boiler enters the Turbine casing.
The s eam is allowed to expand
I*3*T.rlTl:"",h* f. rj:T a hish velociry. rhA hish velocity
is directed onto curved section blades,"rq,.ii",
ds of expanding the steam are different,
which uuro'ru'rnii. lr ;ilil}il:
are:
in the two types of t ines.

Impulse type.
l' Reaction type.
lr
L rmpuse turbure :
steam is expanded in nozzles, in which the high velocity of steam is
attained,
aroq,rni consequent increase in verociry
:jl"t^l'::9ri:,:iblades.
place in these noz-zles. As lhe.nressure
the steam purr., over the rotor bradeJ;b*,
tt-v, but there is no fall in pressure (in
the rotor blades).
L
fte pressure compounded Impulse iurbine, the pressure
op is carried out in
lts'
L
each stage consisting of one set of nozzles'.and
fte velocity compounded Impulse turbine, the'complete
oue bladed turbi'e wheel.
in steam pressure
*es placg in one set of nozzl"r, ho*ru.r, ttre drop in velocitydrop vr srvq'rJ
of steam is vcurreLr
carried uLrl
out
different stages (in separate rows of wheels).
Ht'sure - velocity.compounded Impulse
turbine, is a combination of the above two.

htris type, the expansioh of stearn takes place, in both the fixed
blades i' the casing
ad the moving rotor blades.
rDere are no conventional nozzle$ as in
the Impulse type, since both the fixed and
t moving blades act as nozzles.

of Impulse turbine
ulse turbine is shown rn the sketch.
of four.sets of nozzles, and four wheels in
stages in the Astern turbine' Each wheel
crnes two rows of brades, and there is
Fotuding radially inwards, between each
ir trpo steps, from each set of nozzles. Th
tNgd
-lt:ll ar, I .
Stegl stepped shaft. Thenozzle plates.and
the casing to which
re in two halves. tley are fixed,

59
 thr*tE BLADE

ULSE TIJRBINE

FIXED BLADES CASING

MOVING
BLADES

REACTIONTURBINE

60
 Casttiu
1

Packin: Gland
,/

Exhaust

IMPULSE TURBINE WITH 5 PRESSURE STAGES

(Press ureVeloci ty Compounded Impulse Turbine)

Dumny Piston
Clarrd

II.P. Rotor

Flexible Adj
).flnarancc
.-
Coupling Exhaust'1
Pipe

H.P. Steam

REACTION TURBINE SECTION SUOWiNG DUMMY PISTON

ovenb.oard dischorge
oE coP

Steom from range

Astenn steom/Xr1u.l

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT FOR TURBINE INSTALLATION

6l
 Construction of Reaction turbine
The principal parts are shown in the sketch. The rotor consists of a steel clmrn, with
grooves around the outer circumference, into which the blades are fitted. The dmm is
carried on a frame-work, mounted on a shaft. At the steam inlel enti o1'the rotor, a
dummy piston is mounted, for the steam pressure to act upon, to balance the opposite
axial thnrst on the rotor blades. Unbalanced arial thrust is taken by the single collr
Thnrst block at the forward end of the shaft. Carbon rings / labyrinth packing, seal
the ends, through which the shaft passes. As the steam falls in pressure it conseqrently
increases in volume, and to accommodate this the rotor and the casine is rnade
progressively larger in diameter.

Astern running
A separate Astern hrbine is required to drive the propeller in the reverse direction-
The astern turbine may be mounted on the same shaft as the aheacl turbine or it may
be a separate unit geared to the main shaft. The Ahead and Astern tutbines have
their own separate steam stop valves,

Warming through prior to starting

Turbines must be warmed up thoroughly to working temperature, prior to start.
Assuming that the boilers are on line, and steam is available, the following procedtre
is followed :
a) Keep drains on turbine and steam lines opin. '
b) start lubricating oil pumps after checking their sump levels.
c) Open gland steam.
d) open the rnain injection and discharge valves of the turbines.
e) Start the main condenser circulating pump on slow running.
f) Run condenser extraction pumps to maintain the vacuum in the condenser.
g) Enswe proper Propeller clearance is obtained. urn the turbine very slowly.
h) Ease main steam valve and let water drain off. Gradually close the drains.
D Check sliding feet are free and take expansion readings.
) crack open manoeuwing valves, to allow little steam to turbine.
k) After adequate time interval, raise vacuuln and operate manoeuwing valves to tum
turbine. Repeat this every l5 rninutes.

Gas Turbine
A gas turbine works on the constant pressure cycie. ttre air compressor
delivers air at pressure to the combustion chamber, where fuel is bumt by
means of burners.
The mixture of hot air and gases is now passed through the turbine, where work is
done in turning the shaft. Finally the gases exhaust to the afinosphere.
62
 tC)t-narp,rr er ll lRLrurrdldlre]Fssr S te,e r ilnr,e' aunrdl
.b-

Slhrarltrriinr.pr
.b-

of rudders
cellular framework, from which rudders are constructed, is usually of the follow-
ypes.
Cast [pe: These are cast in a foundry, brought to the shipyard and enclosed in
skinplating.
Prefabricated type: These are made in the yard itself, using horizontal and
vertical plate webs welded together. These are more popular on modern ships.

Design
shape of the rudder plays an important role in its efficiency.
technology goes into rudder design, bebauSe ziii 0fficient rudder will mean:
l- High manoeuwability of the vessel.
2- Faster turning response.
3- Saving in fuel, since there is less reduction in speed while turning.
4- Reduced stresses in the stern area.
5- Smaller steering gear required.

Iypes of Rudders
There are three main Wpes of rudders :

fhbalanced Rudders ;

These are rudders having their entire turning area abaft the turning axis.
are relatively inefficient and today are only found on small ships, tugs, launches
lifeboats.
Scmi Balanced Rudders:
These rudders have a small proportion of their lateral area forward of ther turning
ais (usually less than20%o) and are foturd on larger vessels where due to construc-
lfunal restraints, a balanced rudder could noi be'fitted.(e.g. for twin screw vessels).
Dtlanced Rudders :

Rudders having their turning axis positioned, sb as to have as nearly as possible

cqual areas forward and aft.
This is the most popular type of rudder found on modern ships.
t A typically balanced rudder would have about 2o-30yo of the length forward of the
iEning axis.

63
 CROSS SECTION

%---+

BALAhICED RIJDDE
 r Clearances
Jumping Bar Topckrnntr
'uP'1B''-r'1' 7Fa
ii,e -iunrping Ijar !s fitted abil.ve ihc
Eo'romcrcenmeRudder
Collar. In hearry wcather dus
to impact lbrce if rucitlcr jumps the
impact will bc taken by the jumping
Meb nrddcr Bordng
) 'Jompbg'clcrnncc
bar andnot by the crosshead.

Pildo burh netcriel I Phanolit min

SwCl < l-t 7o rrll thhlnes

Rlllaj tuhcr clanucc

hdder Carrier bearing and Rudder Drop

Thc Ruddcr- Carricr- bcarirrg takes the weiglrt of the Rudder, on a grease lubricatetl
tust face. The Carrier bearing componenls are split as necessary for renroval or
nflacernent. Screw down lubricators are filted, and the grease used for lubrication is
t walcr-resislant type. (Calciun soap based, with graphite.)
Bcaring wear-down takes place over a period of tirne, hence allowance is rnade in the
Fnstruclion of the Steering gear for a vertical drop of the rudder slock, which would
ip'evenl the weight of lhe rudder fi'orn adding to the stress orr the ranls. Tlris allowance
ib callcd llrc Ruddcr Drop. It is mcasurcd by a TRAMMEL GUAGE.
balanced rudders are used to reduce tlre uraxirmun torque which would be required.
lHowcvcr, al low rudder angles, the nrdder lends to drive the steering gear, helrce lully
ltalarrced rudders may not always be used..The angle of balance depends on what
lF ""ntoge of the total area of the nrdder is forward of the ttrrning axis. The nrclder
1rr1l be balanoed and the toru1ue will be zero when the force acting on the nrclder at the
lertre of pressure coincides with the axis of rotation.
i Rudder stock
r Splir on (. lo
facililate rcntovitI

r-
I
I /---_r Iillur

:,,r
t1
I

t._

Clearance to allc.'w
for rudder wear dowrr

Doubler

--t

RUDDER CARRIER/BEARING
+ Gland (sHowrNG RUDDER DROP)
65
 gear provides rhe movernent or tlrerTl*J'JT respon'se
;i"J![3ri.g T.il,',tJ.3l
ol equiPment in teering flat'

as Ertrergetlcy sw oards'
any positiotr, in 1' lse to the
te required Position'
to its
normal stress and return the Rudder
required Positiort'
course'
4. It should be able to ntaintain the ship ott
gear
Four ram type hydraulic steering
gear is shown in the sketch'
A typical fou, ,am-hyclraulic steerin!

swtvE L Bt t.oss RtAD

HYORAULIC
CYL IN DE R,

TI LLER
uoDtR srocf,

HYORAULIC
('YLI|\| OER

HUNIING ITV€ BY-P StREtIEF VAtvES

coNNECTIoN.!
rE LE I|OTO

coNrRot no

FOUR RAM STEERING GEAR

66
 2 i i riniri STEEfi ii'{G GtrAIi
Tvi) R A tu{ .s Ys' l-ii },{ : DoT
. 1E I) i . rN f S iUD I CA.LL.+-.4!21_UQN4!

*
r- - -" -trt"J- I
It
I .^FY*i-:rrivrF
REL,IEF VALVE I

I r--1 .
ir: n!!l
-r---1 |

?---'-{ F------r i i { l-J---1

'frAYlrl

t p ah,ra /'a\ CYLINDERS

CYLINDER I

:\t*,
Ir\\"J#llt r\{uvr:!-r t I l- E

'1-TT I trI? I

\lr
i r-.---..1- \,rr i--I
;_J
t
| -! [__ i | ]--n i
I
I I
llt.---tli
r.r I :.|-lLJN
.ffi
I lNti l-t1vt1K I t
llr rill ll
a

I
I
a
I

M€ ?
I

ELECTRIC N{OTQR-

OIL TANK

Isolating Valves: Thg use of isolating valves isolates one ram from another.
Thereby any fault can be attended.
Relief valve: Thesb are provided between the pipes connecting the opposite
rams. They are designed to lift if pressure iq the system rises to about 10olo
above normal, which could happen in heavy sQa$, The abnormal stress on the
mdder stock is therebY avoided.

67
This design converts the linear movemsnt of the hydraulic rams to the rotary
ment of the Rudder. The Rams are of close-grained Cast Iron br Steel, with a hi
finished surface. Cross-head slippers, bolted to the side of the rhms, slide on the
machined surfaces of the Guide beam, so that the glands in the cylinders are ie-
lieved of side thrust. As shown in the sketch, hydraulic'pressure to the rams is
supplied by variable delivery pumps driven by electric motors. When the
rod,of the pump is in the rnid-position, there is no flow of oil,

Hunting gesr
The sketch show the hunting gear for the hydraulic steering geaf shown.
The pumps are in a nodelivery state, until a rudder movement is received from
Bridge Telemotor fiansmitter. The Telemotor Receiver cylinder will then move thc
floating lever, which moves the floating ring in the Variable delivery steering pump,
causing a pumping action, which moves the tiller. The return linkage via Buffer
spring will cause the floating lever to be re-positioned, such that pumpin$ ceases
when the required Rudder angle is reached.

BUFFERSPR1NG

I
t
It
a
t

.t
FLOATING r'a
I-EVER tl
ll
1l
TELEMOTOR
CONIROL HUNTING GEAR

Rotaly Vane type

Irr tlris type of steering geu, a vaned rotor is fastened to the Rudder stock, and is
able to move in a housing attached to the ship's structure. Chambers are formed
between the vanes of the rotor, and the housing. These chambers are supplied wi
oil under pressure, to enable the Rudder stock to be rotated as desired.

AdvantageV Disadvantages
The design is simple, it is more effective and there is an apparent space and
saving. The disadvantages are mainly the greater expense, and possibility of
leakages due'to the high pressures involved.

Rudder Arrestors
These are provided on the joist to linut the travel of the Rudder.
 Rudder stock

Hunting Lever
ll-fr"g'lor stator

Relief valve

Floating

hmp Pump {I rrver

'

Motor
Motor
Telemotor

Hydraulic tank -!

Rotary Vane Steering

69
Safcnratic (Fail Safe) Stccring (4 RAM)
l'his is suitable for (laryc) tankcrs morc than 10,000gt and is a 4 Rarn
hydraulic systern. The duplication of the hydraulic pipe - rvork, as well as the
Purrrp and r'notor power units gives an additional safcguard with 100%
rcdunclancy.
l'his is called a Safernatic design as no single failure on a steering can make
thc sltip's stccring inopcrativc. Each sct of 2 Rams provides 100% torque.
All valves are electronically operated and automatically controlled.
. SYSTI]M I
/
--z- - -r .'r .'-,
I
",r..-rtur-rt]...=,
I

L
t-
I
I
I

I
I
lsclatrng Vrlrc 4
I

I
I lsolrting Valvc J l)1'c pas-s \fulve 6
I
I
I

\: SYSTEM 2

Four ltam safcrnzrtle Stqe,ling System

Referring to the above diagram:
System I supplies oil to Ram No I and2
System 2 supplies oil to Rarrr No 3 and 4
It is not practicable to have both systenls working sirnultaneous [y; therefore
combinations of operating systems are available as given belorv:

Operating System 1 : Isolating valve L & 2 open. IJ),e-Pass t,etlve > shut;
System No I is in operation.
Isolating valve 3 &. 4 closed. Bye-Pass valve 6 open;

70
 System No 2 inoPerative.
Upper 2 Rams are in operation, working on System I
and 100% torque is being Provided.
Lower 2 Rams and SYstem No 2 is shut.

Operating System 2 : Isolating valve 3 & 4 open. Bye-pass valve 6 shut;

System No 2 is in oPeration.
Isolating valve | &2 closed. Bye-pass valve 5 open;
System No I inoPerati.ve.
Lower 2 Rams are in operation working on System 2
and l00Yo torque is being provided.
Upper 2 Rams and System lrlo 1 is shut.

fule Failure / Oil Leakage in Steering Circuits:

- tf Operating System 1 in is operation, with upper 2 Rams working and LL
{nw level) rlut- actuates. The alarm can be re-set, by re-filling oil in theit
hk However, if LLL (Low Low' Level) alarm follows immediately,
ilicates'a heavy loss of oil and the logic circuit will cause operational
fuge to Operating SYstem2'

Icgutations for cargo and passenger vessels

k cargo vessels international regulations require:
l. In general must have an auxiliary steering gear as a back up for the
rain g.ut ( and that if the rudder stock is over 356mm diameter this
,.rond gear must be power .gp91{9$). or that power units and
connections are duplicated.
2. There must be two widely separated power circuits from the main
srvitchboard. One of which may pass through the dmergency
switchboard. A rudder indicator must be fitted on the bridge.
'Tor passenger vessels, at maximgtn sgrvice spegd the main stbering gear of a
.prrlngrt rnip must be able to move the rudder ftom 35 degrees on one side
t gS digrees-on the other side arrd 28 seconds is allowed for that part of the
novement from 3S.degrees to 30 degregs,
llain and atixiliary gears are reqdired'or duplicated pump and electrical
notor power units.
Any auxiliary steering gear must be power operqted if the rudder stock is
orrer 230 .nm (9in0hes).
rf the duplicated power unit alternative'is used' e09h pump and motor must
be capable of meeting the performence criteria.

7l
 Flow-chart of Fail Safe Steering for UMS
vessels

There are basically two pairs of rams,

which can be operated by tt
the leaking circuit hr
independent Steerin! tnoio". f" .tt. "f {$1..r1ll*.'
be detected and isolatdd, in order to restore
steenng' '
circuits (Single Fai
" In ,ur. of oiilru1.ugr in either or tn. steeiing isotating- -valve
'^1. r,
the
there ;'iffi1r,;.l*il't.e"" G* level ararm), then
operate,andif ,hJ;;;iiJr;.dpr@oy-,1::li:*"H:-':,":tr'1?:::
operated, and the first motor will stop'
;#Tt',ffi: iri*r"L "ulu. ulreadypuitof ratns' nt::^t;t$J:t[*"T
Steering motor can isolate only o* *t;
is an
steering -gtg: needs to be started. This
il;,;,i."';;;in Tankers
i.qrit.ttnt above 1,00,00 GRT'
r:

NO.I LEVEL SMTCH

NO,2 LEVEL SWITCH "ALARM & LOW'LEVEL
.ALARM & LOW'LEVEL

NAVIGATION BRIDGE
ENGINE CONTROL ROOM
STEBRTNC LOW LEVEL ALARM
STEERINC LOW LDVEL ALARM

lrO: E -NOJ CYLINDER ISOLATION' AT

NO.T ANO2 CYLINDER ISOLATION' AT
FALL IN LI]VEL

F
NOL T,EVTT, SWTTCH AT FURIHER
Tqo.T LEVEL SWITCH ATFURTHER INLEVEL
FALL IN LEVEL .LOW.LOW'LEVEL
"LOW.LOW'LEVEL

NO.2 PUMP
RUNNING

NO.3 & NO.4 CYLINDT'R ISOLA'I]ON

ffi.r--a
Noz cYLINDER ISoLATIoN

'12
Sering Erilure
L case of failure of the normal steering, the following procedure is to be followed :

I Change to Hand steering, if there is no response to the steering motor.

! [f there is still no response, change over to the 'Non follow up' system'
-: h case ofthis also not working, informthe Engine room, after which the Emergency
seering will be put into operation. Detailed instructions are displayed in the Steering
flat, as to the procedlre for Emergency Steering, as this may vary on diflerent
tlp€s of Ships / Steering gear.
I In case of emergency steering, where rams may be bypassed, the force on the
rudder may become very high, hence the ship's speed must be reduced, in order
to reduce the operating force and the stresses.
: If yessel is in danger of collision or grounding, the speed can be reduced or engine
ma;- need to be stoppecl by the Emergency Stop on the Bridge,

t:ering Gear - Tests, drills and examination

'rnder tMO regulations the Master rnust, witltin l2 hours before each departure,
lEure tSat tlre Steering gear is checked and tested to work satisfactorily. The test
pocedure will include the following:
u Main steering gear.
L.l Remote control system, and alarms for Steering gear.
cl Rudder'angle indicators, relating to actual position of the Rudder.
{-r Emergency power supply.
el Comurunicatiotr between Navigating Bridge and Steering flat.
fl Visual inspection of the Steering gear and linkages.

Slering of vessel with total loss of hydraulic oil

The rylinder unit in steering compartment has a control spindle connected !o jt bV
. prn. This control spindle operates the slipper ring or swash plate of variable delivery'
trmp lf changeover pin is removed from the cylinder urit and inserted in fte local
bndrr'lrecl clrive, tlten manual control o[the gteering gear can be done.

Sbggish movement of Rutlder

Following procedure must be adopted :
a) Air vcnting of system tnust be undertaken.
b) lt nray be necessary to recharge the systern'

Clarging system
Fill eicli cylinder, and close air cocks. Open cylinder by- pass valves and fill
rrplenishing tanks. The air vents on the pumps must be opened, until oil emerges, free
dair, tlre pumps are turned by hand, thus releasing all the air from the cylinders.
-Votor should tlten be started and operation of steering gear checked.
-{,ir should again be purged frorn the pressurised lines of the Steering gear by rneans
C appropriate veuts.
 Msin
The e r is tr roPeller bY means of
2. In and 3' Propeller shaft or Tail-end
l. Th
shaft.

Thrust Shaft and Thrust Block:

to.the propeller shaft and
The thrust shaft transmits the engine's torque
also transfers the thrust, of tt e"propeller,
to the thrust btoclq which

used in the thrust block, which

of the collar bears a number of
the thrust block. The
face takes the astern
pads and the collar surfaoe'
thrust. A wedge shaped oil film, between the
pressure is about 24k{cr*'
forms between the surfaces. The thrust

Intermediate shaft and Plummer b

The Intermediate shaft connects the
The Intermediate shaft has a couPl
coupling bolts' It maY have one o
metal lined, and carry the weight
on pedestals, built'up from the tank top'
with a removable
A Plummer block is a bearing for supporting the shaft,
cooled' the rururing
cover to give access to it. lt is usually water
temperatut. bting approximately 54 - 55 "C'

Propeller shaft or Tail end shaft

The ProPeller shaft or tail end sh
intermediate shafting. The other
Propeller boss. The taPered end is
the Propeller in Place.
l. The older tYPes of ProPellers we
2. The modern trend is to use KeY-
shaft clute to friction over a suitably

ssure is suPPlied to the grooves'

Propellers
propellers can be broadly classified into ttfee categories :
a) Fixed Pitch.
b) Controllable Pitch.
c) Directional Pitch.
to Cunial bronze'
The rnaterials used vary ffom Lima propeller bronze
Their comPositions are as below :
'74

t
 Strl

wiltdnsd Nub

push-up metbod
Pilgrim Nut or'Dry'

,wrt, Bp! ISf,r$t b? l(et'l€' ltoFl|.F (SKF Method)

After Pcrk
bulkhcad
Slern frrrnc
Tbnrrl Bl'ock
Afl Peak
lnicrmedirQ Phrfl

Tril cnrl shuft

t-:.. ") l'onvall Seal

St.lrt l ubc

SHAFT SYSTEM

t5
 PAD STOP

I. I THRUSTPAD

SHAFT

THRIJST BLOCK
DS sterntube bearing seryes two important purposes. It supports the tailshaft and a
ilerable proportion of the propeller weight. It also acts as a gland to prevent the
of sea water to the rnachinery space.

water lubricated sterntube

oommon bearing material used was lignum vitae, which was lubricated by sea
The steel shaft had a bronze liner, and water in the channels acted as lubricating
as coolingmedium.
frnvard seal, inside the engine-room, had gland packing with bronze bushes and
iron gland. Lignurn vitae was a lrard wood with good wear characteristics. The
iry clearance varied from 8 to l0 mm, to allow for the swelling of the Lignum
and to have a rninimum flow of water for cooling purposes.
wear \vas lnoasured by inserting a wedge between the shaft and the bearing from
qfrsidc, during docking. Excessive wear down leads to whipping of the shaft,
can gcncrate undesirable vibration and'stresses in the machinery.

STERN FRAME
NEADING
WATER
<_

GI,A}ID

STERN TUBE

BRONZE LINER

WATER LU BRICATED STERNTUBE

'77
Oil lubricatcd sterntube
Moderrr clcsigns use an oil lubrication arrangnent for a white metal lined sterntubc
bearing. Tlre tube is fabricated and welded direct to the extension of the stern framc
boss at the after end, and to the Aft peak bulkhead at the forward end. The permissabb
wear dowrr is 0.0025 Yo of the shaft diameter. Oil is pumped to the bush through
extemal axial grooves and passes through holes on each side into internal axial pas-
sages. The oil leaves frorn the ends of the bush and circulates back to the punp and
the cooler. The stern tube gravity tank will provide a back pressure in the system nnd
a period of oil supply in the event of purnp failure. A low-level alarm is fitted to tb
stern tube gravity tank. Oil pressure in the lubrication system is higher than the static
sea water lread to ensure that sea water cannot enter the sterntube in the event of sed
faihre.

OIL LUBRICATED STERNTUBE

The stent tube berng lubncated by oil, the stern tube system has its own pumps,
coolers, oil tanks and gravity tanks. The oil is contained inside the stern tube by
means of seals. One example is the Simplex lip type seal, whioh is at the outboard
and inboard ends of the stern tube. There is another type called the Cedervall btpe
that achieves sealing by metal-to-metal contact, i.e. without rubber tiogs, which
makes it popular for applications where greater possibility of seal daurage is
prevalent, such as coastal vessels which frequently encounter fishing nets and othr
underrvrrter ilbstructions. The seal should have a positive pressure of oil, in order
ensure that sea water does not enter,

78
 AIRESCAPE

OIL HOLE

OIL SPACE

SEAL RINGS

be seah -Purpose
Secial seals are fitted at the ends of
the tailshaft. They are ananged to prevent
the
tor: of lubricat g oii from the st-ern bearing.
3:jr'::,f,::.: *?
n1 seal shown
I pollution-free l_. above rhe
0,.1.,*..4:1q...
ensures that sea *;;r,d;il; ,,1.;;
llanv.lgakage of oil or sea-water occurs into the air
rcr, it is automatically collected
in the drain collection unit.
tube seals- System
ilb complete system comprises of an air confrol trnit, lube
unit and associated rioins oil drain tank, lube oil
-rp
y the seal rings, the elastic lip of which
cluorne steel liners on the shaft.
e shaft diameter will ensure
flrat the

sult in hardening and loss of elasiticity

of
eal rnaterial exceed about 100.C.
n at d lower temperature.
rkshop, and vulcanised in place.
Measurement of wear- down by poker gauge
The poker gauge is used to measure the wear down that occttrs This is done
during the dry docking. The seal is drained of oil in the dock, and the gauge is
inserted as shown, to measure and record the readings. The wear-down is
indicated on the poker guage,
WEAR DOWN CAUGi

I,IP SEALS S'TEITN IIIAML

PROPELLER

cHROMll l.lNFq

STEEL
BACK UP
RING

SEAI RING OTJTER SEAL

Attention required at sea

l. Ltrbe oil condition must be regularly checked to ensure that there is no ingress C
sea water, which would form an emulsion.
2. Level of the stern tube lube oil must be rnonitored.
3. Temperature must be maintained, to ensure that no excessive heat build-up talies
place, which could darnage the rtrbber rings of tl're seal.

Repairs
Io prevent leakages, the seal rings are usually replaced during the dry dock by
authorised personnel. Emergency repairs are handled in the following way :

l. Trim the vessel by head, rn port or at a sheltered anchorage.

2 . Engage the turnin g gear of the Main en gine .
3. Rig up a suitable working platform, taking all the safety precautions.
4.Drainout the oil from the stem tLrbe to the clrain tzurk-
5. Carry out the repair / replacernent, as per the manufacturer's instmctions.
6. Fill the oil, and confinn no leakages.

BO
 Clhrarprrerr 5 lPrlolpelll[,err"=

efficient propulsiorr device today' The

The Screw propeller, or the Screw, is the most
umber of blades can range fiom 3 to 6'
the aft, is called the Face ' and the
The surface of the propeller blade viewed from
reverse'surface is called the Back '

kading edge
cuts the water, when the ship is driven
of the propeller blade is that edge, which first
{ead.
the tips of the blades'
I[ameter (D) is the diameter of the circle swept by

Pitch (P) lf the 'wor\rntsrrsrjls\rrrg\sr\'\s:s'\sts\{

ed the Pitch'
distance tavelled

PitchRatioistheratioofPitchtotheDiameter,PiD.

angle'
to the plane ofrorarion, is termed as the Pitch
+il:L?,".hhich the brade ries,
I knot -- 1.852 km Per hour'

Theoretical SPeed (Vt).

V.r. : Pitch (m/rev) x N (rev/min) x 60 rn / hour

of
v.,. : PxNx60 / 103 krn / hour

orVr: PxNx60 / 103x1.852 knots.

speed will differ from the

ilffi|;#r works in a yierding fluid (water), the actual
fteoretical sPeed.
Therefore, Apparent Slip speed
: VT - V wherq V is the actual ship's speed'
ApparentSliP =Vr- V x 100 %
v.r.
Wake

Speed of Advance.
8l
 WakeSpeed: V- VA knots

V- va
or, the r#ake Fraction w :
V
CriticalSpeed / Barred speed range
The range of speeds (RPM) of the engine at which the Resonant condition occtrrs,
referred to as the Critical speed range or Barred speed range.
The high stresses due to excessive amplitude of vibrations start to build up, as
RPM approaches this range, and do not come back to some safe value until it
the Barred speed range. The unsafe stresses on either side of the Critical speed
are referred to asthe Flank stresses.
The Barred speed range of an engine is the range of speeds, from the beginning
build-up of unsafe Flank stresses, to the dying away of these shesses at some hi
speed.
Obviously, the engine should not be operated within the Baned range for any I
of time. This range is usually rnarked in red colour on the engine tachometers.

Example I
The pitch angle of a ship's propeller measure d at a radius of 2.5 m from the centre
of the boss is 27 0 48' . Calculate the pitch of the blade at this radius.

Ans.
Pitch -- 2n x r x Tan(pitchangle)
: 2 x3.142 x 2.5 x Tan 27 o 48'
: 6.282 m.

Exarnple 2
The pitch angles of a propeller blade measured at radii of l, I .5,2,2.5, and 3 m
respectively 44,33,26.5,22.5, and20 degrees. Calculate the pitch of the
propeller.

Ans.
Pitch at 1 m radius : x flx I x Tan44
: 2xfIxl.5xTan33- :6.l2rn
2 6.067 m
Pitch atl.Smradius
Pitch at2mradius : 2 x ttx2 xTan26.5 : 6.265 m
Pitclr at 2.5 rn radius : 2 x tI x 25x Tan 22.5 : 6.506 rn
Pitch at 3 m radius : 2 x ilx 3 x Tan20 : 6.861 rn
.'. Propeller pitch : 6.067 + 6.12 + 6J65 + 6.506 +6.861
)
: 6.364 m.
82
Example J
A ship's-propeller has a pitch of 5.I m. In 24 hours steaming at a propeller speed
of 9l rpm, it was found that the vessel logged 331 nautrcai miles. Find the
Percentage Slip.

Ans.
V, (Theoretical Speed) : Pitch x rev/ min x 60 knots
1.852x 103
5.lx9lx60
1.852x 103
15.04 knots.

V ( Achral Speed ) 33r

24
13.7g knots,

.'. Percentage Slip 15.04 - 13.19 x 100 %

15.04
8.312 %

Example 4
A vessel covers a distance of 75 nautical miles over the ground in 7 hours, against a

3 knot current, when the propeller is turning at 86 rpm. If the pitch is 5.5 m ,
calculate the actual Percentage Slip.

Ans.
V, (Theoretical Speed) : Pitch x revl rnin x 60 knots
1.852x 103
5.5x86x60
1.852 x 103
15.33 knots.
V ( Actual Speed ) 75 + 3 (current)
7
13.71knots.

.'. Percentage Slip 15. 33 - 13.71 x 100 %

15.33
10.56 Yo

Exarnple 5
Ihe designed pitch of the propeller of a new slup is 6. I rn. Allowing for an
estirnated 5 % slip, calculate the time taken lo do a 'ttteastued rnile', at a propeller
speed of 100 rpm.

83
Ans.
V ( Actual Speed ) 0.95x6.1xi00x60
I.852 x 103

18.77 knots.

Distance (nautical miles) Speed (knots) x Time (hours)

.'. Time 1x60(minutOs)" """'
L8.77
: 3.2 minutes.

8,
74:-

PROPELLER FTNDAMENTALS

%
,oo
geo
Aeo
70 MAXIMTJM
60

fi
lo
JO

20

,o
o
to 20 to 40 50 60 70 eo eow{fov.
VARIATIONS OF PITCH
 propeller bronze : A high tensile type of Manganese brass. This tlpe is
Manganese bronze
ss- 62 %
0.s- 4 %
0.4- 1.5 %
0.5- 2.2 0
0-s%
balance

is a Copper nickel aluminium alloy.

8-10%
3- s.s %
3- 5.5 o/o
r-3%
balance

chtracteristics
Ihe characteristics of a propeller have an important influence on the design of the
rfting and bearing system. The propeller weight is carried by the propeller shaft,
popeller hydrodynamic loads are imposed on the shafting system.

diameter. A higher propeller efficiency is associated with a largerpropeller

and a lower,shaft rpm. Therefore, is is usually desirable to install the largest
diameter that can be accomodated by the hull lines.

ler rpm. The choice of the propeller rprn involves establishing a balance
the propeller efficiency ar-rd the weight, cost, and space requirements of the
ir machinery. This is accomplished by using standard propeller series data to
Epute a series of points that form a curve which represents the relationship between
propulsive efficiency and the propeller spEed over the rpm range of interest.
calculations are based on a propeler,diarneter that is selected as indicated
Iove. The point of marimum efficiency on thii.ctiiVe is known as the optimum rpm
tr propeller diameter selected. This curve is used to assess ttre penalff in propulsive
iency associated wilh an increase in rpm. Data from this curve cornbined with tlre
of the rpm on the weight, cost, and space requirements of the rnain propulsion
permit the final selction to be made. It wiU be noted that at an rpm slightly
-Eher
than the optimum propeller rpm for a given propeller diameter, the propeller
eficiency decreases only slightly, but on the other hand, the effect of a relatively
increase of weight, cost, and space requirements of the main rnachinery can be
-ll
inifisant.
Number of blades. Propellers may have three, four, ftve, six, seven, or tnore
The major factor in the selection of the number of propeller blades rs
considerations. Both the hull hydrodynamic pressure forces and the fbrces
through the shafting system bearings are strongly influenced by the selection
number of propeller blades. In general, the propeller exciting forces decrease
with larger number of blades, however there are exceptions. A prudent
the number of propeller blades is an important design criterion that can be
avoid the excitation of natural frequencies in the propulsion system.

Propeller pitch. The selection of propeller pitch can be made when the
ship's speed, shaft rpm, propeller diarneter, and general hull characteristics
determined. The pitch ratio rnay be selected on the basis of standard propeller
series data. However, when a propeller is highly.loaded.or operates in a non
wake field, it may be desirable to design a propeller with a pitch ratio and
distribution tailored to suit the particular operating conditions.

Blade Skew - A propeller blade is termed skewed, when its outline is as

with respect to a straight radial reference line in the plane of the propeller.
usually intoduced by sucessively displacing the blade sections away from the
of rotation. Propeller blades with skew tend to enter and leave the regions
wake rnore,gradually.

Developed Area - Considerations in the selection of the propeller developed

are - the penalty in efficiency associated with an excessive developed area
eflects of cavitation, resulting from an inadequate developed area.

Propeller Blade thickness - This is followed ep.pef glassification Rules

Propeller hub - The contour of the propeller'hub outside diameter ts

maintain a smooth flow of water over the hub from the stern frarne. and the hub
is largely controlled by the propeller blade's fore & aft length at the interface
hub.
Propeller weight - An estimated propeller weight can be obtained in several
W : KDt (MWRXBTF) , where W : Propeller w ight (including hub), K :
density factor having a value of 0.26 for Mn-Bioze, 0.25 for Ni -IvIn-Al-Bz
for cast iron D : Propeller diameter,
MWR : mean width ratio : developed area per blade
O fUfuO. radius -hub radius)
BTF : blade thickness fractions
 ial Selection
The ever increasin g rar1ge of metals used by mandfacturers of ship propellers
tes it difficult for the shipbuilder, and more so for the shipowner, to decide ou the
which will give the highest efficiency, and therefore the greatest economy, for
conditions under which the ship will operate. The first thing to be decided is the
ftor governing the choice of a propeller to meet specific requiretnefits. This factor
dl be one or a combination of the following considerations.
Eciency
Hility
Srn'ice life
Co6t efficiency
Whereas the purchase of a propeller is an item faced by the owner at rare intervals
cly, propeller efficiency is a factor which affects operational costs tluought the life
dtre ship. A reduction in efficiency of one percent, which is hardly noticeable in
rn1al practice, neverthless erntails a corresponding increase in ftiel cotrsutnption for
t same performance. In a ship having im average consumption per 24 hours of 30
{ hs, a I o/o reduction of efficiency means an increased ftiel bill for 90 tons annttally,
/b rsnning a,yeir of 300 sailing days. The shipowner, who is deeply concerned with
r(l lb running costs and profits shown by his vessels over a long period will not under-
ET *e the irirportance of propeller efficiency, and will therefore give due attention to tlre
dection of thecorrect materials from which his propellers are to be made. Choice of
nterials affects the efficiency of the propeller through three separate factors:
l- Blade thickness
2- Surface smoothness
3- Dimensional tbleiances

Hede thickness
As the cross section of the blades is made thinner, so will the efficiency of a

b popeller of given blade length increase. Propellers made from materials having high
ft nechanical strength, such as cuuical bronze and lima bronze, can therefore have a
E trnre suitable profile. For this reason alone a.bronze propeller, for a given propeller
frrust, will eifect a saving of fuel of appo4imately 4o/o in comparison with a
Gorespondng cast iron propeller.

Surface sniwlftness
Lack of surface smoothness has a considerable influence on efficiency. These losses
show in the .reduced effrciency when the itii'iici'ijf the propeller becomes pitted in
the course of time, due to corrosion cavitation erosion and galvanic attack such as
dezincification.
 Zriction between hull of the ship and the water is given by the relation

Frictional Force "c V2 x S x p -----(l )

where, V : Speed,
S : Wetted surface area of the ship
and p : density of the water.

Frorn areas of sirnilar fisiues.

we have S nL2,
and A oc L3, i.e.L*At",
S cc L2/i ------- (2)

Frictional Force oc V2 x L2ti, ( assurning p is constant) ---(l)

Now, Power cc Frictional Force x Speed

Power cc V2 x A2l3 xV { from (l) & (2) }

Power cc L2n x V3

Power A2l' x V'] ---:-- (jr

Admiralty Constant

The Aclmiralfy Constant is useful for assessing the power required for a

ship.
This fonnula can used for 'sitnilar' ships : -

A12l3 x V13 :' '42/3"i" Vr: ---- (4)

Pt Pz

-88
filTuel
I)-tt
Consumption : -
-f r'l
l\
J* ,nus of fuel bunred pet day is proportional to the Power developed,

A2l3 \( V3 a constant, called the Fuel Coefficient --- (5)

Daily fuel consurnption

Ar2l3 x Vr3 $,2t3 x Yr3

Daily fuel consumption 1
Daily frrc1. consumption2

Or,

New Daily fuel consumption (New Displacement)2/3

Old D.aily firel consumption (Old Displacernent)

Also,

Daily fuel consurnption : ---- (6)

Nurnber oi'davs on Voyage

and,

Nurnber of days on Voyage: ---- (7)

Speed (in knots) x 24 (hours)

Daily firel cortsurttlttlott : ttggdl 21

Total distance itt rtatttical ntiles

89
 utting this new value of daily consumption , we get

:@)t"*My)'
old Voyage consp. x old speed x24 xNew dist. (old A) (oldv)

E- : Lr.-''' x l!t*d,
Cr A1 V1 dr

Examples .

l- A ship travelled a distance of 800 Nautical rniles at a speecl of l0

knots, and burned 100 tonnes of fuel on voyage. How far could this
ship travel at a speed of 12 knots on a total consumption of 220 tolne\
assuming the displacement to be the same in eacrr case?

Ans. : Assurning displacernent sanre in each case.

E- : Lr''' x l!'*dr.
Cr A1 Vr dr

220ll0A .: ,l2l10y:r't
* New distance / 800

.'. New distance : 220 x 100 x 800

100 x 144

.'. New distance : 1222 nautical iniles. Ans.

90
- Drsplacetncrrt o['a ship, wlicn llght, is 6000 tcllutcs. SIrc takcs cllt btlltttl
7500 tomres of cargo,300 tomres of storesand 200 toltrtes of ftrel. Firrd at
what speed she should travel, in order to do 700 nautical rniles, on half her
bunker fuel, giverl collstunption of fuel per day, at deadwei-Uht
displacernent of 15000 tonne and speed of l4 knots, is 60 tonnes.

Ans.:

New displacement 6000 r 7 500 -r 300 + 200

.I4000
tonrtes.

-.8 :rotion for the vovase is to be 100 tonnes.

j i00il 5000)2/3 x (Ner,r, speedi 1,1)

2
x 7oA
(4r7,4
 I

4. The speed of a ship is l0 knots rvhen engines are developing 3000 kW'
what will be the po'wer of engines r,vhen the speed is 12 knots?

Ans.:
A12l3 x V11 : Lft3 xY"3
Pr P2

lf A : constant, this tenn cancels otlt.

..Pz: (.12110)3
3000
.'. P., : 5184 kW Ans.

5. A vessel with a displacernent of 12,250 tonnes bums 290 tonnes of ftrel

when traveliing at a speed of 15 knols ol ? ygyage of 2850 nautical rniles-
For a voyage of 1800 nautical miles, at a speed of l3 knots and a
displacement of 14,200 tonnes, estimate the quantity of fi,rel that will be
btrnt.

Ans. Voyage consumption, C, is given by the formula,

e, : b2n xl!'*cl,
C1 A1 V1 dr
;. Cl2g0 : (14200112250)2t3 (13/15)t x * 1800/2850
.'- Cr : I 51 .14 tonnes. Ans.

6.Aship,spropellerhasapitchof3.2Sm'Thetrueslipis35Voandthe
If the ship uses 20 tons
ship's speed is 1.5 times the speed:f
"dl1Ta as cube of the speed
per day at L2 knots, with consumPligl,'Y3-i"g
at 100 rpm'
determine the daily fuel consumption,

Ans. Vr=pxN x60 11852=10'6}knots'

Trueslip=Vr:Vo/Vr''.0.35=|0.62-Vn/|0.62,...Vn=6.9knots
:
unJ giutn V = 1'5 Vo 1'5 x 6'9
: 10'36 knots'
CJ Cz: (Vr lYz)3
Fuel consumption/day cr (ship'' "' 'p"J;t
:.20 lCr= (12 I Cz= 12''S6tonslday' Ans'
lo.iO;'

92
 tC)hrarp,rr,er 16, lF iir,e lP'}rrror rt,e,c r[ iirornr

Fre Detectors
IL.e detectors are of various types, and working principles. Nonnally a contbitlation
ddifferent types of detectors are used, depending on the nature of the space to be
The main object is
;otected, -d on the types of fires which could take place there.
;try detection, since the fire can spread and become too deep seated in course o[
tne. There are three main categories of detectors artd these are : -
l- Smoke Detectors
Z Heat Detectors
3- Flame Detectors

l-Smoke detectors
Srroke detectors could be of two basic types, as regards their principles of
qeration
f lght obscuration type.
The principle made use of, in this type is, the obscuration of a beant of liglrt,
projected onto a photocell. Should any smoke particles conle in the way, this
rodrces the intensity of light falling onto the cell and upsets the electrical balance of
eWheatslone's Bridge circuit, which triggers offan alarm'

P.E.CELL

LENS I LENS
SMOKE
LIGHT OBSCURATION TYPE

lmisation type
This type uses the ionisation principle, wherbin one chamber is closed and the otlrer
fo open to admit air frorn the room. There is a radioactive source placed between
lwoelectrodes, and the principle is that the rnovernent of ionised particles catlses a
srent to flow When large smoke particles enter the charnber, they neutralise the
ins of opposite polarity, and cause a differenpe in the ctrretlt floW which catt be
rsed to trigger an alarm, when it goes below a pre-set linrit.
Ite second chamber being closed, will serve as the teference. This t'edtrces llte
possibility of false alarms, which could be due to fluctuation of currettt in the ship's
$pply.
93
 Thes-e types can give
since sm is usually associated
warning of a fire,
any fire. Liquid or gas"Trv
fires may not give offsmoke in ry and ,ay
catcn fire
spontaneously. Hence these tlpes are
not effective in such cases.

Dg-TECTOR
aAsa

4!$n+
LAMP

CATIIODE
Rt]T'ERENCE
CHAMBER

2. Heat Detectors
Heat Detectors are of various types,
such as 'rate of rise, type, where there
Bimetallic ttrpe detecting elements. There is
a thick strip and a thin strip. The thin
se1;iti1e. to a temperature rise, than.the
,:lllt_ry:t
in
thick one. If there is a sudden
temperarure, the thin one wiir bend faster,lr*;h;
il, ffi;,i':
;lril l,,l, ,1"
ff::if:by about
deflect i.:li*:.::,:l.Ttambient tempe,ature rise, since both sfrips
the same nmount. Normally, if the ,]1i.ffi;;
ili::ffi;ff.'J
Hlrj:,:
vt/euH
jj:'lT::"ve anv
nake the two strips come ?r*'o.
rf the rate srrourd rise to c or more,
75o d
in contact, us triggering the ararm.

RATE OF RISE TYPE

FIEAT DETECTOR
3- Flame Detectors
Udtt produced by a flame has a characteristic flicker frequency of abotft 25 Hz.
The specfrum in the infra red or ultra violet range.can be monitored, to give an
dilm. Oil fires do not generally give offmuch smoke and this type of sensor is
peferred, especially near fuel handling equipment or boilers, to give an early warn-
.s

Trigger circuit
TO ALARM
CIRCUIT

Time delay circuit

Selective arnplifier
P.E.CELL tuned to 25 Hz

LENS & FILTER

INFRA RED ETECTOR

Testing of Detectors
Regular testing of detectors must be carried out, to ensure they are capable of giv-
ing warning of a fire. Type of test depends on the working prineiple -
e.g. smoke detectors can be tested by actually produeing smoke rurder them, while
heat detectors need a source of heat, and flame deteqtors can be tested by means
of a small flame.
Special aerosol cans are provided for testing ionisation type detectors.
There is usually a small neon lamp in thc base, which lights up rvlren the detector
has been activated, thus enabling you to confirm that the detector has operated.

!)r
Inert Gas system
Inert Gas system using flue gas
A typical iurangement of an inert gas plant is described below :

The inert gas plant is capable of supplying 1.25 times the combined volumetric
capacity of the cargo pumps to ensure that a small positive presslue, not exceeding
OiO Uglmz, ean be rnaintained in the cargo tanks, under tnaxitnum dernarid condi-
tions, which will be when cargo oil is being turloaded. Flue gases, which contain
about 5o/o oxygen as a result of automatic combustiorr control, is drawn out of the
boiler uptake into the Inert gas system. The flue gases are then led into the base of r
Scrubber where, by washing and cooling the gases with sea water, as they pas<
upwards througlr the various sprays and trays, containing packed stones or plasric
ciripping, over 90%o of the sulphurous contents and most of the solids are washed or.n
and drained overboard, through an effluent line.
The flue gas which may now be considered as Inert gas, is passed out at the top of
the Scrubber and through a filter or demister. The blowers are capable of supplyrng
1.25 times the discharge capacity of the cargo pumps and can ensure a positiw
pressure of lnert gas is maintained at all tirnes. The lnert gas will then pass fiotn rvhl
can be considered a safe area (where the Boilers, Scnrbber and Fans are located)
to
the dangerous area, through a bulkhead valve and via a Water seal. The pupose of
the Deck water-seal is to form a ban'ier to the return of hydrocarbon gases, fi'om the
cargo tanks, in the event that the Blowers stop or the Inert gas strpply pressure falls
too low. precautions, in the form of a mechanical non-refttrn valve, to prevent oil
returning to the Engine room is provided. Tlre Tnert gas then passes into tlre dect
main, where branches distribute the gas to each cargo tank. Emergency stop or stop
if the lnert gas supply pressure falls too low, is provided. An Inerted cargo oil tank
should, by volume, not have an oxygen content of more than 8%' Cargo tanks are
also protected against the effects of Overpressure and Vacuurn conditions, caused
either by the loading, discharge, or transfer of cargo oil or by temperatttre variations
during voyage, and since Inert gas must be camed under a small positive pressure, lP
to 0.2b Kg/mr, any breathing of the tanks is tlrough Pressure/ vacuum valves' DurirE
loading, *h.n large volumls of hydrocarbon gases are emitted, a hand operated
valve is opened, toallow the gases to escape, Up the vent mast to atrnosphere, by bf
passing the Pressure/vacuum valve. A final safeguard against an excessive overpres-
sure or vacuum condition in the Cargo tanks, is a Pressure/vacttttrn Breaker device
Function of non-return devices
The deck water seal and mechanical non-return valve togetlrer form tlre rnealrs of
automatically preventing the back-flow of cargo gases from the'cargo tanks to thc
machinery space or other safe area in which the inert gas plant is located.
Deck water seal
This is the principal banier for the prevention of inert gas blow-back into tb
Engine room. A water seal is fitted which permits inert gas to be delivered to the ded
q6
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rg
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n
re

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It
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nain but prevents any back-flow of iuert gas even when the inerl gas plant is shut
dorvn. It is vital that a supply of water is rnaintained to the seal at all tirnes, particularly
shen the inert gas plant is shut down. In addition, drains should be led directly
,-rverboard and should not pass through the machinery spaces.
There are three types of seals, of which the Wet type is illustrated.
I Wet type seal. This the simplest type of rvater seal. When the inert gas plant is
operating, the gas bubbles through the water from the subnrerged iricrt gas inlet pipe,
but if the tank pressure exceeds the pressure in the inert gas inlet line, the water is
pressed up into this inlet prpe and thus prevents back-flow. The drawback of this
qpe of water seal is that water droplets rnay be carried over with the inert gas which,
although jt does not impair the quality of the inert gas, could increase corrosion. A
demister should, therefore, be fitted in the gas outlet from the water seal to reduce any
carTv-over.

WET TYPE DECK SEAL

2. Semi-drybpe. Instead of bubbling through the water trap, tlre inert gas flow
draws the sealing water into a separate holding charnber by venturi action, thus avoid-
ing or at least reducing the amount of rvater droplets being canied over. Otherwise it
is fi"rnctionally the same as wet type,
3. Dry type. In this the water is drained rvhen the inert gas plant is in operation (gas
flowing to thetanks) and filled with water, when the inerl gas plant is either shut down
or the tank pressure exceeds the inert gas blower discharge pressure. Filling and
drainage are perfonned by autornatically operated valves controllecl by (he levels irr
the water seal and drop tanks and by the operating state of the blowers. The advan-
tage of this type is that water carry-over is prevented. The drarvback could be the risk
of failure of the automaticallv controlled valves which may reuder the water seal
ineflective.
99
 Deckmechanica|non.refurnvalveanddeckiso|atingva|ve
of gas fi'orn the r;afgo tzmks' arrl
As a further precaution to avoid ally back-flow ,l-,' ,.^r.rrr ll
whi<;h may ettter tlre inerl gas tnaitr if the oargo ta
prevelt any back-flow of licluid
shotrld be fitted foru
ile overfilled, a mechanic J non-return valve, or equivaletlt, tirnes'
at all
of the 6eck water seal alcl shorrld operated autotnattoally
.r.L:.. .,^1.,^ .\gglCl clOstrre Of, altenlative\'
be ,.,rn irle4 with a positjve means Of ,r, -r el--- ir
for-werrcl of the non-IetuD valve, so
that the rq
solatrng
be
may m the non-return devices' The separate isolati
-,^t- r^
to l-^ ^^*io.l nrrt
be carried out nn on flre
the m
has the advantage of etlablurg rnaintenance work
valve
return valve.
I

Pressure-Vacuum (PD
valve
pressrre/vactlum (PV)
The requirements are for the provision of mechanical
the various alrangements
to zrllow breathing dunng passage. The figure shows
fitting them. It is important to note that all anangtTtil
strgUA
3,e^1u-tri::
i
ffiir";;r""*o *er they have been isolated from the IG main' trnless the
done'
arrangement itself enstrres that this can be

I.C.DEC]K MAIN
I.G.DECK MAIN

P/V VENT'ING P/V VENTINC

P/V VENI'ING
'f() r.c.MAlN TO_\4ASI-AJS-E-B
TO ATMOSPHERE

VARIOUS PiV VALVE ARRANqE,ME,NTS

Design consid€rations for non-return devices

devices should be resr
The rnaterial used in the construction of the uon'retum
by tlre gas' Altenratively
to fire and to the corrosive attack frorn acids fonlred
with glass fibre epoxy resr
carbon steel protected by a rubber lining or coated
eqrrivalent material rnuvt. ttsed' Partictrla' attention
tlltl
:^1,11ij:,t:'e.':tr;
resistance to back-t
;il ;;ili *.1,1.'r.al. Th: deck water seal slrould present a
breaking device m
of not less than the pressure setting of the pressur.e/vacuum eL^ l-^^L I
il#;k#;;;"'"..;;J $"dd be so desi red as ro preven*he back'
of gases under any foreseeable operating conditions' T1-:?::llii:f "*:i reg
ff;i;.ffi#;jil;guilng no*-of
u:p"ning' should !e
crean warer through the deck seal
inspection
-rsgsvu and
level ingryovid1*:l[i.t:X,H
voir. \)r-rrl glasses
v\'jrr' Sight "-
:'* water lo-rol
the -.,^*I-
-:'-- ^"r"^ its operatton turd to facr
permit satisfartory observation of
a thorough survey. The sight glasses shoulcl
be reinfolced to witlrstand inrpact'
t00
Liquid-filled Pressure/vacuum breakers
One or more liquid-filled Pressue-vacurun breakers should be fitted, unless pres-
sure/vacuum valves having the capacity to prevent excessive pressure or vacuLrul.
lhese devices require little rnaintenance, but vvill only operate at the required pressue
r they are filled to the correct level with liquid of the correct density. Either a suitable
..ii or a freshwater/glycol mixture should be used to prevent freezing rn cold weather.
Evaporation, ingress of sea water, condensation and corrosion should be taken into
consideration and adequately oompensated for. Jn heavy weather, the pressure surge
caused by the motion of liquid in the cargo tanks may cause the liquid of the
presstreWacuum breaker to be blown out. The designer should ellsure that the char-
acteristics of the deck water seal, pressureWacuum breakers, pressure\vacuum valves
and the pressure settings of the high and low inert gas deck pressrre alanns are
compatible. It is also desirable to check that all pressure\r,,acuLur devices are operat-
ng at their designed pressure settings.

I.G.MAIN I G MAI}+ I.G.MAIN I.G.MAIN

ATMOSP}{ERIC PRESSURL NORMAL I{TGII PRISSURL

(loooMM w GJ RELIEF
PRESSI JR I1lVACIJtJM RRfIAKER

Carbon Dioxide systern

Carbon dioxide, on accor.rnt of its fire extinguislring efficiertcy, clearrliness atrcl
ease of application, is the nrost conrnon fire srnothering gas uscd irt a fixcd systcrn
on board ship. CO, is a non-flammable, colourless, odourless, slightly acidic gas and
is approximately one-and-lralf tirnes as dense as air. Its spccific voluttte at 2 | . l"C attd
i bar is 0.562 m'/kg. Its critical ternperature is-ll"C. It is non-cornlrustible, it cloes
not react with most substances and it provides its ou,n pressure tbr disclrarge frorn
the container. Being in gaseous fcrrn irrrd lrcavier tharr irir, it catt peltctlatc attd spr-eacl
to all parts of the fire area, while it rvill not c:oncluct elsctricitl,, rttaking it stritable lbr'
i0i
 fires on energized electrical circuits. It is easily liquefied by corrrpressing. A h
discharge of liquid carbon dioxide has a white cloudy appearance, clue to
divided ice particles carried along with the flash off vapour. Becatrse of the
temperahtre, the water vapour in the atrnosphere will also condense creating
tional fog.
The density of carbon dioxide is one-and-half times that of air ard this leads to
effective smothering effect over the fire, and replaces the air near llre fire very rapr
The rnain extinguishing properties which render it effective as an extiuguishing
are that it reduc,es the oxygen content of the atmosphere by diluting it to a poiut rr
it will no longer support combustion, and under suitable conditiorrs of control
application, the available cooling efl-ect is also helpfirl, especially where carbon dr
ide is applied directly on the burning rnaterial.
There are two basic methods of applying carbon dioxide to extinErish fires.
method is to discharge enough agent into an enclosure to create an extinzuisH
atmosphere throughout the enclosed volume; this is callecl "Total Flooding".
second method is to discharge the agerrt dir-ectly on the burning nraterial, and thb
called "Local Application".
In tlre Total Flooding systent, tlre cartorr dioxide is appliecl tlrlotrglr rrozzles.
signed and located to develop a unifonn concentration of carbon dioxide in all
of the enClosure, thus a fire in any part of the room will be subjected to the
extinguishing atmosphere. The quantity of carbon dioxide required to achier,,e
extinguishing atmosphere is easily calculated, bascd on tlre volume of the room
the concentration requred for the combustible material in the room. The integriq
the enclosure itself is very irnportant. If the extinguishing atnrosphere is lost
rapidly, glowing embers which rnight rernain, lnay cause re-ignition when air is
introduced.
Carbon Dioxide cylinder gang-release system
The cylinders most commonly used nowadays are those made of r
steel. The cylinders have internal pipes fitted which pennit the CO, to pass tlru
the distribution pipework to the nozzles in the liquid state and it only evaporats
discharge from the nozzle. The intemal pipe therefore prevents evaporation of
liquid taking place on operation of the systern, as the resultant drop irr plessure
temperature would cause the vapour to freeze and deposit as snow in the valve
pipework.
The cylinders are grouped together in banks in the CO" room. The outlet valw
each cylinder discharges through a connecting pipe into a conunon rnanifold, a
return valve being incorporated into the connecting pipe in order that the cylinder
be disconnected from the header, for replacement purposes, without loss of
sure. The connecting pipes are usually of copper but increasing use is being rnadc
flexible connections, on account clf ease ol'installatiorr. Tlre CO. irr tlre heacler t
passes to sector valves situated in a control cabinet, supplying tlre lnachinery
distribution pipework and fiia1, 31.o be connected to a series of 3-way cocki
102
Dal
:ly
)l)f
li
an ALARM,
ly.
|I|t
re
ld
x-

rc
lg
rc
is

VALVE CABLES

cc2 SERVO PILOT CO}[-ROL BOX

BATTERY CYLINDER BOTTLES T(
EI
CARBON DIOXIDE FLOODING

103
 distribution pipework and may also be connected;to a series of 3-way cocks,
double-seated valves, supplying the various cargo holds.
For machinery space extinguishing systems, speed of operation ancl a fast rate
delivery are essential and hence the cylinders which are to be used,for this
are ananged for simultaneous operation of the cylinder valves in all but the s
systems. "Pilot'l gas cylinders are used to activate a grryrelease system, which
bank of cylinders with the head valve levers connected together, usually by
bronze wire, the free end of the latter being attached to the piston in a gang
cylinder.
The handle of the head valve of the pilot gas cylinders is sinrilarly connected,
free end of that connecting wire tenlinating in a haridle in the coutrol cabinet
to above. The control cabinet door is usually locked, the key being sited adjacent to
in a glass fronted.box. The control cabinet door incorporates a switch, controllingl
alarm in the machinery spaces. Personnel inside thus receive prior notice of
intention to discharge gas into the space, [n the interests of salety, it is rnost desi
for the sector valve or cock witlrin the control cabinet to be so arranged, that it
impossible to close the cabinet door with the valve or cock in the open position.
The gas discharge frorn the pilot cylindets is led to the operatirrg cl,lirrder
the working piston.
To operate flie systern, the control cabinet cloor is opened, thus sounding
rnachinery space alann. The rnachinery space sector valves and starting valves
opened and the operating handle pulled to open the head valves on the pilot cyli
Gas from the latter, on entering the operating cylinder, pushes the working pi
down, thus operating all the cylinder head valves coupled to the rvire. Gas then
rnto the machinery space via the CO, rnarl, sector, varlve and vzrious distributors-
the figure, a diagrurunatic arrangement is shown of'a'pressu'e operated CO, systr
designed for the protection of rnachinery spaces.
The control cabinet door, has an alarm switch incorporated into it. A
gauge enables the operator to check that adequate pressure is available for starting
system. operation is as follows, assuming cylinder valve is open.
On opening,tlre valve, the pilot cylinder pressure operatecl release mechanism
erates, whi'ch opens the pilot cylinder head valves by rneans of comrectiug wire.
Main battery cylinder release control valve also opens simultaneously, pennitting
gas pressure in main Pilot cylinder rnanifold to activate the main battery
Gas then flows to the distribution pipework in the machinery space.
Precautions should be taken before the gas is released to ensure that all
and ventilators are closed, while fans and oil purnps are stopped.
No chances can be taken of the gas being dispersed or re-igrritiorr taking place. It
imperative to ensure that all personnel are evacuated frorn the space, before the gas
released, on account of it being toxic.
r04
 Analyser

In the oxygen analyser, there are two Platinum

resistance wires which are
ro ftuj heat is proil;;: one ofthe wires
:l.#gTjl'.I::y.o]:
a magnetic field, and this attracts the
oxygen, which is paramagnd",
is placed
.v., tJ l,,r4vgu
*T",:Y:I,t:l up bv the movement of oxygen cools the resistance thus the
The other platinum wire is praced away wire.
vug.
from the Magnetic fierd, berrind a
thus it is unaffected by the oxveen- and
does not have any cooling.
tone,s u"i*.
ch ".#J*,
ct of Orygen present.
#,:"; measures
f,r-y rrvvv'urv.(rr trvevrrL. Thus
L'ur(r pcrscruage or uxygen, and the meter
r rruD the cooling
Lttg uuullllg
can be directly
ted to show the Oxygen conteni.

MtcNEnC
FIELD

)-)-

OXYGEN ANAI-YSER
105
 Explosimeter
This is a combustible gas detector, which gives guidance with regard to the
of an enclosed space, for safe entry by personnel. Crude oil contains hydrocal
products which are toxic, while tanks could contain inert gases, which have
carbon monoxide content.
aI
The Explosimeter is calibrated for hydrocarbons, and may be marked either
percentage of the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL), or in parts per million (ppm).
The figure shows a Wheatstone's Bridge circuit, with the current supplied
by u.
When the bridge resistances are balanced, on current flows tt toueirihe meter.
the resistances is a hot filament in a combustion chamber. An aspirator bulb
flexible tube draws the gas sample through the combustion chamber. where it cr
tn contact with the hot filament, and any explosive gas will then
burn, causing a ri
the temperahre of the filament. The resistance being proportional to the
temperr
the resultant temperature rise will change the bridge resistance, and
upset the I
of the bridge circuit, thus giving rise to a resultant current flow through the
which is proportional to the resistance change, i.e. the percentage of explosirc
present, which causes the temperature change.
False readings are likely if oxygen content in the sarnple is low, e.g. inert
present, or if the mixhre is too rich (does not burn).
The instrument and battery must always be tested, and samples taken from as
places as possible, especially from the bottom of a tank, where
concentratb
heavier gases occurs. Any needle deflection above zero is indicative of a toxic trz
Even if the mixture is below the flammable lirnit, it rnay still be dangerous fr
entry' Cargo tanks containing Class A or B cargoes rnay contain toxic vaporrs, u
tanks like ballast water tanks, which are cathodically protected, lnay have
accu
of hydrogen gas. Even after ventilation, the hydrogln
-uy be dispersed, but
deficiency may still be present.

EXPLOSIMETER
106
 Fire in the cargo spaces
It is important, inthe case of afue rn ahoid, not to discharge at the outset
the
contents of all or even too many cylinders.
The manufacturer's instructions shourd be foilowed.
Factors which have to be taken into account include permeabiliqr
of the space, i.e.
how densely is the cargo packed and now much ,pur.
can be occupied by the gas
and what is on fire, e.g. baled, cotton or loose rubber tyres.
The distance and estimated time to reach a surtable port
wrth shore fire-fightrng
facilities dicfates the time interval between discharge of the nwnber
of cylinders avail-
able for topprng-up purposes.
Topping-up with gas is absolutely essential because inevitably
there is, in spite of a
rigld confiol of ventilation, slight leakage of gas which has
I
to bL replaced.
The system should be checked through periodically when the holds
are empty.
Some ships have an air connection allowing each line to
be blown through in turn, or
a single bottle of gas can be used to prove that all the
lines are clear.
olding a smoke generator or smouldering
ce in furn, and having someone check that
in flre Smoke detecting cabinet.
It is usual to weigh the bottles regularly, to see that they hold the correct amount of
Cor'
Using a radio-active isotope and a detector, which shows the difference
in the
amount of radiation passing through the liquid as opposed to
that passing through the
gas space above, we can an indication of
the level of the liquid insiAe.
ow the critical temperahre. of CO, as it
is e this temperature. ln practice, its use is
re
After the fire is extinguished, open all doors, hatches, vents and
other openings to
thoroughly ventilate the space before allowing'anyone to
enter with a Breathin g appa-
ratus.
Do not approach the space with an open flame or a lighte
d cigarette as the possible
presence of flammable vapours may cause an explosion.
The cylinders have to be removed and the empty ones have
to be rechargedat the
next port' wherever it is possible. Reset the cable leading
to the pull box and work the
cable back and forth a few times to ensure that it does not
bind.
Close valve to its normal position. Inspect any nozzle orifices
to make certain that
they are free and clear of any foreign matterS.
Inspect ttre safety discs it aoy safety outlets at the ends of the manifolds.

r07
Re-entry into Engine room after CO, flooding :
# Two men equipped with Breathing apparatus, fire suit, e axe, some rneans of
commrnication (e.g. Walky-talky;, and carrying a charged fire hose havrng a jet I
spray nozzle, may attempt a re-entry.
# As the atnosphere in the Engine room will be deficient in Oxygen, and there
could be toxic gases, it should be ensured that the mask of the Breathing apparatus is
properly fitted, the check for sealing carried out, and the,mode is on 'Positive Pres-
sure' and not 'Demand'.
# heferably, the men should be conversant with the layout of the Engine rooln,
since there would be reduced visibility, dud to the smoke.
# They should attempt re-entry from the lowest access door, since hot gases
being light will rise, and cooler gases will be lower down.
# Emergency fire pump should be running to supply the charged Fire hose,
which they will be carrying. It should be set to give a spray, which acts as a shield,
and provides some measure of protection to the operator.
# The smoldering fires should now be put out, and all hot surfaces should be
cooled down with the water spray, to prevent any chance of re-ignition, during the
subsequent ventilation of the Engrne room.

SPRINKLER SYSTEM
The Sprinkler system is an automatic fire detection, alarm and extinguishing system,
that is usually used in Accommodation spaces to effectively deal with an outbreak of
fire. The fire found in the Accommodation is usually of Class A type, thus the Sprin-
kler system uses water spray, from a number of heads.
The heads are acted on by heat frorn. tl.re fire, which causes the quartzoid
bulbs to shatter, when they reach certain temperahres There are difFerent colour
coded bulbs which shatter at pre-determined temperatures. The pipeline is filled with
water under pressure, which sprays out into the space beneath the head, and ex:tiri-
guishes the fire.
There is a pressurised water tank, supplied by a pump, which has pipelines to
all the spaces being protected. The protected spaces are divided into fire zones, with
each zone having a number of sprinkler heads. The pressure should be such that the
highest sprinkler head in the system should be at a pressure of not less than 4.8 bar.
The quartzoid bulb is filled with a highty expansible liquid, which when heated,
expands sufficient to burst the bulb and release the valve which allows water to spray
into the space via a Deflector plate. The flowing of water activates an alarm, which
can be tested by isolating one section at a tfine, and operating the drain, which will
now simulate the bursting of a bulb and subsequent release of water.
The system is normally filled with fresh water, to minimise corrosion. Once
any head has activated, the fresh water gets used up, and the fall in the line pressure
activates a Sea water pump, via a pressurq switgh. The system is now supplied with
seawater.ftornthe qurnq.whlchhas a (irect sea suction.
r08
 Alarm test
fhkler heads in accommodation
valve
DrCin
and fire main

1- Inspectaon cap
-
e,/
Stop valve
Tank safety valve
Test valves

Pressu re
switch

S.W. pump

Drain valve

Fresh
water line

SPRINKLER SYSTEM

Deflector

SPRINKLER HEAD
 CO, Flooding System for Holds
^ - This system of smoke detection,
nl4- """
^-,r n n- ,.
fbr hold spaces.
for rnr".* 1;:-" :t.t"'
- of smoke, ly
n
frorn the various
ents in the v
If;
drawn confinrrnr,
drawncontinuouDrvrrrrrrrrvrrrrresAr' ,t Air
.'Ai
t bv
th e ai r th,";A ;;'";1;';1':
I :,tJffi ;i$!ff '::
s uc ti on ran s, wh i ch de I i
when a fire breaks out in a comparhnent,
valve into the wheelhouse, warning smoke issues from the di
bridge personnel sf +r.^ ^_.+L_^-,
ously, an elechonic smoke detector
in sets off aud
fl
the bridge is unoccupied ( e.g. in porr) outb.eak ol
within the cabinet is a dark chamber
wherein the sampling pipes terminate
hllo#:i.:TH:":gT:f]l*lirrumrnates
e th e c ompartrn
en c en t wh i c h i,
;"
;ysmoke issuingfrom achimn
propellers are visible inside "tr;;;;;;;";ffi: :^ r, il::Tf; ff H
;ii'
the grass hrbes wrrich are continuousrywhirril.^
.v..r..f uvrtJrJ wtrll r) i,-^ - .-
situalqd inside the rower
cabinet, ,.:::1.:lI
Ing plpes.
_--o rrHvu, To flood dt
r\_, rrrJ(r(l an auggteo
affected coln
corrr
uru rrrsr operate the appropriate
change over valve
ite number of cylind..r fo. tl.
ro.pu.frrnt. gas co
ling pipe to the area on fire. 2-
:
NOTE Before releaslng co^ to
holds, an audible alann should sound
;il';.r.::,li:^*:f*T After ;.," rl" n;;;; extinguisrred, the comDz*rmq
must be well ventirared befbre
air and does not support human
enrry for de'nag.
life.
,;;;;,".,l3"dl:ffi1il
2

Operation
l. Ensure compartment is evacuate<J
of personnel.
2. All main and aux. Machinery are shutlff.
, and exhaust fans sroppecl, cla pers
ctosed, and skyli
;ilrtj:r#
4.
Engine room sealed off.
The main co, room door must
be opened with the key provided in
box provided outside the door. the
The door, on opening, will automatically
exhaust fan of the CO, room. start

The door of the steel control

box situatecl at the fire control station
shoulcl
110
 opened wtrich will operate a dual purpose switch. This switch will
b give audio-
*ual alarms and also shut-off ventilation fans in the Engine room. The working of
t CO2 system is as per the sketch attached' The CO" valve handle when Pulled,
nrld release the gas.

Ieintsrance and testing

l- Ensure that all moving parts are kept clean, free and well lubricated.
2 Wires are to be checked for tightness and pulleys kept Eeased'
bl
3- COi distribution pipes tnust be ith compressed air"
1- co'2bottlesmustbeweighedreg'l hthe level detectorprovided.
5- All statutory rules towards testing mus

tote : In case any CO, bottle leaks, the alarm in the pipeline would get activated'
The vent to the atmosphere can be opened ( Relief valve is provided rn the
pipeline)'

Fued Foam system

Fmm is stored in a tank inside the foam room, away from the cargo deck or machinery
spaces. The foam system gtilises the sea water from the ship's fire line, along
with the
bam concentrate, the resulting mixture being prodlced at tlre foam monitor and
sitable for rise in oil fires.
There are several methods of mixing the foam, prior to delivery to the foarn monitors,
ad some of them are :
l- The foam concentrate pump and the fire punp deliver the foarn coucentrate and
water respectively to the Proportionator, in roughly the correct proportions' The
proportionator dols the fine adjustments to get a correct mixture, making allowances
for any differences in concentration, or flow rate of water supply.
2. The flow of sea water from the fre pump ib usbd t0 drive an Eductor, which pulls
in the correct quantity of foam concentrate, by the venhrri effect, to produce the
correct mix at the foam monitors.
The foam solution is delivered via the pipeline to rnonitors and hydrants located at
intervals along the deck. Air is sucked in by the rnonitor barrel, to produce the required
expansion, *d thus suitably aerated foam is delivered ftom the rnonitor'
in
The Foam main must not be used for ilny other purpose, such as deck washing'
order to prevent corrosion of pipelines. Isolating'valves are provided in the Foam
main, immediately forward of each nonitor position. There is a cross-connection
with isolating valve, to the Fire main, for use in ernergency.
There are regulations regarding the quautity of foarn to be delivered, the capacity
of
quantity
the Fire pumps, which must generate srrfficient flow rate to deliver required
of foam, as well as supply two jets of water from the Fire hydrants simultaneously'
and
The quantity of foam to U" stored is also stipulated, as is the number of tnonitors
their area of coverage.

lll
 Breather valve

Desk monttor
Foam
liquid Porlable foam lines
ta nk t:
(sealed)

Deck monitor

Stop/vent -"t
r'-'
I

valves
Foam liquid pumP
From emergency fire PumP Nylon net
Spray nozzles
Proportioning
eductor
From fire and From Eilge and
butterworth ballast pump
pump

HIGH EXPANSION FOAM

t2
 tClt'nap,t dr V l\rurxiill iiaury JE qpur iiprrnmre rnr rt

Anti-Rolling Devices
There are various devices which resist rolling:
(a) Anti-Rolling Tanks (b)Tilting Fin System (c)Bilge Keels (d) Oscillaring
Weights (e) Gyroscopic stab ilizers
Bilge Keels and many Anti-Rolling tanks absorb power from the ship, which are
9{led Passive systems. Oscillating weights, Gyroscopic stabilizers and Tilting
Fin Systems need a separate power supply, and are called Active Systems.
Tilting Fin System
Two fins extend from the ship side at about bilge level. They are turned in
opposite directions as the ship rolls. The forward motion of the ship creates a
force on each fin and hence produces a moment opposing the roll. When the fin
is turned down, the water exerts an upward force. When ine nn is turned up, the
water exerts a downward force. The fins are usually rectangular, having aerofoil
cross-section and turn through about 20 degrees. Many are fitted with tail fins
which turn relative to the main fin through a further 10 degrees. The fins are
turned by means of an electric motor. driving a variable delivery pump,
delivering oil under pressure to the fin tilting gear. The oil actuates .*j couptea
through a lever to the fin shaft. Most fins are retractable, either stiding into nn
boxes transversely or hinged into the ship.

orer^-.
-.sL IrOA,
j FINSTABILISER
^_

-o((

STABILISER FIN
Anti- Rolling Tanks
The action of anti-rolling tanks is shown in the figure. Note that the tank is
above the cenfre of gravity, so that the statical moment, due to the difference in
water level in the vertical legs, is acting in the same direction as the moment
caused by the dynanric force, which is created by the acceleration of the rvater in
the horizontal connection. The phase difference between the movement of the
water and the movement of the vessel is 90 degrees. The water provides the
kinetic energy whereas the ship provides the potential energy. ihu, roiling
energy is absorbed constantly, so causing dgnping action,

ll3
 5:i ..,\

4
-ir
Rol ling motion l{oter flow in tonkr coup,e
^;;;,",

Anti-Rolling Tanks

Bow Thruster
This is installed in the bow or stern, and enables the normal process of docking to
be managed without the assistance of Tugs, because the vessel is now more
manoeuwable at low speeds. Safety is increased when berthing in adverse weather
conditions, provided the required thrust capacity has been correctly estimated.
For the conventional thruster in an athwart-ship hrnnel, the diesel propulsion engir
may be mounted at the szrme level as the propeller to provide a direct drive throu$
a reverse / reduction gear. An alternative arrangement is where the diesel engine m4
be mourted above the thruster, when space is limited. In both cases, the diesel
propulsion engines have simple speed control through the fuel rack, and the
reduction gear-box. Flexible couplings are fitted. The reversing gear-box has Aheai
/ Astern clutches.

REVERSE / REDUCTION
GEAR-BOX

DIESEI- ENGTNE

BOW THRUSTER

i14
Navigational aids :
Electromagetic log
induction law' The
The electromagnetic log is based upon the Faraday-Ma<well
through the windings of
principle of the log is shown in the sketch. A direct current
(ab, bc, cd, and da ) are
a coil generates a magnetic field. Four conductors
do not move'
,rr-g!A in the form of a loop, around the coil' If the conductors and no voltage
lines of force,
relative to the coil, they do not intersect the magnetic
is induced in them.
d.irection of the lines of force, and the
The direction of the voltage e depends on the
The induced voltage is
direction of velocity of the conductors ab and cd'
an opposite direction' the
proportional to the velocity v. Should the velocity have
direction of voltage will also change'
in a water-tight flow sensor' which
The coil of the electro-magenetic log is inserted
can be retracted into a
projects through the hull into the *o:t., below' The sensor
forming the loop are' in
tube, either locally or by remote contrOl. The conductors
since it is saline' The
reality, the surrounding water, which behaves as a conductoq
v'
watei moves relative to the coil, at the ship's velocity
master unit' The velocity can
The signal from ttre flow sensor gets amplified in the
be converted in the master unit, from -utogrt
to digitat form, if the readout is
a special generator which
digital. The speed indicator signal can be supplied to
to the magnitude of the
produces a number of pulses per minute, proportional
.ignut, and hence ptopottional to the distance travelled'

SPEED
INDICATOR

PRINCIPLE OF
1'r lt Ej-tcl'Ro-tr,iecN.t'uc xrc OISTANCE
RECORD€R
ERlDot
- -

1A YOLTAGE
CURRENT PORTIONAL
T TO SPEED

ELEC"I-RO.M AGN ETIC LOG

ll5
Echo Sounder
There are two tyPes.
1. Recorder @cho GraPh)
2. Echo meter
The Echo meter only indicates the inst
depth
ugPLr-r vll a JuvvL
on (a of paper.
sheet v^ rErv^ If the vessel
DeO along uls IUutE ur urw ur{'
shows an automatically recrrded profile of the Sea
A pulse is sent to the sea bed, and the time taken by the ':f':':.^d:1:j-''""#
Th€c
;ffirr|* tr;oportional to the distance from the sea-bed, i.e. the depth'
/ visual signal if the meas,rcl
is sometimes an alarm provided, which gives audible
depth ib less than a pre-detennined limit'

I
F
=
H
g
(,
'uouexr oF THE BEGINNING:--
-osCtLLATl
1#- iirE o N o lsc HARGE

ECHO SOUNDER (RECORDER)

PULLEY

STYLUS

IVE PUL

PAPER SCAI*E

ll6
Fresh Water Generator
at a bare minimum' just
The fresh water storage capacity of the ship is by design kept
enough for safe opeiation, since storing too much water
would reduce the cargo
carrying capacity.
ship is in
ln Merchant ships, freshwater is taken from shore services' when
port, and this is cheap and easily a fresh water
generating plant is used, to make-
However, Boiler feed is almost alw ater generated

on-board. Shore water could be having I cause scale'

Scale formation is detrimental to boiler surfaces, as it
reduces the heat ffansfer rate'
also increasing the
leading to excessive thermal stresses and tube failure, besides
specific fuel consumption. lt is very difhcult to remove the hardness salts from
water, hence shore water is preferably not to be used'
the Main engine's
The Fresh water generating plant uses the waste heat from
jacket
jacket cooling water, to evaporate irine (sea water). Since the Main Engine's
conditions'
water is not at a sufficient temperahtre to'boil watei under atnospheric
use is made of the fact that the boiling point of water can
be reduced by creating a
water vapour is
vacuum in the shell of the Fresh water generator. This evaporated
we can get
now condensed by means of a condenser (inside its shell), and thus
almost pure distilled water, which is ideal for Boiler feed purposes, as well as
make-

rry for domestic tanks.

periods or
In war ships, vessels would be steamin g away from p6rts for long
waiting for long pdoa, (for further instructions) in outer anchorage or
deep sea'
the main propulsion
The vessel in this case must be able to produce fresh water, when
plant is not in use. The Reverse Osmosis plant is generally prefened in these
cases'

as it can produce fresh water continuously under such conditions'

Water from Shore Services

Chlorine
For drinking or washing Pufposes' water must be sterilised by chlorine.
dosage is given, to get a concentration of 0'2 ppm'

Fresh water tanks

The steel surfaces of the ship's tanks are prepared, by wire brushing and
or an epoxy
applying a suitable primer, to prepare for further coatings' Cement wash
rbuting, *hich is ,.ritubl" for use in fresh water tanks, should be applied'
At 6 monthly intervals, water should be completely pumped out and replaced'
to prevent any stagnation of water. Surfaces should be hosed down to clean them'
-"
After l2 month., ,.gular inspection must be done, followed by cleaning'
Re-
require<I, czut lre clotte . Washing'ul'ith a 50 pprn soltrtiort of
chlorine
coating, wherever
is normally recommended, fgllowed by freslr water waslring.

I l7
Distillafion systems :

Distillation is the process of production of pure fresh water, from sea water'
by evaporation and re-condensing (of the water vapour produced). Distilled water is
produced as a result of evaporating sea water. This evaporation enables the reduction
of the 32,000 ppm (of dissolved solids in sea water) down to one or two ppm,
normally present in distilled water. The machine used is called an 'Evaporator"
although the word 'Distiller' is also used.

SEA WATER nnn

SEA WATER
INLET

IN J.C.W.
Dstillate P/P

INLET

BRINE
OVERFLOW

DRAIN

FRESIJ WA'fER GEN ERA]'OR

Process
Sea water is boiled, using heat energy from a heating eoil, and by reducing tb
pressure in the evaporator shell, boiling can take place at about 600C or lower.
The sea water from the ship's services is first circulated througlr the condenser
and then part of the outlet is provided as feed to the evaporation chamber. Hot diesd
I l8
engne jacket water is passed through the heater nest, and because
of the reduced
pnrs*. in the charnber, the sea *ut.t boils. The water vapour produced rises' and
passes through a water separator or Demister ( which prevents sea
water droplets
hor carrying over, along with the water vapour). In the condenser, the water vapour
pump.
oondenses to pure water, which is drawn offby a Distillate
The sea water feed is regulated by a flow controller, and excess feed
is returned
away the salty
overboard. The excess feed constantly overflows a Weir and carries
deposits. A brine Ejector draws out the excoss'brine from the evaporator.
An air
are on the
Ejector is used to create a vacuum in the shell. Normally, both the Ejectors
same line.

Introduction
Osmosis
What is Osmosis ?
Osmosis is the natural migration of water, from one side of a semi-permeable
membrane, into the solution on the other side, due to Osmotic pressure'
the roots
E.g. : water from the soil passes through the membrane (which is covering
ofpt-tr; and flows up into the plant, even though the plant is at a higher level than the
water in the soil. It is a one way barrier, because the membrane does not
allow
nutrients (dissolved in the liquid within the root) to pass out.

OSMOSIS

REVERSE OSMOSIS
 Reverse Osmosis
"Reverse Osmosis", is the reverse of the natuLral process
called "Osrnosis".
The principle - When two solutions of different concentration are
separated br .
semi-permeable membrane, flre less concentrated solution will flow towards the
more concentrated solution side of the membrane. In a sea-water application the
natural, osmosis, would be towards the saltier solution.
osmotic Pressure : osmotis pressure is the pressure involved in
flow. For plants and trees, it provides the supply of water through a
root system to the upperrnost leaves of plants and trees.

SEA
wA'l'liti
RETI,'RN

REVERSE OSMOSIS CARI'RIDGE

DT. MODIJLE

CAR1RIDCI PIIMP F.W.PLa-

@
FIL'It,_R

AIR
BACKWNSH
_l Indicator

r- _-
To _WJask
! Fwrun* l Overboard

ffi u lrii"-_l_i-i_t
"^*.*T-[L-f-l-jl "I -11 [n PERMEATE

steriliser Sand Bed

+=ft!qr (Carbn)
(LuL()/
De-chlorinator Sodium Neutralisation
I.lypochloritc

r20

L
General DescriPtion
ships is by design
The fresh water storage capacity of the
governi
for safe operation and there are I]o specific ;r.ridelines
oftlrefreshwaterstockonboardtheshirs.Incaseoftlre
Merchant Ships the owner exercises his
for the fresh water stored quantity on bo
the conventional evaporators with the was
plant.
The use of evaporators ensured long s
mo
and saving vital valuable space for the
evaporators though having to be time
free have one major draw back of not

sPace utilisation'

Principie of OPeration
To understand the Reverse osmosis Principle,
it is necessary to know what os-
mosis is. osmosis is trre diffirsion of two
mixable solutions through a semi-perrne-
their concentration. one of the two
able membrane is such a manner as to equarize
other. The less concentrated solution
solutions is of higher concentration than the
membrane into the solution of higher
(fresh water) flow-s through the semi-permeable
concenfiation (sea water)'
At afinosPheric Pressure, sea water
able membrane to provide fresh water
applying high pressure to the sea water
water is then forced througlr a semi-perm
side. The membrane rejects the salt ion,
pr.r"nt in the sea water, yet allows the pure
Only about 30% of the sea water
water to pass through thc thin membrane matenal'
actually passes throug;h the membrane'
ions and other impurities off the
The remaining 70u/o seawater flushes the salt
into the sea' Pressure of up to 65 bar
is
membrane surtace, and is discharged back
water molecules trrrough tlre serni-perrne-
applied to the sea water to force ih. pur.
able rnembrane.
material, bacteria ancl suspended sol-
The Majority of the dissolved salts, organic
from the syster' with the brine'
ids are retained by the membrane and are discharged
T'hepurewaterisdrrectedintothefreshwatertank.
121
Distillate treatment
Fresh water produced by a Fresh water generator needs to be
treated' in
order to be able to rik. it potable. Especially near the coast,
harmful
organisms may enter with the sea water (brine) feed, and
possible pass
produced by the
thiough to the domestic fresh water tanks. Distilled water
( due
Fresh water generator needs to be treated for its slight acidic condition
to ready absorption of Carbon dioxide), which may be the cause of
water. InitiallY, the water rs
n dioxide, thus neutralising it'
zing with Chlorine.
Chlorine sterilisation
Notice
The sterilisation by chlorine is recommended by Merchant Shipping
M 12L4, and its amendments.
form' or
Chlorine injection may be as Sodium hypochlorite in the liquid
0.2.pprn, for rt
calcium chloride gr*i... The chlorine content may be upto
to be effective. ihe water is passed through a carbon filter in order
to

remove the taste of chlorine.

Treatment with the Electrokatadyn process'
There is an injection of silver ions i rto the distillate, by means
of a silver
anode. This method of sterilisation is effective, since silver
is toxic to the
bacteria present in the water. Unlike chlorine, the silver
ions do not
is controlled bl
evaporate. The amount of silver ions released into the water
ppm, for it to be
the current, and the silver ion content may be upto 0.08
effective.
Ultra-violet light
A temporarY but immediatelY effec
violet light, e.g. For purification of
methods, although long lasting, ch
efficient carbon filtration to remov(
have provec
protection of large tanks. For post ffeatment' Ultra-violet lamps
io be a convenient means, although temporary in nature.

Water

I outlet

ELECTROKATADY\'
ME,THOD OF
STERILISATION
Domestic water treatment and supply
is nonlally supplied bY the Fresh
The fresh water to be used on board
water Hydrophore system shown below
:

Relief Prissut"€
valve gtuge
Comprctr-sed

Gauge
glass

IlYdroPhore
Outlet flresh water
Cold water lirrc valve
Ilydrophore
tank

Eot weter line

"';;fit
HvdroPhort
F'resh wster trnk

Carbon Filter
l-.'|
I I -'--+
- Drinking water Line
io f"nttit" Ice making m/c

-t-l
Filtcr Chlorinrtor Dechlorinator

Domestic fresh water /."'::'t""'

tank, which can be filled either by
As can be seen, the systern has a storage Water
shore supply o*n Fresli water Generator' The Freshquantity
;;.'fif;,
"t
Hydrophore is basically a pr"rr.,rir"J
u"rr"l, used to store a large
2.2 3.0 bar, and this supplies
-
of fresh water at a pressure of b;;een
water to the entire ship. Ashore, we
nonnally use water tanks at a certain
rr.igfrt or 'head' t under Pr
prelsure is created essed air
The fresh water water t
the
automatically cuts - in and out to maintain will make the pump
press're switches. Insufficient aii in the Hydropirore passing
could lead to compressed air
run more frequently, while excess air
an arr-locf in the system'
into the water rin. -a possibly creating
.Hotwaterissuppliedbymean,"ofaCalorifier,whichisbasicallya
a desirt d hot water temperature'
water heater with a thennostat to maintain pose a
Too high a temperature could
which may be varied as per the need.
dangerduetoscalding,wlriletoolowalelqerajurewouldbeundesirable, the tap
as heat fo5 tuf... pi.Jt i" the
pipeiine, and ihe final temperature at
will thus be even lower'
Watertobeusedfordrinkingpurposesshouldbetreated,tokeepit
achieved by using Chlorinators /
pure and clean. This can U" ,r.ry ""utify- filter
and render the water safe' The
uV lampwhich is said to kill bactlria
or other irnpurities, which are undesirable'
takes care of -fi; r23
 ab o ard ve sser s
to pr ev ent i'''"n*'
"' 3, ilff:: :$#:J ::
J :'Y
:" :' 1" whel-*:'.cleaning oil
of oil overboard when purnping "-itottr.r]i.-u.'""in!'ot
tanks.Thetequirementtofit,*r'.["ui"".istheTesultofinternationc
t.gi"rtuti-n i'
tt'u' frel oil and oily emulsior
legislation. The
,u.tr
"*l-;;, and
A"tn-t'Lion'of the algae
*
dischargedinawaterway.cani't.'r","withnaturalpro-cesses,such6
t"r"frrrrg b
photosynthesis and re,aeration, oil can cause damage
fish Inshore Jischarge of
lfe
plankton ,o ,rruoiiut
il
to
m311,lo* rng/titre or o' rt*
Slf,***ii'il',ilT:,::":';;;,nins
t"t tlii'"i t"'" ^e
heavily fine-{' and
'oo
lr
discharging more tt'an ro litres9f "i uoa'i.tponsible offrcers'
shrp,s Master
Authorities can also punisrr .th1 .iii-*ater separutJtt u'= installed'
it is irnportant
consequence
,rr", "ott"ttly
used and maintained'
both iftt tpttiftt gtitit'
Ahighrateofseparationis.favouredbyalarqesizeofoilglobule,elevated differenti,
Jiie'ts
ternperatu* of it. iyrt...(**,icft
between oit & ;;and the
"i*:'lt;;5i":::)3:'f"::: ::;il'i1*

with restrltant re-entrainment'

Factorsthataffectseparationofoit/improperfunctioningofoWS
1. Size of oil globule'
2. OlldensitY'
3. High TemPerature'
pitching and rolling'
4. External vibration - excessive
rnedia'
5. Turbulence and poor filtering

Principle of operation . , --.L:^r. -r nnllvnercrally available oily-rl

' o
o
between o
ct of ahnost
causiug i
i
I
actmg ".arrsing a parti
en the Jil particte and
fferenc
of water of equat volulne'

1^A
lLa
 : 0'00946 VDB
OWS Rate of Discharge
- in knots
Where V= Speed of shiP
D= Draft of ShiP
B=Beam of ShiP

Overboarcl
discha Vent and
filling
H OIL
METER

ll

nd slage First stage

sepa rallon

SEPERATOR WITH COALASER

TURBULO OIL/WATER t5 P.P.m)
(Lirnit of concentration uPto

Control Box

I
I
I
F.W. flushing linc
;fa'.,
l-\ Oil Scttsor
Sampling
I

1
OilOutlct I T
2 nd Stage
lnlct/Outlet lines
J: CoalescPr/
Fiher unit lnlet Bilge PuntP
I
AIR SIGNAL
I 'I'cr Waste Oil Tar*
O/B Discharie Stcanr heutttrg

To Bilge'[ank

-[YPICAI, OIL\, \\ AI'ER ST]PERA'I'OR SYSTEM

-'r
l
Air Pollution
Though the bulk of the shipping activity takes place away fi'orn populanoa
cenffes, manne transport sector cannot absolve its responsibilities tow'ar,!
prevention of air pollution, which is rnainly caused frorn the maitt cotnbusncn
rnachinery of vessels plying in international waters.
Annex VI details the lirnits set for Nitrogen oxides (NOx) arrd Sulphr
oxides (SOx), which are the rnain pollutants identified. It also identifies ozon3-
depleting substances, as pollutants This also covel's the technical ccr,!
acldressed for rnarine diesel engines to be rnanufactured on or after l'' Januarl
2000.
Prirnary rnethods zue being tested on marine engines, which includes
rnonitodng of fuel oil quality. Secondary rnethods include SCR (selectirt
catalytic reduction) in the exhaust system.
International Air Pollution Prevention (IAPP) Certificate is issued u'he=
the vessel complies with all the regulations of Annex VL This certificate r
covered under the lnitial survey, Intermediate survey and Periodical sun+
by the Flag State. Flag State may however authorize a Classificatim
Society/Competent Authority to carry out surveys on their behalf.
The overall responsibility of the Chief Engineer and others in his departmen
is to ensure by maintenance, care, ffaining and watch-keeping (or checking af
control equipment and alanns) that no smoke is produced in closed waters or fa
the sake of efficiency. at any tirne.

Prevention of Pollution from Bulk Chemical carriers

Regulations which carne into force frorn April 1987, divide bulk liqurc
chernical cargo into four categories, (Categories A, B, C and D) and gir:
general directions for discharge and tank washing. There is a requirernent in th
rules for a Cargo record book, and a Procedures and arrangements Manual. rc
be carried as a reference.
The list of Type A chernicals includes acetone cyanohydnn. carboo
disulphide and cobalt napthenate in solvent naphtha. The discharge into the se
of type A substances and any initial washings which cany thern. is prohibited.
Chernicals in this category have to be totally dischiu'ged aud delivc-red to thc
shore. Thus, when dischalge is complete any cargo rertrains lnust be relnovaJ
and also discharged ashore by washing through. The washing process rs
continued until the content of the type A chemical falls below a certain value.
After this, the discharge frorn the tanli rnust pontinue until the tank is empt!'
The washing through to clear cargo is solely for that purpose and not intended
as a complete cleaning operation. Traces of type A cargo on the surfaces of tan\
bulkheads will remain until rernoved b'y a subsequent rvashing opetation.

These washings are considered as fonrring a residual rnixnrre constituting e

hazard if freely discharged. 'Ihe rules include those for disposal of dtc
subsequent tank washing operation residue. Only water added after cargo dis-

t26
charge and completion of the
'in port' wa
sea. A ship's speed being not less
than s
nutical miles from the land and in water
nay be pumped out through a discharge s
sa inlets.

not' in theory exceed 1 P'P'm'

For most tlpe A chemicals, the cont

reduced to less than 0.1 per cent (weight)

fo an exception, for which content

must be
0.005 (in special areas).
Type B chemicals include acrylonitrile;
tion; and carbon tetrachloride' The cargo
cal tankers built after lst July 1986 must
from the tank, such tlrat remains do not ex
older vessels).
Guidance for discharge ashore of categ
dures and Arrangements manual' Where
tre manual and for high residue substan
discharge of washings to reception facilities'
chlo-
)enzene,creosote (coal tar) and ferric
Type C chemicals include acetic acid,
) substances in chemical tankers built
after
ride solution. The cargo pumps for type
'water' from the tanks remains' do not
lst July 1986 must be capable of clearing
exceed 0.3 cubic metres (0.9 oubic metrei
for older ships ). Guidance for the dis-
from the Procedures and Anangements
charge of category c substances is obtained
for type B substances'
manual. These regUlations are similar to those
solution, calcium hV$r9nde.,t"tllii:
Type D chemicals include calcium chloride
hydrochloric acid. The discharge of type D chemicals into the sea ls
castor oil and
not permitted unless:

knots'
l. The ship is proceeding at not less than seven
discharge is made up of only ond part of the substance with ten parts of
2. content of
water.
land '
3. The vessel is more than twelve miles from
if the vessel is in a special area'
There is a limit imposed on the quantity discharged,
12'7
Garbage Disposal
Rubbish from ships has traditionally been dumped at sea, where most of it sank
in the case of food wastes, 'was eaten by seabirds or fish. The introduction of
containers and packagrng, use of synthetic for ropes and fishing nets and the
eration of plastic bags has made casual dumping a major nuisance.
Majority of garbage washed up on beaches, originates from ships. The pl
items do not rot or break down. They are also rmsightly. The nuisance value ex
to blockage of stia water inlet strainers and cornponents such as ejectors. Od
made of plastic, metal and other materials have proved dangerous to wild life.
Annex V of the IMO Marpol 73178 convention which seeks to control disposal
garbage is now in force. These new regulations seek to reduce the garbage nui
by imposing limits on the dumping of the various kinds of yallg, .

There is a complete ban on the dumping of plastics at sea in any area. Options
disposal of plastics in the form of bags, packaging, synthetic ropes, synthetic
nets and any other substances which could be so categorised, include incinerating
on-board retention, until the vessel reaches a port with reception facilities.
The dumping ofrefuse within 3 miles of any coastline is prohibited. Outside of
area, food wastes and other items such as paper products, rags, glass bottles,
ery and metals can be disposed of, provided that they have been passed tlrough
comminuter or grinder. Substances passing through a grinder must be rendered
enough to pass through a 25 mm screen. Beyond the 12 miles line, communition
tlre above reftise is not necessary There is a 25 rrrile lirnit beyond which duru
lining and packing materials which nray float, can be disposed of, while dumping
plastics is not allowed in any area.

Sewage Regulations
The discharge of sewage into sea is covered by Annex lV of Marpol73/78.
The revised Annex lV entered in force on I't September 2005. It is applicable
to ships 400gt and above. Vessel should have an approved Sewage treatment
plant. Disinfected sewage can be discharged between 3 to 12 nautical miles
fro- land. No sewage is to be discharged wj(lrin.3.neutical miles. Beyond 12
nautical miles, sewage pumping out is permitted.

Oil Pollution prevention

A major source of oil pollution has been, the discharge of tank washitgs
tankers, into the sea. This has been reduced, by discharge of the tank washings to
Slop tank, for settling, and discharge over-board of only the water, while retaining
sludge, for discharge to Shore reception facility" If oil cargo tank residue is to
discharged from a tanker, it must :
a) Not be in a Special area,

t28
 b) be farther than 50 nautical miles from land,
c) be enroute,
d) haye an instantaneous rate of discharge of not more than 30 litres per mile,
e) have a total amormt not more than I / 30,000 of the cargo volume.
The Oil record book must be rnaintained, with all entries chronologically.
Engine roont bilge disposal is to be treated separately in the Regulations fi'orrr
discharges related to cargo / ballast operations. The oil content of any discharge
through an approved oily-water separater, must be less than l5 ppm. The Oil record
book mrnt be kept updated in all respects, which would mainly comprise of :

a) oil transfers,
b) discharge of bilges llrough Oily-water separator,
c) sludge / oil residue disposal through Incinerator, or lo shore receptiorr facility,
d) bunkering operation.
Regulations applied t<l vessels of less than 400 GRT are not as strirrgent.

Cleaning Units
(l) Settling Ternks. During this first stage of separation solid ptrtioles and water
separate out at the bottom. Draining regularly is important
(2) Centrifugal Separators. These separate the water as well as other substances
providing their densities are higher thzrn that of oil.
(3)Filters. These remove solid particles of a certain size.

Dis-coloured Exhaust
Causes: (l) Engine is overloadcd.
(2) Scavenge aruVor Exhaust porls are fouled.
(3) Fuel purnps tirnirrg irrLrorrectly acljusted
(4) Fuel is unsuitable.
(5) Fuel insulfieiently prcheated.
(6) Fuel valve rrozzles choked.
(7) Insulficient cornpresslon pressure.
(8) Charge air pressure is too low.

Tips for Pollution Control

(l ) Bilges should be processecl via Oill, W'ater Separator.
(2) Garbage must be disposcd / burnl olr in Incinerator.
(3) Sewagc must be treated in the Sewage freatmenl Plzurt, before disposal.
(4) Check quality o[ chemicals on board.
(5)Drains of oil sumps shouid go ftl sludgc larrks iurcl not to bilges,
(6) Wash down and keep clean tire lloor plates, engine tops, bilges using suitabie
clispers:rrrls.
(7)Bunrers, Fuel lrr-;cctors rnust be regrriar'ly ovcrlraulecl.
l?{l
Sewage System
Effl uent qualify standard
To discharge sewage in Territorial waters, the effluent quality has to be within
certain standards laid down by the local authorities. These are based on the
following factors
l. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
2. Suspended Solids content
3. E-coliform count of the discharge
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
This is determined by incubating a sample of tlre sewage eff'luent which has been
well oxygenated at20"C. The amount of oxygen absorbed over a five day period r=
then measured. This test evaluates the effectiveness of the treatment, as it measure-i
the total amount of Oxygen taken up as final, and the complete breakdown of the
organic material by aerobic bacteria.

Suspended Solids content

Over a period of time, these srrspended solids can give rise to silting problerns
This sign indicates a malfunctioning of the sewage plant. Suspended solids are
measured by filtering a sample through a pre-weighed pad, wlrich is then dned anc
re-weighed.

E-coliform count
This is the family of bacteria which live in the human intestines. This test is camed
out in the laboratory which indicates the amount of human waste present in a
particular sewage sample. l-he result of this indicates tlre effeciency of the plant r,
breaking down the human waste, and is given per 100 rnl.

Chemical Sewage Treatment Plant

This has an initial reception chamber, in which separation of liquid and solid se\r'ag
takes place. Wastes drop onto the moving perforated rubber belt, driven by an elecrr
motor, and the liquids pass through, but the solids travel with the belt to a caL{r
treatrnent plant. They are then transferred to a holding tank. The treatrnent of chemic-
ensures the liquid effluent is acceptable for use as a flushing liquid.
The capacity of the Holding tank shown is 2 litres per person per day.
The sewage can be pumped out when the vessel is proceeding enroute, and bel o-
l2 Nautical mile limit, else to shore reception facilities.

Biological Sewage Treatment

The Sewage treahnent plant has several compartments. lncoming sewage water
passes through a coarse screen to tlre prirnary collection tank, rvhere it is displac::
by overflow, into the Aeration section.
r30
 Sullltgc rclctttton
or holding tank

Plant
Chemical Sewage Treatment

Chlorirtator

PLANT
BIOLOGICAL SEWAGE TREATMENT
i3l
 Perforated
lYr::t

punps

*Scl .
suctlon

Sullitgc rctcntton
or holding titnt

Plant
Chemical Sewage Treatment

PLANT
BIOLOGICAL SEWAGE TREATMENT
131
 The Aeration compartment is supplied w'ith air
by compressors' The breali-
down of waste matter takes Place h

Activated sludge gravitates to the bottom, and

is continuously
withdrawn, ild n"trft.J to the Aeration chamber,
to mix with the
incoming waste. This is down by means of
Air lifters' where air supply is
provided by compressors'
^r +r.o eoffrin<r n
Cleaneffluentfromthetopofthesettlingcompartmenttsc0
rllected
over-board' Flou
in the last charnber, for disiniecti ln and discharge
switches confiol the Discharge pump m, r -r
sterilised' The bactene
The Chlorinator ensures that the watdi'is
Treatment plant'
must be kep alive, by regular ot. of th. sewage

Incinerator
This is th an Oily water Separator' and forms
a complete w The com|ustion chamber is a vertical

tes the refuse and oil sludge' It is

fuel consumPtion' Combustion air
'
is provided by a forced draught fan'

Slhrdge / oil
liqull wastc in

1aa
l)L
Pump and pumping systems
Pump
A purnp is a machine used to raise liquids, from a low point to a high point, or
alternatively, it may simply provide the energy required to the liquid, to enable flow or
to build up pressure. It usually creates a vacuum (in it's suction side), enabling
afinospheric pressure to force further liquid into the suction side.

Pumping system
This consists of suction piping, a Pump and discharge piping, together with
any relief arrangements, and possibly some means of interconnection between two or
more pumps. The pump provides the enerry to develop the head and overcome any
losses in the system.

Types of pumps
Positive Displacement
In this, one or more chambers will be alternatively filled and emptied. These may
be of the following types :

(i)Reciprocating . ln which plunger or piston is mechanically

leciprocated in a liquid filled cylinder.
(ii) Rotary : In which the liquid is forced tlrough the pump cylinder or
casing by means of screws, gears, vanes or similar means.

Rotodynamic In which tangential acceleration is irnparted to the fluid.

Centrifugal In this type of pump, the flow through the pump is induced by
centrifugal force, which is imparted to the liquid ( by rotation of an impeller), and
there is a suitably shaped casing, to create a pressure head in the discharge line.
Depending upon whether there is a positive head or a suction lift, the pump may
require a priming device.

Rotary pumps
These are various types :

(i) Gear type

(u) Lobe tlpe
(iii) Swinging vane type
(t) Screw type
The liquid is pumped by means of rotating elements of various shapes, contained
within a closely fitted casing. Because of the practically airtight fit of the impellers in
fte casing, their rotation creates a partial vacuum in the suction line, when the pump is
started and thus permits the pump to be used with a suction lift. Unlike the centrifugal
pump, displacement is positive and entir.ely independent of velocity of flow and
centrifugal force.
t aa
IJJ

--*r*c_--
=-*r-'
Centrifugal pump
This type of purnp consists of an hnpeller, which has blades-
rotating inside a fixed Casing. Tlie lmpeller iS driven by a suitable prime
mover, like an Electric rnotor, at comparatively high speeds. As trc
knpeller revolves, water enters at the centre (from the suction line) and b
thrown outward by the blades, due to,.centrifugal force. Thus, water leaves
the Impeller at a high velocity (Kinetic energy). This velocity is converted
into a pressure head (Potential energy), either by tlre 'Volute' shapal

su"ti- rump
'i t

casing, or, by meanslof 'diffirser' blades f*ed in the casing.

Stagb : If a centqifrtgal pump contains only one Impeller, it is called I
single stage pump; if it contains two lmpellers, it is called a two staF
pump and so on. Pressure is boosted in succeeding stages, to achieve I
higher pressure, than that which could be produced from a single stage.

Priming : A centrifugal pump is not self-priming, which means that

casing should be full of liquid, for the pump to work. If the pump is taki
suction from a higlrer tank, this is not a problem. However, if the suction i
from a lower level (than the pump), then the pump casing must be 'pn
(i.e. filled with water). This can be done by opening a sea suction valve,
by opening a valve from another tank (which is full).
Casing bckrw
waterline
Rotrtion Discherge
+t0 Bilgc tank
0r
tbrough
Oily-rrter Scparzror

Sea sucfion
Bilge suction

Bilgewell

t34
 There are various other mechanisrns used for priming : Some pumps have
a Priming pump fitted to them, which does this job, while another system,
called Cenfral Priming system, has all the pumps connected to a cenfal
vessel, which is kept under partial vacuuln, to prime all tlre pumps.

Shut off
Warer ring primer

I Air dischargc
I to armosphere

Float
valve Cooling water
ro pnmer
Wcight of lord
takcn by B
spring
Tinncd copper + Discharge

Suction pipe
Atrmsphcric
Pr.:ssurc

JL CENTRIFUGAL PUMP WITH PRIMER

Stripping of cargo tanks If

: centrifugal pumps are used for cargo
discharge, as on Tankers, the pump may not be able to remove the last part
9f thr cargo. In order to remove this, i.e. 'strip' the tank, it may be primed,
from another tank, as shown below :

Tank fnrmn'bich Tank to be stripped

Pump b primed

Gear pumps :
This is another type of positive displacement pump, where a pair of gears
are used to pump fluids like lubes and fuels. As each tooth in one gear
comes out of mesh from the other EST, it creates a suction effect, which
pulls in the oil. The oil is then carried around the casing by the gears, till
dte gears mesh again.

135
 During the meshing, the oil is forced out of trie
discharge side, under
pressure. This pump b.eing of the positive
displacerneit ,rd it is
necessary to have a relief arran*T:l to prevent
, over-pressur€.

Sucrion

ne by having a by-pass valve,

flow rate. Alternatively, the
ssible.

Advantages of different fypes of pumps :

:
Reciprocating Pump this has a titt p.i.ing
ability. It is capable of
pumping relatively smaller amounts of liquid,
pressures bit can develop very higb
alow head, a rotary pump can
equally matched reciprocating
d to centrifugal pump. Thc
scous liquids like oil.
able for pumping large quantities of
s. However, the pressure head can
S.

Disadvantages
not be operated without priming, if
uction, if not adequately primed. Nd
Qower pressure).
er, since the slip is
high. They than centrifugal pumps, hence can only
be used for flowrates.
Reciprocating pumps : Do not have. a smooth pumping
action (like rotary
gumps) and thus produce pressure purses. 'rir.r" may need
additional
fittings like accumulators, toreduce rrr*t
qrril h"rgh p.rrru.. pulses.)
136
Axial flow Pumps

These pumps are classed with centrifugal pumps, although centrifugal

force plays no part in the pumping action.
When seawater has to pass through lalge gg11(.ensers, axial flow pumps are
used. It ensures sufficient speed and adequate flow of water. The screw
propeller creates an increase in pressure by causing an axial acceleration of
liquid within its blades. rThis is converted to straight axial movement by
suitably shaped outlet guide vanes.
The features of this pump are :
o under low head (2.5 to 6.2 m) high throughput ( 2800 - 9500 m3 / tr.;
conditions commonly required by main condensers, an axial flow pump
with a higher speed than an equally matched centrifugal pump can be
used.
o The electric motor for the pump can be of smaller size.
o The pump will idle and offer little resistance, when flow is induced
through it by external means.
o The pump is reversible.

During use of seawater circulation, following are the materials:

Casing - Gunmetal
Impeller - Aluminium Bronze
Guide vanes - Gunmetal
Shaft - Stainless steel.

PI}MP DIFFUSER
SHAFT
PUMP
CASING

TTIRUSTBEARING

AXIAL FLOW PUMP

lJ /
 Pump cirarcteristic

hed loss

t
point
3
I'o
o f-o*rn
I ----l--
Pump efficiency

NP S H required

P S H available

a rtorr (m3/hl

-
Q-H / NPSH CURVES

Q-H / NPSH Curves

The head V/s flow characteristics can be seen from the sketch. The system flc'r
rate or capacity should be known, and the pump manufacturer will provide a ba
V/s flow characteristic curve for his pump, which must be matched with systelr
requirements. The pump must operate over its required range with the maximrs
efficiency. An important consideration, particularly when drawrug liquids frorn
below the pump centre line, is the suction side condition of the system. The
determination of the Net Positive Suction Head or NPSH is undertaken for the
system and pump. NPSH is the difference between the absolute pump inlet
pressure and the vapour pressure of the liquid, expressed in m of head of liqur.i
insufficient NPSH may result in cavitation, which is undesirable.
i38
 Line circuit - centrarised Hydrauric power
system (For pumps)
In centralized Hydraulic po,".. systern, a
ntrrnbir of purlps deliver oil to a
rnain pressure line. From this line it is possible
to run any number of punps
provided ther.e is surllicient quantity of
oit.
In order the motors clo not over-speed, a Flow
contr.ol valve is provided o'
each nrotor-/punrp.
Hydraulic high grade mineral oils are ursed
in systerl, which have additives
to ensure lubricity, anti-fbaming and corrosion-
resistance in equipment. A
separate oil cooler ensures heat dissipation
in the hydraulic circuit.

Air in Hydraulic Systenr

Air in any hydraulic system nust L're avoidecl for
fbl1owi'g reasors:
o It gives incorrect balance betwebn irriits, time lags and irregular
operation.
ty readings 0n pl.essure gaLlges.
d in system.
tenr must be drained totally, fbllorvecl

Hrdroulic tonk Oil coolor

-1 r -'l
tl I
tl I

L-r--J tl
JL
I

v
I
I
LMoin pressurc

Power toke
off geor Hydroulic motor
with flow control

CENTRAL HYDRAULIC SYSYTEM

139
EmergencY Fire PumP
fitted
In cargo ships, uv ttgoiutions, this P*q is "itt]9:JltiTT::*=
independent of the matn power
remote from the Enlne room. This is
supplies ttr
suPP'sD r'w rf,ip', fiL *uin, when ttr; ma1!i1-e1,:1T::::1tr":ff#
"ruv lj-i^-^r---^r;., least two jets orf water, to the satisFd
andshouldbq capable of supplying at
ft. lf" -
,upu'itv tht ttttgencv fire.pxmp
Adminisfiation.
iffi:tffi;;;-,il;i ":11*''1|
and in any case shourdr
' {";;:;^
diesel
than 25 nr'l tr. The
t: of being
le ":i'1
"'
started
-";::- .l
Provisic
l"t'":d"" J, uient temperature of 0 c, by hand cranking'
" ",,,'
made for heating arrangements to assist
starting to'the satisfaction:t9::g
within aperiod or30 minutes, d
ilH:ffi"r#ffil":fiffi;tarts
10 minutes' The fuel supply^must.,Tg
first two starts must be within
Hd"*i,T";#r Addition reserves of tuel must be
at le mt three hours.
an additional l5 hours of running'
outside th..u.hi*f ,o..., for
and for this reason the emergenc'y
The suction lift of -y p*op is limited ,
the water level'
is usually at a mar.i-r,t of6'm tom 1lt*:^1t:iJtf*
of list,
||.JH# ffiffi that it may supply water under all conditions
pitch

AIR BELL

JI.JNCTIONB([

WOrurl nr{O WOruUWHEEL= t- AIR VALVT

I
I

BALL FIJOAT

DISCHARGD

EMERGENCY FIRE PUMP

r40
Cargo pumping (crude oil) oil'l'ankers
Before the advent of very large tankers, reciprocating pumps were commonly
installed for cargo discharge and tank draining. These pumps require routine
maintenance of suction and discharge valves, pistons and buckets, pump rod glands,
slide valve chests and steam valves. Being positive displacement pumps, they have
good tank draining capability. Centrifugal cargo pumps with a double entry irnpeller
have replaced reciprocating pumps in modem oil tankers.
These pumps are simple, have no suction and delivery valves, pistons, piston
rings, steam control valve or linkages and therefore require much less maintenance.
The compact centrifugal pump can be mounted horizontally or vertically in the purnp
room with a turbine, or in some ships, electric motor drive from the machinery space.
The drive shaft passes through the engine room bulkhead via a gas seal.
Rate of pumping is high (typically 2600 m'lhr) until a low level is reached,
when a loss of suction head and impeded flow through frames and lirnber holes
makes a slowdown in the rate of pumping necessary, if the use of a small stripping
pump is to be avoided.
Systems such as the Worthington-Simpson 'Vac-Strip' enable a faster general
rate of discharge to be maintained, while reducing temporarily the rate of discharge
when a low level is reached in the cargo tank to allow for draining.
Within its capacity, a pnmp will discharge at the rate at which fluid will flow to
its suction orifice; this will be determined by viscosity, specific gravity, line friction,
entrained air (as the tank level falls) and, in'the case of gassed oils, the release of
volatile light fractions if the pressure in the suction pipe falls below the vapour
pressure of the oil. This is the highest practicable rate. It will fall under adverse
pumping conditions but a useful rate will be obtained from a displacement pump
while enough oil passes to keep it sealed. The centrifugal pump however, will not
regain a lost suction until the pump fills with liquid after the vapour is released. This
problem disappears if the non-liquid elements are separated from the fluid before it
reaches the suction orifice and if the disclrarge rate is limited to that of flow to the
sction. Figure shows a typical system of this kind, for one pump.
A separator fitted with a vapour outlet pipe, a sight glass and a level controller
b placed near the pump in the suction line. The vapour outlet is led to an interceptor
tank having a moisture eliminator, a drain to seperator and an outlet to a vapotr
ortraction pump through an exhaust control valve .This pump (of the water ring
t5pe) controlled by the pressure switches A and B, draws from the interceptor tank
ad discharges to atmosphere at a suitable height through reservoir tank , which has
an internal cooling coil.
The small quantities of liquid canie.d with the vapour, drop out in the tank and
return to the pump by the pipe shown. This Eurangement, by means described later,
cnsures that the pump is always fully primed.
The discharge rate is regulated by a bufferfly valve in the cargo discharge line.
ontrolled by a pneumatic positioner. A thermostat guards against overheating wherl
Ore pump is working against a restricted or closed discharge.

I4t
 PRESSIIRE SWITCHES
INT PTOR TANK
lvAPoIrR
EXIIAUST CONTROL VALVE
B vncrnlu RRDAKER

ER]V[OSTA
\[

.vAcuuMl AIR i--t

\ EVAPORATION! -l
PUMP I
i;rff"ifi

COOLING TANK

-- --{
TRANSMITTER i
SIGHT GLASS
LEVEL CONTROLLER
SLICTION

- SEPARATOR

VAC-STRIP CARGO SYSTEM

ELEC'TRG.PNEUMATIC
RECTIFIER CONVERTER

CONTROI,I,ER

CURRENT HIGH
TRA}ISFORMER SELECTO
RELAYS

AI.]TOMAT]C
SEI-ECI'OR
CONTROLLER
OF VAC-STRIP SYSTEM
VALVE POSITIONER

LEVEL I

CONTR

14
 Submerged cargo pumps used in Chemical tankers
Submersible or deepwell pumps are used to eliminate the hazards of toxic
vapours / flammable vapours escaping from pump glands into a pumproom.
The pumps are physically located inside the tanks containing the cargo. This
also does away with the need for long, costly piping on the suction side. It
also reduces the problems due to air ingress in suction lines.
The submerged pump is driven by a prime mover such as a hydraulic motor,
which is located inside the tank. The hydraulic motor, itself is driven by
hydraulic pressure produced by hydrauti.. pUpps located elsewhere. The
suction of the pump is normally towards the tank bottom, to aid in the easy
removal of cargo. The discharge line, however, would remain full of cargo,
and could leak back into the tank, if the cargo pump were to be stopped. To
take care of this, the centrifugal cargo pump is left running, and the deck
discharge valve is shut. Now purging connections are opened, and purging is
carried out, e.g. by means of inert gas or compressed air, so that the cargo
remaining inside the outlet line is blown out through a riser tube, directly
into the deck manifold, after the deck discharge valve. After this has been
done, the pump may be stopped, without any danger of leak of cargo back
into the suction side. There is usually an empty space or cofferdam provided
between the hydraulic lines to the prime mover, and the contents of the
cargo tank. This is to reduce the possibility of any mixing of the two. The
cofferdam is also pressurised before stopping the pump, to check for any
leakage. Deck discharge pipe

SUBMERGED CARGO PUMP

Hydraulic moror

t43
 Deepwell pumps for liquefied gas cargo pumping
Liquefied gas cargo is usually at very low ternperatures. 'fhis means rh^r
hydraulic means cannot be utilised for the prime mover, since the oil *,oujc
be below its pour point. Instead, the pump is connected to a long shar-
which is made of a suitable material which is not af,flected by the cargo, e g
stainless steel. There are suitable bearings, e.g. made of carbon,- whrct
would reduce the friction. The low temperature of the cargo is utilised fcr
keeping the bearings cool, thus the shaft is usually located within rbe
discharge pipe itself. If the flow of cargo is insufficient, this could lead r.-
over-heating of the bearings, which is protected by thermal cut-outs. Tbc
long shaft emerges from the cargo tank, and can be driven by a prime mo\Er-
such as flame proof electric motors located on the outside, it th. deck lersl
Some amount of cargo is usually left behind, which serves to keep the tar*
cool. Since the cargo is under pressure, there is a mix of liquid and gas, *ril
no possibility of air ingress. Thus the fire haznd is minimised, and there s
no need of using inert gas, which could possibly spoil the cargo.
-----"o,or
coupring

Carbon bearing

Stainlcss steel sleeve

DEEPWELL PUMP

i
Cocks and Valves
Cocks and valves are used to control or interrupt the flow of fluids in a
pipeline. Cocks are closed by rotating the plug, and blocking the path of the
flow. Valves are closed by lowering, raising or rotating a valve disc, in
relation to its seat, or by controlling the movement of a ball. A cock may be
sfaight- through, right angled, or 'open - bottomed'. Valves are of various
types, the most common being globe, gate, slide, butterfly, check and non-
return types.

The Globe valve has a bulbous body, housing a valve seat, and a screw-
down valve disc or plug, at right angles to the valve axis. The seat and disk
faces may be 'stellited', or sometimes be of the renewable type. The seat
may be flat, or more commonly 'mitred'. Leakage along the spindle is
prevented by a gland, packed with a suitable packing, which is not affected
by the fluid being in contact with it.
The Screw- down Non- return type (SDNR), has the valve disk unattached
to the spindle, and is guided by the wings or stem. Such valves are used
where flooding back may occur, in the event of a return flow, and is to be
prevented. E.g. in bilge suction lines, or in boiler feed lines. The greatest lift
required is usually one- quarter of the bore.

The Gatb valve, or sluice valve, gives a full bore, unrestricted flow, which is
required in pipelines, where large quantities of fluids are to be transferred,
without obstructions. The gate moves at right angles to the direction of flow,
and is operated by means of a screwed spindle working in a nut. These
valves are used where they are kept full open, or closed. ( They must not be
used for throttling the flow.)

The Butterfly valve consists of a disk, pivoted across the bore, which
swivels about its cente-line, and can regulate the flow easily, from full shut,
to full open, by opening only about a quarter of a turn. This valve has good
flow characteristics, and is quick acting, as well as useftll for controlling the
flow rate, hence it is preferred for cargo and ballast line remotely operated
valves, and is also used for cooling systerns'. .

A Check valve is another type of Non -return valve. It allows flow in only
one direction, and is usually fully enclosed, i.e. it does not need an operating
spindle. This is commonly found in sewage lines, and scuppers.

Quick closing valves are fitted on ftiel oil tanks. They can be rapidly closed
from a remote location in the event of emergencies, such as fires. They may
be hydraulic / pneumatic I cable operated.

r45
 SONR

ST€ LLTTE

GLOBE VALVE

1. Body 6. Oisc stem nut 10. Bonnet studs

2. Bonnat 74 Stem - stop type 11, Bonnet stud nuts
3. Gland flange 78 Stem SDNR
rl. Gland - piston tZ. yoke bush
8. Bonnet gasket 13. Handwheel
5A Disc - stop type 9. Gland packing 14 Handwheel nut
58 Disc - piston SDNR

LEVE R

LEVER

STAIN LESS
STEEL
EYELET

PACKING SLEEVE

SLEEVE PACKED COCK

146
 COVER STUOS
3 GUIOES CAST INTEGRAL
wrTH 800Y
COVER
N UTS

NON RETURN VALVE

GATE VALVE

HAN DWHEEL

TRIP GEAR
IST POINT OF COI.ITACT
POINT OF COIITACT

LOCK WASHER FOR

RETURN SPRING

COVER ANO
CHE9T

SPI NDLE

SPRINGS

sPI N DLE
NUT

SEATS AND
GATE FACES PISTON ANO BOOY

QUICK CLOSING VALVE

 HANO WHEEL YOKE BUSHIT{G

YOKE
GLANO

STUFFING 8OX

STEM
BONNET

FULL BORE ANGLE VALVE

MAIN & BILGE INJECTION VALVES

8€At
rco/
atAG

Lf€n

BUTTERFLY VALVE

2VALVE CHANGE OVER CHEST FOR

OIL
AND BALLAST SUCTIONT,o, - ---:
Refrigeration
comrnonlv used tna-
i:TlTilt:ilffJll"H rs45,carbon dioxide was the most is the
however it is not in use since 1959' Its rnain disadvantage
rine refrigerant,
the working cycle'
very high presstrre involved in marine
'ng
use' owll to its irritant
very popull for
2. Ammonia : This has nev r been However' it has a cost advantage
for
and toxic properties, in the event oflieak'
refrigerant crgo installations' .^ ---^ ^l I pressure i1-system
co, in Marine field' Permits use of
3. Freon: Has replaced
No* used' Does not te ozone if leakage occurs'
HCFC's: Hydochlorofluorocarbonr.

Types of Freon refrigerants :

Freon 12
Freon 22
HCf C't : Hydochlorofluorocarbons'

Desirable properties of primary

refrigerant . ,
)s a necessity.
operating a hleh vac tum become
1. Low boiling ;;*' otherwise 1
2.Lowcondensingpressure,toavoidhavingaheavymachine.
3. Non corrosive and non solvent'
4. Non poisonous and non inflammable'to reduce the quantt .1y of refrigerant
5. High ,p..if'" t"*'"fpy of vapourisation'
state, which reduces the
size of the machine'
, Lt"t;"Jr1cific volume in vapour

Working cYcle
compression type'
The cycle used is usually the vapour it
refrigerani;i' in"t"ed in the compressor' during which
# The pressure of the
which usually
pressure gas is now coored in the condenser,
irf*ril.jland high
in the
become liquid, which is stored
;Ht:[:ffi;:H$'Jft* pressure gas to
receiver.
#Thisliquidisunderhighpressure,andisledtoanexpansionvalve.
drop in presstrre ca.ses the
liquid to flash off
valve, the sudden
# In the expansion e sulroundings'
into a gas, in the process in the Evaporator coil'
# This is the Refrigeratir
#Nowthegasisoncea)ressor'andthecyclerepeats
itself.

System faults pressure'

refrigerant. This.leads to higlr condenser
l. over-char!" o. excess
effect'
2. Atrin the iysttm' This reduces the cooling
149
 3. Under-charge. The compres$ilr prsssure "-r'iil fall' an'J sooiirig
eiTec:

will reduce.
4. Condenser tubes choked {sea water side)' This w-iMead tc reduction
o:

the cooling effect.

ieads to a
5. Moisture in the sYstem. icirlg oi the Expansion valt'e, which
drop in the EvaPorator pr."rr.t ", and a rise in the Condenser
siie
pressure.

els usually {eqqrg.a system, which provides for

led at different temperatures' The arrangement ca
be considered in the following three parts :
l. Central or primary refrigerating plant'
2. Brine circulating or secondary refrigerating system'
Reefer cargo coolers

Thennometer

73 bar ll f{I lll I.7 bar

Comprersor
EvaPorator
Sca
YIatr
+
250C
Condeoser
E4ansionvalve

"*?i,**;H$:HJr'^
3. Air circulating sYstem'

splits intc
The sketch shows a central chilling plant. The refrigerant
large oil separator ts
different circuits, each at its own temperature. The
--"
required in screw type compressorc'
since there ,"p*ate circ ts, each of them can be set up to
'*
confiol the brine outlets at different temperatures. ^
Each Brine circuit and tempet
oT.attt tetftt cargo ho\d.s will be
Brine circulating
identified by different colours, and will have its own
and 6c
p*p The cold brine is supplied to the cargo space air coolers,
of the an
flow of this brine is con6olled' to maintain the ternperature
leaving the cooler.
fresh water'
Brine is a mixture of Calciurn Chloride and
temperature'
it fr^ specific gravity associated to the operating
0la Kecacl: 1 Ltr F'w')
150

L
 The cooler in the cargo space is arranged for air circulation over it and then
the air
through the cargo, before returning. An arrangement of fans and ducting direct
to the cooler and below the cargo. The cargo is stacked on gratings, which
allows the
passage of cooled air through it.
Containers often require refrigeration, and if the ship has no in-built arrange-
ment, then portable refrigeiating plants are usually provided on the container
itself. In
this case only the power supply is taken from the ship'

Insulafion of Refrigerated Holds and Hatch covers

polyurethane,
The sides and bulkheads of the reefer holds are insulated with thick slab
lined with aluminium sheets. Ilatch covers are insulated with foamed insitu-poly-
urethane, which is sprayed with trvo coats of fire retardant paint'

Operation problems & safety procedures

Air Purging
Air is admitted to the gas system during repairs, or can leak into the low pressure
side when the plant is running with evaporator pressure below atmospheric.
This air
is pumped round the system as far as the condenser where it accumulates, as it
cannot be condensed. The symptom which indicates air in the system is a steadily
increasing reading on the condenser gauge-the accumulation of air reduces the effective
area of condenser available for condensing refrigerant. If air leakage is suspected
it
can be checked by stopping the compressol"closing the condenser outlet liquid
valve wittr the condenser sea water still circulating. After a few hours equilibrium is
reached in the condenser and the condenser gauge should read exactly the same on
sea water temperafure, if no air is present. If the gauge reading is higher, then
air is
present.
Air is released by cracking open the purge valve on top of the condenser, or if no
valve is fitted, by siacking back a pipe connection on top of the condenser
Detection of Refrigerant Leaks
Regular(daily for anew plant and thereafter weekly) inspections of all components
of me reAigerant circuit must be made to try to locate any leaks as soon as they arise.
The quickest, but least efficient, test is to examine for traces of oil; wherever oil is
*..ping, refrigerant will also be being lost. Attention should be concentrated on
rotnp*ror glands, flanges and pipe joints, particularly the flared ends-of. copper
pipes. A most thorough test is to paint over all joints with a soapy water solution, and
i*t for bubbles. This is the usual method used for CO, plants. A quicker and more
sensitive method for Freon plants is to use.a.leak.detector larnp. With all types of
plate.
lamp, the flame is normally a pale blue or colourless and impinges on a copper
An exploring tube feeds combustion air intb the flame. Traces of Freon picked up by
the exploring tuUe glves the flame a pale green hue changing to violet for higher
concentrations.

151
 In use the end
keeping close to
there may be a
continuously green. Ventilation with
Freon and allow the leak to be pinpoir
spirit lt p which runs out during use without first allowing it to cml
cornpletely' The hot larnp rnay ignite the spirit and cause
a conflagi.ation. Nevcr
attempt to fill a fiom a large container of rnethylated spirii one should
larnp
use a small bottle'with an air pipe.
Charging with Refrigerant

connection and some gas blown to purge air out of

the pipe before tightening
the union' The service valve is screwed inwards about l n,* and frc
the suction side of the compressor, gas
vapour ind not liquid is drawn into trc
liquid line, or after the expansion valvu
ing pipe is necessary, but it is best o
d the gas bottle should be inclined wit
le should be weighed on a spring balance
before and after charging to ascertain the weight
of charge infi.oduced.

Safety Devices and procedures

Refrigeration plants are protected by :

f . High pressure cut-outs,

2. Low pressure cut-outs,
3. Oil failure cut-oufs, and
4. Safefy valves or busting discs.
outs the pressure corresponding to 49qC,
high enser gauge. Low pressui cut-outs
"C b towest expected evaporation gauges reading
oil failure cut-out pressure devices as crankcase pressure is not
atnospheric and determ; id relative to crankcaso pressue.
B'rsting discs are betweer discharge and suction manifolds on
many @mpressors. Double bursting discs, with pressure
between them are sometime, ur"d to protect
i gauge connected
trr" iligr.l pressure side of the
two disc
the refiig
read zero
of the pair of discs is leaking and sh
made of thin stainless steel, and in
s:rme material of the same thickness.

t52
 Direct Expansion Unit
(For Meat, Fish, Veg.
Rooms)
L.O.Differential cut oul

Back Pressure Valve

--_J
Motor Startet

r--L-:3 Vegetoble room

Domestic Refrigeration System

lirerm].lo-t
cut off-12C
Solenoid cut in-8'c
volve S 1
Exp'n Valve

Drier Sight Glass

:,Tit j*T.:t^?"_T.1,,r,L*r*T:
u*llloj
dlegt expansion rype where there
f:-?":T,f iJ^r :T. :t,,',,-'. T, ye e 9iab te, n ;h ; HH,"f'; ;'; il jfi
eYnencinn rral.ro
expansion o-l solenoid
valve and ^^I^- ^: -r valve.
r
"."iu"f#il11#1,11'l
Air Conditioning
Air conditioning is based on the ventilation
requirements for Accomodation, and
essary hunidification.
e temperahre and the humidity, and
are
ess and purity

Air conditioning systems are divided into two main

crasses -

l ' central unit type, in which air

is distributed through a group of spaces
ducting. through
2. Self contained type, which is install
The Cenfial unit type is most widely
u
dl the varying
requirements of each of is as follows :
a) Zone confol : The ac vided into zones, which have different
requirements' separate air heaters
are also provided for each zone at the
unit. central

b) Double duct : Two separate ducts

run
terminals, as shown in the sketch.
In win
perafures are carried to the air
both the air streams are automatically
terminals, T;
co

c) Re-heat : The air is pre-heated

at the central unit in winter, its temperah'e
being
ls are equipped with heating elements.
eet the demands of the room thermostats.
 Steam for heating / humidification

Single duct AHU

t\ Blower

Conditioned air I
tfiI
I
J

I
uehumidifier
I
Smokeroom Cabin I i
a
Cabin2 I
I
I
a d
Temperature auto c{
-, (SoH
SINGLE DUCT A/C SYSTEM
Singre ducting distributes air
.
via severar i.nt."r units.
Comfortable roop condition
: Z40C, Sg %o r.h.

. Steam for heating

/ humidification

I
Dehumidifier
Area # |
Area # 2 l
I
Auto Control F
I

DOUBLE DUCT A/C SYSTEM

Two separate ducts for each air terrninal.
t54
 Cihapten E Eile,c ttr ii.car
jl E.qirul ii
ip,
rrn-r, e lnr t .&
Declk i\,fl a clhn [rnrerry

The Marine Electrical equiprnent on ships cornprises of:

a) Power Generation Equipment
b) Motors, Distribution Systerns
c) Portable tools and equipment.
PowER GENERATION EeurpMENT: Tlris rnainly cornprises of:
a) D.C. Generators
b) A.C. Generators
D. C Generators:
A simple D.C.Generator principle can be understood by a coil of wire
mounted on a spindle and rotating between opposite rnagnetic poles. Total
number of poles are even. The magnetic field gets cut and current flows
because of induced voltage. Tlre direction of flow can be seen in the figure
below. It follows the Fleming Right Hand Rule of generation. The direct
current generated reaches the comrnutator segrnents from where it is picked
up by carbon brushes. The output is in a waVcfonn.
Working - A running diesel engine drives the generator which generates the
electrical power on above principle. This is connected to the Main
Switchboard where voltage is brought up and adjusted to 220 Volts. The
breaker on switchboard is then closed and power distribution to other
equiprnents given.
Magnetic

(/

\t
[\

D. C. GENERATOR

t55
 A. C. Generators(Alternators)
:
An alternator is a 3 phase machine
comprising of field wint^
armature winding. It differs
frorn D. c. Generator as pores in A. c.
Generator are on rotor and annature
windings on stator The rotati'g poles
create the magnetic fields.
by a diesel engine. With the above
erated first in one direction and then
current. This output from 3 conductors

q sqpplies for equipments, lighting

at constant speed so that frequency
remains constant at 50 Hzto 60 Hz.

3 Phase outpul

SIMPLE A. C. GENERATOR,
ELECTRIC MOTORS: These are basically
2 types:
a) D. C. Motors
b) A. C. Motors
D' C' Motors - Types: a) Shunt Wound
Cornpound Motors.
Motors b) Series Motors c)
Shunt Wound Motors:
This is used for.driving a varying road
e. g. c ntiftigar pump or browers
or motor generator drives. The principt. -C.
Fleming Left Hand Motor Ruie is
i, sim"ilar to D. bgn.rator excepr
followed.
The field winding is single cornprising
copper wires. The pole windings
of rarge numlers pf turns of
are c.onnected in parallel with the annature.
As shown in sketch wher poi.. is put
o" ttr"rgn -th.ilre switch and starter
zurangement the speed wly pickJ
up putting *o"rur. f*otor) in

t56
 varYing the field current. The
suPPlY
rotation. This sPeed can be varied by
voltage remains constant'

compound Motors: ..-:,-- r^

ih. is similar Shunt rrnrnr
to Qr.,,nr motor.. A"
An ext serres
TI'
In principle *orking
This gives better starttng torque
field winding i, piouiO.d with ihe armature'
as motor output in.,.u,.,. Used
in elevators, heavy dtrty pumps.

Shunt field

COMPOUND MOTOR
Type'
A. C. Motors - Types: a1 fnauciion Type b) Synchronous

Induction Motors: strips and are widely used

majority of the motors on the
These form
because they are
' u) Safer & cheaper
bi Cleaning work neglible
c) Non sParking
resistances
d) Do not overlieat as tlrey have no
D'C' Motors'
e) Robust construction cornpared to
It c ornp ri s.. oi! ;il"; ",".'liii'lf;;*:-"ii l":n5iofi1
bars in
copper
tio field. The field cuts through th9
ces in them u The cunent flowing through
"*tnt'field in each bar in turn and this
the bars and end rings produces a;*ttic
motor to tum' The motor speed
in reacting with rotating fteld caus.i tht
buildsupuntilitalmost-equalstothatofrotatingfield.

157
 A. C. INDUCTION MOTOR

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS:
q:)T.ll?i"
SHORE
o EMERGENCYGENERATOR

MA|N 440V POWER 3-PH 22oV

3-PH 220V

MAIN 22OV LIGHTINC EMERGENCY 22OV LICHTINC

2av

--t

TYPICALSHTi'ISEI,N-CT-NTCALDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM

The Electrical Power System on board a ship is designed to pfovide a

secure supply to all loads with adequate built in protection for the equipmeil
and operating personnel.
The general scheme of a ship's electrical power system is comnon to
nearly all ship's.

158
 Both the auxiliary and emergency services are supplied by the Main
generators during normal operating conditions. ln event of emergency only
the emergency services are supplied by the Emergency generator.
The emergency supplies comprise of:
l. Emergency Lights
2. Navigation Lights
3. Navigational Aids
4. Radio Equipment
5. Alarms & Control Systems etc.
A back up 24Y D.C. supply as shown is also available.

Parallel Operation of Generators:

Depending upon the capacity and the electrical load, more than one
Alternator can be connected to the cornmon Bus baii.' fne connecting
process is called 'Synchronising' enabling the parallel operation of the
alternators.
Following conditions must be fulfilled for paralleling the Alternators:
l. Voltage must be correct.
2. Frequency must match.
3. Phase sequence should be correct.
In'short, the incoming Alternator should have the same parameters as
the running Alternator/s. If the speed of the incoming machine is different,
the governor control switch (flick switch) should be used to adjust the speed.
To facilitate paralleling, following devices are provided:
l. Synchroscope. 2. Lamps (Dark/Brighr).
The running as well as the incoming Altemators are connected to the
Synchroscope, double volfineters, double frequency meters. When the
voltages are same, frequency matches and the Syncroscope is near stationery
at the '11 o'clock' position, the circuit breaker of the incoming Alternator
must be closed.

ctRcutT /
aaetxeas ,/- -,

b)

a) Two alternators about to be connected in p.ufi.f

b) The same machines showing possible zurangement of synchronizing lights

I _s9
 DeckMachinery
Deck machinery includes the following :
L Mooring equipment (Winches).
2. Anchor handling equipment (Windlass).
3. Cargo handling equipment (Cranes).
4. Hatch cover operation.
Ottrer items include :

Life-rafts, Lifeboats and their davits.

The various media used to operate these are : stebm, hydraulic and electrical.

Maintenance
All deck machinery are exposed to severe and corrosive weather conditions, hence
the correct maintenance schedules, made by the company, must be strictly followe4
which would normally include :
l.Greasing of bearings.
2. Checking the lubricating oil levels and replacing (as required).
3. Enstrring exposed surfaces are painted.
4. Brake linings to be checked and renewed as required.
5. All safeties to be tried out.

Cargo handling equipment

There are various systems of derricks and cranes.
A general cargo crane is shown in the sketch.
It has tluee separate drives:

l. A'hoisting motor, for lifting the load.

2. A luffing motor, for raising or lowering the Jib.
3. A slewing motor, for rotating the crane.

Hatch coyers
These are used to close the hatch openings and make them water-tight. Hatch covers
may be of wood/ steel, with various designs for particular applications.
A MacGregor hatch cover is shown in the sketch. Here, the hatch covers move on
rollers, along the top of the hatch coaming, The individual covers are linked to-
gether by chains, and ride up and tip onto a'stowage rack at the hatch end. A hy-
draulic power unit operates this system. Water tighfiress of the closed covers is by
use ofcleats.

r6Q
Types of mechanicallY oPerated Hatch covers

Rolling and Tipping' single pull type

Rolling end rolling type
side rolling type
lift and roll type
Roll Stowing rolltite type
Folding hydraulic tYPe
wire operated tYPe
direct pull tyPe
Sliding / Nesting 'Tween deck sliding tYPe

Maintenance of Hatch covers

l. Drive boxes and electrical enclosures to be checked for water tighteness.
Z. Trolleys, a-djusting devices and cleats to be cleaned and greased regularly.
3. Seals, compression bars and coamings to be inspected and cleaned.
4. Drain chamels to be cleared regularly.
5. In case of hydraulic systems, ensure hydraulic oil is clean.

Air Whistle
A typical pneumatic whistle is shown in the sketch. Compressed air acts on the
diapiragrn, causing it to vibrate, and the sound waves are amplified in the horn'
A sophisticated control system would iniorporate timing gears, which provides an
oo- otr operation, i.e. a blast every few minutes. In conditions of poor visibility,
International regulafions require the ship's whistle to give prolonged blasts at timed
intervals. The Whistle switches are usually located in a convenient location such as
the Bridge, and the Bridge wings.

AIR S(JPPLY

ATR WHISTLE

l6l
Anchor Windlass
A windlass should be capable of hoisting the anchor at an average speed of not
less than 5 to 6 fathoms per minute from a depth of 30, 60 or more fathoms. The
required chain pull thus is dependent not only on the weight of the anchor, but also on
the weight of the chain to the specified depth, with an appropriate deduction for the
water buoyancy effect. Even though the windlass may be constructed as a sophisti-
cated machine, it must be built to perform the crudest task on shipboard.
The anchor chain is heaved in through a hawse-pipe in which the friction loss
averages from 35 to 40Yoin good designs, and sometimes exceeds 55%;however, a
roller in the end of the hawse-pipe can reduce the friction to as little as 20o/o.
The chain is engaged by a wildcat; the wildcat is usually made with five whelpe
(comparable to a 5-tooth sprocket), causing the chain to move with a jerkiness which
is aggravated by its tendency to turn over or "slap" in the hawse-pipe and slip on thc
wildcat. Windlasses, therefore, require more ruggedness of construction than any
other machine on board ship. The rules of the Classification societies contain tables
of required equipment consisting of anchors, chain cable , towlines, and hawsers.
The basic dimensions and scantlings of an anchor windlass depend on the anchr
weight and chain size. These follow, therefore, from the equipment selection to suit I
given case..
The size of the vessel, the nature of the service, and the desired anchor handliry
and stowage arrangements are also contributive in the choice of the anchor windlass-
In many cases, the windlass is used only in emergencies. However, in some cases tb
windlass may be used regularly (e.g. some operators set an anchor in a "flying moor,-
approachittg a dock, far enough offshore to warp the bow into the stream whcr
preparing to get underway, thereby reducing or eliminating the need of a tugboat).
Also, it is usual to install capstans for warping duty. Cornbination windlasc
mooring winch/warping head systems are being supplied for large ships.

Windlass Types
Two frrndamental types of anchor windlasses have evolved from the'\uinding lqf
and capstan of earlier times.
The horizontal windlass is a specialised rvinch, that is powered by a hydraulic
electric motor, or in a few cases,by asteam engine. The motor is connected to a rj
of gearing that drives one or more chain sprockets, called "wildcats," tlrough
ing-block "locking heads" or comparable jaw clutches. The figtre shows a
matic diagrarn of a horizontal elecffohydraulic windlass.
The specifications for cargo vessels often require tlre cornbination of a hori
mooring winch with a clutched drum, driving a chain wildcat through an auxiliary
reduction and sliding pinion or jaw clutch. The chain lifting unit consist of a n;
framework, holding an axle for support of the integral gear-wheel wildcat brake ri
t62
and the pinion shaft with bearings. Althaugh enclosed gears running in an oil bath are
preferable on deck from a maintenanee point of view, an open gear protected by a
guard is generally accepted on a chain lifting unit. The large gear teeth are not espe-
cially sensitive to corrosion, and the open gear allows the transfer of the torque
directly from the gear rim to the wildcat, which allows the transfer of the torque
directly from the gear rir-n to the wildcat, which allows the design of a simple and rigid
chain lifting unit of moderate weight. An automatic grease lubricator for the gearwheel
simplifies the operation and maintenance procedures. One or both pinion shaft ends
are fitted with couplings for connection to mooring winches.
Each wildcat and mooring winch rope drum, in the case of combination urits, is
provided with a brake of the band type. The wildcat brake is used to restrain the chain
when the anchor is let go urder a controlled drop, for veering chain to the desired
scope, and for holding the chain while the chain stoppers are being attached. One or
more warping heads are usually keyed to the winch dmm or intermediate shafting.
The gear rain through which the warping head is driven usually affords a line pull
in the order of one quarter of the available wildcat chain pull, at fotr times the normal
chain speed. A self-contained horizontal bpe of windlass is the least expensive in
terms of installed cost. However, it requires more maintenance than does the vertical
type because the windlass machinery is completely exposed to the weather and to
spray and waves that break over the bow dtring storm conditions.

l./ILDCAT

WILOCAT IVILDCAT
cLUTC|{ CLUTCH

GYPSY
llElo GYPSY
H€ AC'

gr.ecrnrc \
ERAKE

wrLDcaT ./
9R A.(t
I
t_ _J
}TYDRAULIC
PUI'P

HORIZONTAL WTNDLASS
163
 :
aged.
Cable iifters (both).
concemed cable lifter for use.
ed for heaving the anchor.
the brake.
lding position, to take the strain.

Dropping Anchor :
l. Engage main gear wheer of cabre rifter,
using the motor.
2. Pull chain tight, to enable the chain siopp.,
pawl to be removed.
3. Tighten the brake on the cable lifter.
l.
Iease of the brake.
lifter, and
put the chain stopper in the n",HloJl,tnf*#H:fje
Classification Rules :

to match the cable strength.

each anchor.
for each anchor.
ing clutch) must be provided for

Winches for Cargohandling

A simple riggrng anangement is shown
in the figure, which has the capability of
performing three basic finctions required
to handle the boom and the cargo, iz.
a) Raise the boom head to the proper
elevation.
b) Ability to swing (or slew) the boorn,
to control the transverse movement of the
boom head.
c) Hoist and lower the load.

n by electric motors, hydraulic or steam

ere electric motors are not allowed in the
rakes provided on cargo winches are in_
pping devices. In an .,n..g.n.y, such as
ad, the mechanical brakes rnay be used tc
ke bands are lined with a brake lining, similar
to that for anchor windlass brakes. It is
advisable to have an interlock, such that the
clutch cannot be disengaged with the
brake set on.
164
 C)hnarprrrelr g l\ru'[rornnat I iiro, lm & Cro,nr r[rro']lss
An efficient and reliable control system ensures:
. Easy control of the propulsion engine and safe maneuvering.
o Economic operations, due to optimized engine/propeller load control-
o Quick system response and effrcient maneuverability.
o Load changes controlled in such a way, that the Governor always keeps the
engine speed within the safe range.
. Good long-term engine performance, due to overload protection.
. Thermal protection of the engine via controlled running-up programs.
. Environmental friendliness, due to good cornbustion causing only minirnal
smoke emission.

Basic requirements
There are certain basic requirements for starting and reversing, i'e'
control of a Marine main propulsion diesel engine. The basic control loop for a
diesel engine is of a closed loop form, with a three term controller controlling
the engine speed, having a load limiting device and alarm'

Revening of the engine

Th1 direction of rotation required can be achieved in different ways,
depending on the type of engine. In a Sulzer RTA, for example, reversing is
acirieved by controliing the servo.-motors, which position the cams for the
correct air start and fuel valve timing required for the direction of rotation.
The fuel lever is then moved and, when a pre-set rpm has been reached'
the air is stopped and fuel supplied.
Main engine speed is controlled by the Governor, which adjusts the fuel
racks, according to the speed to be maintained
The rtutting sequence is monitored by the interlock and check circuits
and a programmer. Oeiired value signals for engine rpm are transmitted from
ttre Uridge control position or engine room remote control position and
with the mLasured value signal from a propulsion shaft speed sensor,
"otpattd
difference betw€en these two signals being the error signal'
This is then used by the controller to adjust the fuel racks. Electronic'
electro-pnzumatic, electro hydraulic and pneumatic systems can all be used for
signal transmission.
A good control system allows the maximum acceleration commensurate
with operational requirements of the engine while manoeuvring but prevents
engine overloading.
- It also programmes the increase in power when moving from Full Ahead
to Full Away, und pr"u.nts propeller cavitation and running in the critical speed
range.
For Crash manoeuvres, the Telegraph is moved fronr one direction, e'g'
Ahead to the other, Astern.

165
Crash Stop
The sequence ofevents is :

l. The shifting of the Air Distributor, so as to give air-braking (below a

specified rpm), to stop the engine.
2. Reversing and
3. Reaching emergency full Astern, to break the momentum of the vessel.
Delays are fitted, to prevent braking air being applied until the engine
speed has dropped to a pre-determined rpm, since the air bottle pressure of 25 -
30 bar will be insufficient to open the (Starting air) valves, as the compression
pressure (inside the engine cylinders) is high. At high rpm, the compression
pressure inside the engine cylinders could be 100 bar or even more.
Bridge/Engine-control room (ECR) transfer are carried out by the
respective Telegraphs. When both Bridge and Engine-room Telegraph pointers
are matching, control can be transferred. Local control facilities are provided,
in case of failure of the Remote control system - manual control.

Bridge control
Bridge instrumentdtion will vary but usually includes the Tachometer or
engine rpm indicator, the Direction of rotation indicator and the Air starting
pressure gauge. For UMS (Unattended Machinery Spaces) vessels, an
emergency stop for the main propulsion engine, independent of the bridge
control system, is required. The bridge watch keeper is made aware of any
machinery fault by means of an alarm panel.
There should be at least two different means of communication, between
the Bridge and the Machinery control station in the engine-room, one of which
is to be independent of the main electrical power supply.
In some cases, a facility is provided for emergency overriding of certain
parameters, viz. High temperature of Thrust bearing, which would normally
cause a shutdown. This facility may be used only in extreme emergencies, and
adequate warning must be given to the engine room staff. Failure to do so could
result in serious damage to the propulsion engine, which could compromise the
safety of the vessel, besides incurring considerable financial loss to the
company.

Controllable pitch propeller

ln the control of vessels using a controllable pitch propeller, the engine
speed remains steady, while the pitch is adjusted to change the speed of the
vessel. The fuel rack setting and propeller pitch are pre-set in relationship to one
another for optimum performance.
Any required change in ship' speed and the direction (Ahead / Astern)
is obtained by the operation of a single lever at the control station, which then
adjusts the p:opeller pitch, fuel rack setting and engine speed in accordance
with a predetermined program.
When a change in ship's speed is required, a signal proportional to the
change is fed to the governor, which controls the pitch setting mechanism. The

166
fuel racks are adjusted and assuming the engine load does not exceed the pre-
determined maximum for the speed chosen, the signal will adjust the pitch
setting mechanism.
Should there be an increase in load, the engine speed will tend to drop,
causing the governor to move the fuel racks, so that the engine speed is restored.
In some vessels, the change in the direction of rotation is achieved by
means of a Gear-box. This makes it extremely easy to manoeuwe, since the
engine does not need to be stopped when vessel is stopped (in the neutral
poiition; and the change in direction (Ahead/ Astern) is done through the Gear-
to*, ,o the engine need not be stopped during manoeuvring. This eliminates the
necessity for large Air receivers for starting air

Filydt rranurll il.c & lP' rnr,eurlnn at t iic (Cror n rf rrrorll Varllves

The most common types of valves used in control systems are called as the
finite position type, i,e. ihey are either open or they are shut' (lnfinite position
valveican take up a variety of positions between open and full shut).
The valves are ofseveral tyPes .

Poppet valves
.These are the simplest type. They are usually push button operated, and-require
a considerable foice to operate, if the system pressure is high, or the valve area
is considerable. Hence these are usually used in low pressure pneumatic systems
(not in hydraulic systems, which have large pressures).

PUSH BUTTON

STETII RETTTRN
SPR]NC

VAI.YE

SPRING

POPPET VALVE

t67
 Spool valve
Spool valves consist oi. spcois, riitich nr,:ve within a valve
body. There
are raised areas, called lands, which ar-e used io open
or block access to po.tr.
Spool valves can be balancec verv easily, since the
system pressure can
be made to act on oppas'ir,rg faces .lhus there is no requirenient
operating force, as in poppet varves. consequcntry, spoor
of high
high pressure hydrauhc circuits, as well ,, 'pn.urutic applications.
'arves
fi'd use in
such as
Sulzer's air Distributcr

SPOOL VALVE

Rotary valve
The third type of valve is the
spool'
which alligns with ports in the
of passage"s These are simple, c iffi?lt

SYMBOL

PR

ROTARY VALVE

168
Valve operation
Control valves can be operated by a variety of ways :

a) Push button.
b) Solenoid.
c) Lever.
d) Pilot pressure.
e) Roller
Usually, springs are provided to return it to the normal position.

Valve characteristics
The relationship between the valve lift and flow through the valve is called the
valve characteristic.
The three common flow-lift characteristics are as follows:

Linear
Here the valve produces a flow that gives a straight line graph when
plotted against lift, i.e. at 40 per cent lift, flow is 40 per cent of the maximum
flow.
These have limited applications and would be used when the pressure drop
across the valve remains stable and only the load varies, i.e. when a large
proportion of the system pressure drop is across the valve.
-
The design may be modified to give a parabolic characteristic in which
i
the valve gives fine control at low flow rates. The design is produced as a
contoured plug or in the form of straight sided V-port plug.

Equal Percentage
With this valve, equal increments of travel give equal percentage
changes in the existing flow.
When the valvi is near the seat, and the flow is small, then the change in
flow is small, while when the flow is large, the flow change is large. This is one
of the most common types of valve in use as it gives good control over a wide
range of pressure changes.
It is particularly useful when flow conditions are difficult to measure, as
it has flexibility for matching or sizing to systems. It would also be used when
most of the prlssure drop takes place in the system and when there are high
friction losses. It is produced in either the contoured form or Vee port.

Quick Opening
This valve has a small lift, but it offers the minimum obstruction to flow,
with the port area increasing rapidly as the plug leaves the seat- They are used
with on-offcontrollers and may have a slightly shaped plug or a disc valve.
The flow lift relationship tends to be linear and some, by means of
shaping, are designed forthistopreventhammertng action in thepipe lines.

169

fu;g!r:r-
 The contoured shape pluu,, ,lie r:se,j t;rirnarrlv tbr situations where
corrosion and erosion present pratiienrs a.s the surlaces can easily be surface
hardened and allow a free flo.w fbr fluids with solid particles.
These valves may be of a single or double ported design, with top and
bottom guiding Valves may suffer from dynamic instability causing the valve
to jumf verti-ally or vibrate horizontally, causing wear, noise and fatigue
failure.
This is due to changing flow patterns, over the surface of the plug,
turbulence at the inlet due to the flow impinging on the plug, pressure drop and
valve configuration.
Some valve bodies are adapted for low flow rates, retaining the standard
size valve body, but using smaller valves and seats. These are known aS
restricted trim valves and may be contoured, Vee ported or fluted. The capacity
of the valve using this trim style is usually about 40 per cent that of the full
body size.

Maintenance
The maximum problems relating to control systems, such as hydraulic and
pneumatic systems, are due to contamination,
Dirt particles cause sliding surfaces to wear and can even cause them to
seize. Shary particles often cut the o-rings used for sealing. Dirt can block
orifices and nozzles, which will result in a malfunction, which is difficult to
.trace.
Regular routines should be followed, such as periodic cleaning of all
filters, anJ sampling of the oil condition / renewal as recommended by test
reports in hydraulic systems.
Dirty oil causes frequent filter b lockage, causing system pressure to nse,
resulting in over-load of pumps. It also reduces the flow rate, which affects the
- of operation of hydraulic components'
speed
OxiAisation of oil causes severe problems. Water contamination leads to
sludge formation and corrosive action, both of which are undesirable'
In pneumatic systems, Water Separators are used, to reduce the water
contamination commonly found in pneumatic lines
Water in a pneumatic circuit, causes other problems, since it is
incompressible, and .hung"t the characteristics of the working medium.

Materials
The valve body may be of cast iron, carbon steel for high temperatures
(4500C). stainless steel (for corrosion resistance), chrome molybdenum steel for
very high temperatures 1620"C; or nickel steel (very low temperatures - 100 C )
The choice of material will depend upon temperature, the lubricating
properties of the fluid and the compatibility of the ntaterials lo prevent galling
or sticking and tearing of mating surfaces.

170
Why automation is necessary :
Control systems enable machinery to be run at optimum parameters, which
Planned
reduces the incidence of break-downs and improves the efficiency.
maintenance systems and Unmanned machinery spaces have reduced the
workload for the ship's staff, which in turn allows the ship to run at peak
efficiency, and gfeatly improved safety standards. More accurate monitoring
and operation.
Human operator is relieved of repetitive and tiring tasks, so that he is able to
concentrate on matters which require more attention. Automatic control
will
give a very consistent result, while'huriran operator's output will vary
*ng rndividuals. There will be a significant saving in fuel / maintenance
costs, since Automation enables the machine to always run at its optimum
conditions. Complex machinery operations can be coordinated easily using
automated means.

Sensors for Control sYstems :

Level sensors
Manometers:
This consists of a U- tube, and is generally used for low pressures' One limb
is connected to the source, whose pressure is to be measured, and the other
is open to atnosphere. This instrument is thus measuring 'gauge pressure"
and- not absolute pressure. Sometimes, manometers are used tO measure
differential pressures, in which case the two limbs are connected to the two
points, whose differential is to be measured. The fluid used could be water,
alcohol, mercury and so on.

Aneroid barometer:
It consists of a comrgated diaphragl of phosphor-bronze, a steel spring'
bell crank, pointer, dial and case. The comrgated cylinder is evacuated, and
thus tends to collapse inwards due to the atnospheric pressure acting on the
outside. The motion of the diaphragm is transmitted via the bell crank
to the
pointer, which is suitably calibrated to show the pressure' If therg is any
rtt-g. in the atmospheric pressure, ( e.g. due to change in altitude), then
the change in press*. -ou.s the diaphragm, which reflects in the reading
on the scale.

Bourdon gauge :
This consists of an ellipsoidal cross-section tube, fixed at one end, which
is
tends to coil, depending on the pressure it is subjected to. The other end
connected via linkage and qgadrant, to a pointer on a scale. This instrument
can measgre pressure or vacugm. Materials.used in the construction of the
Bourdon gauge are solid drawn phosphor bronze or stainless steel for the

t'l I
 quadrant, gear and linkage and brass or plastic for the case.

CROSS-SECTION
A-A

BOTIRDON PRESSTIRE GAT]GE

This principle is used in pressure transducers and controllers also.

A modification of the Bourdon t5,pe, is the Diaphragm sealed gauge, which is used,
where highly viscous liquids may solidifo, or corrosion may occur, if the measured
liquid is allowed to come in contact with the gauge. Here, a diapluagm is fixed between
two flangeso to seal offthe line fluid from the gauge. The Bourdon tube is filled with
a suitable liquid, e.g. Glycerine, which fransmits the presstue from the line fluid to the
gauge.
When the line fluids are non-compatible with the diaphragm material, or are corrosive
in nature, the diaphragm and gauge body are coated with rubber or P.V.C. This may
reduce accuracy, and increase the hysteresis by about 2%o,but is necessary to pre-
vent damage to the gauge.
Diaphragm gaug-es are commonly used for measuring pressures in the lower ranges.

Pressure Gauge ( Schaffer type):

This type utilises a sFong flexible metal diaphragm (detecting element), which moves
up as the pressure increases. The movement of the diaphragm is linked to a pointer
on a scale, via a quadrant and pinion gear. This type of gauge is cheaper than the
Bourdon t1pe, and is more suitable for low pressure work, u,here it gives a more
stable reading. The deflection is determined by the diameter, metal thickness, corTu-
gation shape, modulus of elasticity, and the pressure applied. Normally, it is arranged
11)
ive a linear relationship to the pressure applied, over a wide range. In some
gns, two or more metal diaphragms are joined together at their periphery to form
or more capsules. Tlre diaphragms are pressed or punched out with a central
i, and then welded or soldered together to form a stack. Brass, phosphor bronze,

'llium copper and stainless steel are the usual materials, and their diameter
is
rlly less than 100 mm. Pressure measured is in the range of 25 mm to 3500 mm
r gavge.
bellows tlpe gauge is a Cevelopment ofthe diaphragm capsule type, being formed
ne continuous process from a thin searnless tube into a deeply folded or colru-
d unit, either mechanically or hydraulically. Materials are brass, stainless steel,
phor bronze, monel metal and beryllium copper.

brential Pressure Cell

tlpe of gauge is frequently used for water level sensing in Boilers. Tappings
nade for steam and water sides, and fitted with shut-off cocks. The steam side
nnected to a small condenser, which contains a weir, so that a constant head of
r is always acting on the steam side of the D.P. cell. The water side head will
, depending on the actual water level. Since the steam pressure is acting on both
iides, there is no resultant force due to this. Thus, the D.P. cell will sense the
rge in water level, dnd produce a signal corresponding to the level, which could
sed by a controller, or for a remote display unit.

STEAM DRIJM

BYPASS
VALVE

BELLOWS -

LINI(AGE
AL

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE CELL

t73
 Piezo-electric detecting element
With certain solid crystals (having an asymmetrical electnc charge distribution), any
deformation of the crystal produces equal, external, unlike charges on opposite faces
of the crystal. This is known as the Piezo-electric effect.
Deformation caused by application of pressure, produces electric charges, which
can be measured by means of electrodes, attached to opposite faces of the crystal.
E.g. Quartz (SiO2) is a material, that can be used unto working temperatures of 550
0C, and is
mechanically and thermally stable. Also Barium Titanate, which is a com-
mercially produced ceramic. Tourmaline has good electrical properties, and the out-
put voltage from the tourmaline crystal is a linear function of the pressure applied,
being used for measuring pressures ranging from 1.03 bar to 800 bar.
Drawback being sensitivity to temperature change, hence can only be used under
controlled temperatue conditions. Also, it is more suited to pressure variation meas-
urement, rather than static pressure.

WI{EATSTONE'S BRIDGE
DIAPHRAGM
SENSOR
lsTRArN GAUGEI

ArfmrtffrffrtrPRESSURE
R2

R3

TEMPERATURE
STRAIN GAUGE COMPSNSATION

Strain gauge
A sfrain gauge is a resistive wire, about 0.01 mm diameter, subject to sfiain by ap-
plication of pressure. The change in electrical resistance is proportional to the
strain.
An un-bonded strain gauge is essentially a pressure sensor, where the sensing element
is directly fastened to a diaphragm, and wires are led to a Wheatstone's Bridge cir-
cuit, where the change in the resultant resistance produces a deflection of the Galva-
nometer, which can be suitably calibrated, To minimise resistance change due to
temperatwe changes, a material with a low temperature eoefficient of resistance is
used, e.g. Constantan. Also the Bridge circuit can have a temperature compensating
resistance.
114
 Temperature
Various thermometers are used, and the range depends
on the liquid used.
Liquid in glass thermometer
Mercury can be used from - 38 0C ( its freezing pornt 0C, and
) to 3s0 srnce the
boiling point of Mercury is 360 oC,
an inert gas at high pressure is introduced,'(which
is used to raise the boiling point
further), to read upto 600 0c, for which special glass is
also required.
Alcohol is used in the range of - 80 0C ti lO oC,-and pentane
can be used for lower
temperafures, down to - l 96 oC.

Filled system thermometers

These consist of liquid, vapour or gas filted
types, which utilise a bulb, a connect-
ing capillary and an actuating mechanism like a Bourdon
tube.
Some systems utilize a compenS ldon tube to allow for
changes of ambient temperature. lic link for compensation
can be incorporated.
Mercury in steel filled system thermometer, can measue
upto 600 0C, capillary bore
0.02 mm.
vapour pressure thermometers commonly use Freon,
alcohol or ether, which partly
fills the system as liquid and partly as vapour.
glves an indicafion of the liquid surface
tempe
of - 50 0C to 260 0C, the upper lrnit being fixe
liquid.
Gas filled thermometers use nitrogen or
helium urder high pressure, pressure is
proportional to the absolute temperatr*e (at
constant volurne).
Range is - 50 0C to 430 0C, and ihe scale
is linear. Compensation for change in
ambient temperature is difficult. Usually used as
a sensor linked to a pneumatic
transducer, i'e. it converts the temperature measurement
to a pressure signal.

Bimetallic thermometers
The principal of operation of bi-metallic devices
is that : -
There is a differential expansion of two different
materials, rigidly joined at one end,
such that a change in temperature causes
displacement being used for indication.
the bimetallic strip t ulna, the resultant
E.g. Invar ( 36% nickel, 64%o tron), has a range
of - 40 0c to 320 0c. It can be
made in the form of a helix, which coils or
**it,with the temperahue variations
and can operate a pointer.

Resistance thermometers
The electrical resistance of a metal variel inversely
with the temperature. This prop-
erty is used to indicate the temperature, in the
form of an electrical output, usually
connected in a Wheatstone's network. Corrections
can be made for changes in
175
ambient conditions, by means of a variable resistance or rheostat, incorporated in
the Wheatstone's network.
The term Pyrometer was usually used for temperature measuring insffuments
0C,
operating above 500 0C, and Thermometer for those measttring belorv 500
although this may not always be the case.
Platinum wire is the most suitable element for resistance thermometers, but is ex-
0C to 200 0C and
pensive, hence copper and nickel is used, for the range - 100
0C. in a protective atrnos-
fungsten, molybdenum and tantalum are used to 1200
phere.

Thermistors ( Thermally sensitive resistors) :

This is a different class of resistance thermometers, utilising elements made of a

semi-conducting material. lt has a characteristic, that resistance decreases with a
temperature increase.
e.g. carbon resistors and doped germanium units.
Thermistors are made of semi-conducting materials, and are sintered ( heated tmder
pressure ) powder mixtures of metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt,
copper, iron and uranium. The size and configuration can be controlled so that
rods, beads and washer shapes can be produced as desired-

THERMISTER

CI^ASS COATINC

THERMISTOR

An example is of ellipsoid shape, wires about 0.25 mm apart, the whole assembly
being coated with glass to give sfiength and protection. The washer shape is useful
in engineering applications.
Advantages :
l. Relatively small and compact, with diameter down to 2.5 mm ar-rd resistance upto
100 Meg Ohms.
2.1-ow specific heat, hence it does not take away the hgat, which could have af-
fected the accuracy.
3. Physically sfiong and rugged.
4. Relatively high temperature coefficient of resistance ( ten times that of metals ).
5. They can be used for exfiemely low temperatwe measurement, where metals
could not give that accuracy.
116
 two dissimilar homogeneous materiars
are exposed to a temperafure
,i-]|-:,et1;1ut"1,
materials
yhj.l depends on the r"*p.Li,rre difference rrruc ang
and
involved' This principle is called the
seebeck effect, and is utilised in
Thermocouple.
a thermocouple of two wires -
one constantan ( copper-nicker ailoy),
and the
_:*lli:.
:will flow, T:.1y.io.ns
ar3 maintained at the ;;. temperarure, then no
but if one junction is now exposed to
air.LlJ#il#*, *.
u
emf whictr is depenJ-i on the temperah'e
between i::::esuttant
:T?,::.:11 the two junctions.

TERMINAL BLOCK UNION

IIEAD
wnoucsrrnoN NrpE
GASKET
THERMOCOUPLE
sensors
are two classes of level sensors,
direct method and inferential method types.
method

operated
oat is usually a hollow sphere, or
ball, which is attached to a linkage directly.
rh.us the .o,'."ti.".r can be indicated,
il *:ffi3i"::3:,wa{le1el,
via pulleys. The float can also be used
il;;",l"oil;,
:^T^t:": toiperate erectrical con-
for alarrn purposes.
application is the magnetic float switch,
'mon which could be used to operate
alarms in tanks and bilge *rjlr.

glass
e are directly indicating the
rever. The most com'on type is
the gauge grass, as
H"ti":I.:fflP:H yTn lever. Hieh pressure bo'ers use ,re prate
or Reflex
containing inflarnmable liquids,
;il;.;:T:l:i,ffi:n"
such as fuel.

element
;s type of level sensors can
be us&r if the liquid is a conductor, e.g.
The variation of rever is measured the km/
by the variation ortn. capacitance, due
t7'7
to change in the dielectric strength, since the liquid and air have drttefOnt &el€Cfl"tc
constants. Depending on the proportion of liquid in the tank, the capacitance varies
as the level.

Inferential methods
The static pressure method is often used.

Hydrostatic
A simple short distance instrument. As the level changes, the force on the dia-
phragm changes. The diaphragm is corurected via a tube filled with inert gas to a
Bourdon type pressure gauge. The pressure gauge is directly calibrated in height
units.

Igema remote water level indicator

It consists of a U-tube filled with a coloured indicating liquid, whose density is
greater than that of water and it does not mix with water. The upper limb is con-
nected to the steam space via a condenser and weir. This is to ensure that a con-
stant head of water is maintained on one side. The other side is subjected to a vari-
able head of water depending on the actual water level. An illuminated strip behind
the gauge increases the brightness, and improves readability.

CONDENSER

\I/'/\TER LEVEL

COL()LIRED INDICATING LIQI'ID

IC;EIVTA GAI.IC+E
178
Purge or Bubbler system
Air under pressue is supplied, via a flow indicator such as a Rotameter,
through an orifice. The tube enters the tank and ends at a poirit just above the
sludge line. There is a pressure gauge, directly calibrated in height units, connected
to this line.
* When the tank is empty, all the air escapes and there is no resultant back pres-
sure, thus the gauge shows minimum reading.
* When the tank is firll, no air can escape from the tube, and the back pressure is
maximum, thus the gauge shows maximum reading.
* As the tank fills up, the force exerted by the liquid (on the air in the tube) in-
creases, thus the back pressure increases, and the rernaining air is allowed to es-
cape, and the gauge now shows the correct level.
There is a modification of this system, for use in situations where bubbling of air in
the tank is undesirable (e.g. feed water for boiler).

GAUGE

;tr\
o-[
-o
:{
ROTAMETER -0
0o
I

I oO
I
o_
CONTROL-
I I

I
l_
.f_
AIR ORIFICE I

BUBBLER GAUGE

Pneumercator gauge
This type of gauge is commonly found for measwing levels of deep tanks and
double bottom tanks on ships. A hemispherical Bell is placed near the bottom of
the tank, above the sludge line, which transmits a pressure corresponding to the
head of liquid in the tank, to a well-type Mercury manometer. Copper piping is run
from the Bell through a well protected pipeline"to the Manometer in the engine
room, via a loop- high. The loop- high is there, so as to prevent tank contents from
entering the engine room, in case of tank over-pressure. The gauge has a trap, to
179
 prevent the Mercury from being blown
out, in case of tank being over-pressurised.
A gauge can be used to measure the contents of a number
of tanks, with change-
over cocks' A hand pump may be provided, especially
where the gauge is located
in a remote location.

fjltra-sonic and Nucleonic units

An ulhasonic hansmitter and receiver are located
above the tank, whose level is to
be measured' Two echoes are received,
one being from the liquid level, and the
other from the tank'bottom. The time separation
between the two echoes is propor-
tional to the level of the liquid.
Nucleonic units have a shielded radio-active source,
from which radiation is di-
rected through the tank, to a detector on the
other side. The detector can ascertain
the level, by comparing the amount of radiation
received, which varies, depending
on the amount of liquid in the tank.
These are usually utilised in cases where
it is not possible to easily enter the tank or
the tank contains some hazardous liquids.

Control terminolory

l ' Controlled condition : The variable,

that is being controlled, is called the con-
holled condition. E.g. speed in an engine governor,
temperature in the engine
cooling system.
Monitoring element : The element which measures
,2 the conholled condition
(variable ), and produces a signal corresponding
to it, which can be used by the
control system: AIso called as Sensor, transducer.
3' Measured value : Actual value of the controlled
condition, as measured by the
sensor.
4' Desired value : the value of the confrolled condition,
that the operator wishes to
maintain.-Also called as thc Set value.
5' Deviation : the difference between the desired
value and the measued,ualu..
This signal is sent to the Comparator, in order
to initiate some corrective action.
6' Comparator : This is that putt orthe Controller,
which compares the actual
measured value with the Desired or Set
value, and produces a deviation or error
signal' which can be used to operate the corre"iirrg
erement.
7' offset : This is sustained deviation, which
or.,iir, when the measured value
stabilises (reaches equilibrium) at some point
other than the set value. This could
change, with change in load conditions. offset
occurs in sirnple proportional con-
hol.
8'.,Control point : In a simple proportional'control
system, the confiolled condition
will stabilise at some point o. other than the set point, which is termed
as the control point. "qoitibrium,
9. Error signal : The signal produced by
the comparator, after comparing the
measured value with the set value.

180
10. Motor element : The actuator, which is operated by the Controller, to take
corrective action, based on the deviation.
ll. Feedback. The transmission of the measured value to the Comparator is
termed as the feedback.

MNAST'REI)
COMPARATOR
VALUL

CLOSED CONTROL LOOP

Loops
Open loop control
Here the output does not affect the input to the process. Eg.a coffee percolator
does not check any of the possible outputs such as colour, strength, temperature or
flavour. It is only time dependent, thus output may differ, and the input - time - is
fixed.
This is an automatic open loop, since it can be switched off automatically.
A marine example is the oil purifier or cenffifuge The purifier desludges after a
fixed time interval, irrespective of the amoturt of sludge that may or may not have
built up.
Manual open loop is one where a human operator is esserttial. If he is replaced by a
control system, it becomes an automatic open loop.

Advantages of open loop

Cheaper (than closed loop).
Simpler, thus easier to troubleshoot / repair
No hunting
Suitable for systems, where precise corrtrol is not essential.
l8l

_q4
Disadvantages of open loop
Not suitable for complex systems, having considerable load changes'
Excessive deviation from set point.

Closed loop control

If we consider the above open loop, and apply some means to monitor the output,
and generate an error signal, which can now cbnect the input, i.e. we 'close' the
loop, then this form of control is called as closed loop control. If a human operator
does the job of observing the output and taking the necessary colTective action,
then it is a manual closed loop. When the operator is replaced by a controller, that
uses a sensor ( to provide feedback of the controlled condition ), a Comparator to
get the Deviation ( from the measured value and the set value ), and a correcting
signal to the Motor element to take appropriate action on the input, then it is called
as an Automatic closed loop.
E.g. manual closed loop: The operator observes the water level, and accordingly
opens or shuts the feedcheck valve, to maintain the desired level.
If the same work was done by a Feedwater Controlleq then it would be an Auto-
matic closed loop.

Advantages of closed loop

Finer confol, with less chances of deviation.
Suitable for systems having considerable load changes.

Disadvantages of closed loop

More expensive (than open loop).
Possibility of hunting (loss of stability).

Feedback signal

ControlSignal

Chemicals to the system

ChemicalDosing Pdmp

PH Sensor
A closed-loop control system is one in which control action is dependent on the output.
A Closed Loop System
Differential gap : The difference between the deviation required to change the
182
lscade control
[s consists of two controilers in series,
one master and the other srave.
p same controlled condition
is sensed at two different points in
the circuit.

----)
q---:-
I XH#,". ffit* _:_ _ _)
\_---_-
:)

t-______

ACTUATOR
r>
I

OVDR-DONRD

CASCADE CONTROL

183
 The output from the master controller is used as the
set point of the slave control-
ler- The slave contoller actualry controls the controled
condition.
A typical application is the Jacket Cooling system of an Engine.
The controlled
condition is the C w temperature, which is sensed by the
tio controllers at differ-
ature is sensed by the master controlleq
e is sensed by the slave conholler. The
acities.
is sensed at the Cooler outlet by the slave
C W flo*, with out waiting for the change
re.
as a change in the C W outlet from the
Engine by the master controller, which readjusts the
set point of the slave, and the
slave controller controls the C W flow accordingly.
In hgs due tp two separate latge capacities oan be minimised,
an achieved, ,

Ratio Contral
This is a form of control, in which two di are invqfved, and a defi_
nite ratio is maintainecl between thern. Ty is tlre Air_ ftlel ratio con_
troller in the Boiler system.

Split Range Control

It is a multi - Ioop confrol, where the same confroller output
controls two independ-
ent correcting units- For example, an AC unit
controller is operating the heating
is low, while it operates the a/c expan_
a Dead Band, to prevent both the cor-

AIR

q(x)LlNc wA'r'riR
OUTPUT

BELLOWS

FEEDBACK

COMPARATOR

SETPOINT

CONTROLAIR

LT'BE OIL CONTROL SYSTEM

184
Computers applications :
. Oata logging. All parameters can be easily recorded, such as various
presslres, temperatures, which confirm good 'health' of the machinery.
Combustion monitoring.
This is for calculating the effect of changes in fuel timing, fuel viscosity,
cutting-out a unit and other changes in parameters
Spare parts inventory control. This'facilitate easy identification of
spile parts, ROB, minimum stock to be always kept, and part numbers
for easy identification.
Purchase of spares, stores and consumables like bunkers' lubes which
can be incorporated in a Budget. Thus, running costs, annual budget, dry
dock costs, and so on can be easily available either as figures, or as a
comparison in the form of charts over a period of years, so as to make an
analysis of effrciency
Planned maintenance sYstems
These help to carry out maintenance at the reqtrired times, and include
instructions from manuals, tools to be used, and even an estimate of the
man-hours normally required for any job. The program can even give a
list of tools required, and some programs can have video clips to explain
diffrcult procedures, such as checking of fuel pump timings, or correct
setting of parameters in the control system.
Communication can very easily be carried out from ship to shore or vice
versa, through e-mail, fax, sat-com.
Control systems like elecfionic fuel injection, electronic governor and
variable exhaust valve timing, are easily controlled by microprocessors,
which eliminate the bulky manual controls of tlre past'
Operations like starting / stopping of generators, control of hydraulic
systems for pumps and cargo handling systerns'
Navigation systems like GPS, D-GPS. Satellites are used to provide
signals which help to analyse and locate the geographical position.of the
vessel. This is especially useful in times of bad weather or poor visibility,
when traditional visual means of navigation cannot be used-
Accounting packages for ship's use like,salaries, Provisions and Stores.
These ptogr"1nr help to automate long and tiresome calculations, and
allow maximum efficiency with the minimum of effort'
Training packages, which include courses reqtrired as per STCW
Databases can be made for all personnel, which allorvs easy identification
of Certificates, validity, dates for revalidation and so on, which helps
keep track of all documents relating to staff.
Exarnple L

The cylinder diameter of an eight cylinder, single acting, four stroke diesel
engine is 750 rnm and stroke is 1125 mm. The indicated tnean effective
pr.s*. is 1172 kN/m2, when engine is running at 110 rprn. Calculate
indicated power and brake power, if, rnechanical efficiency is 86 %.
Ans.
Indicated power :
P,,'"r,L A N Per untt
:
1172 x 1 .125 x nl4 x (0.75)'r I I 0i60 r'/z (4 stroke)
Indicated power :
8 x 533.954 :
4271 .633 kW Ans.
:
Mechanical efficiency brake power / Indicated power,
:
Brake power 4271.633 x 0.86 3673.6 kW : Ans.

Example 2.

A ship covers 2500 nautical miles, in 9 days, during a voyage between two
ports. During this voyage, the engine has rnade 830,000 revolutions' The
propeller pitch is 6 rnetres. Calculate the percenta,ue propeller Slip.
:
(l nautical rnile 1,852 tn: 1.852 krn)
Ans.
Theoretical distance : Pitch ( rnl rev) x total no. of
revolutions
Theoretical distance : 830'000 x 6 ttr
or 830.000x6 ktn
r 000
.'. Theoretical distance: 830-000 x 6
1 .852 x 1000

2689 nautical rniles.

Percentage slip : %
Theoretical distance
also, Actual distance covered :
2500 nautical rniles (givert)

.'. Percentage slip :2689 - 2500 x 100

2689

rE6
 Example 3

A ship on a voyage of 5500 miles travels at a speecl of l2knots

burning 3d to.s
of fuel per day' After six days on the voyage, orclers are received
to proceed to
her destination at maximum possible speed. If
900 tons of fuel are in the bunker,
when these orders are received, calculate the maximurn
speed of the ship so as
to arrive in port with 70 tons reserve and the number
of days it will take to reach
port.

2x24x6:7728miles
yage: 5 5 00- | 7 28:37 T2miles
900-70:830tons
New Distance
Distance
Speed :l5.92knots Ans

No of days to complete voyage: 3772 : 9.g7days Ans

15.92x24
Example 4

In a ship steaming at full speed, the daily consumption

of fuel is 25tons. when
ship comes to half ahead on engine, consumption
of fuel drops to r2.gtons per
day. Find ratio of reduced speed to full speed.

Ans. Vt=full speed; V2:Reduced speed Yr : Cube Root of 25 I l2.g

v2
Vz (Reduced Speed) = 0.8 or 4:5 Ans

A single cylinder 4-stroke Diesel engrne

has a cylinder diameter of l g0 mm,
and a stroke of 250 rnm, If the Mean
eftbctive pressure is 4.5 bar, when
running at360 rpm, calculate the rndicated power
developed.

Ans.
Indicated power: pm A L n,
where p. : 4.5 bar : 4.5 x 102 kN / m2
A : Il/4d2:n/4x0.1g2
L = 0.25m

187
 n: no. of firing strokes / sec, for 4 stroke engine, there is one
firing strokes a_:.:.# rwo revolutions,

AO"Z
:3
.'. Indicated power : p* A L n
: 4.5 x 102 x 3.142 x (,0.18)2 x 0.25 x 3
4
: 8.59 kW
Exarnple 6
For the f-rrst 8 hor-rrs o1'a clay the speed of a ship is 10ll/o alrove nonnal. It is
tlten redurcecl fbr tlter lernairrdel ol'the ciay so thilt rhe consurnption tiir tlre
duy is the tronnal atrclur-tt. Find the pL,rcenra-qc' cliit'erence betr.veen tlie
distance travelled in that day and tlre distance travellecl per clay at norrlal
speed.

Let C: Nonnal Conslhr at speed V

24C: Normal ConsumptiorVday 3
For first 8 hours. Consumption/hoLrr' : C x
('']U ) : I .728C
consumption fbr 8 Hrs= 8 x 1.728c : 13,824;. clorrs tor'24 Hrs=?4c
Cons for l6 Hrs: 24C - 13.824C:l0.l76Cl
: 0.86V Nonlal clistance trar,'elled /da1'= r4y
ay= I x L2V + l 6 X 0.86V-- 2_1.36V
X 100 :2.67oh reduction,
?4V Anslver

Example 7

The daily fuel con'sumption of the ship at L5 knots is 40

tonnes. When the
vessel is 100 nautical miles from port it is found that
the bunkers are reduced
to 115 tonnes. lf the ship reaches the port with 20 tonnes of fuel on
board,
calculate the reduced speed and the time taken in hours
to complete the
voyage?

Total fuel used=l15-20 = 95 tonnes.

At 15 knots total consumption for 1100 nautical miles= 40 x 1100
=IZ2.3t
L5x24
Total ConsocV2 .,. 95 =
V2
122.3 152V -= 13.22Knots
Time taken = LL0O/L3.22 = 93.19 hours

188
 Examnle 8

On increasing the speed of a vessel by 1.5 knots it is found that the daily
consumption of fuel is increased by 25 tons and the percentage increase in
consumption of fuel for a voyage of 2250 naurtical miles is 20. Estimate:
(a) The original daily flel consumption (b) Origitral speed of shlp.

Let Y=original speed; C: original cons/daf i X=original consuntpfion vlyage

Consumption/day d speed3
C:/V\"
C+ zs \y a 15/
Voyage Cons a speed2
X :/ V \-
t.2x ( v-*Ts /
V = 1,5.79 knots
c = /15.79\3
c+zs: \ nryl
C 79.89 tons/day Answer
Exanrole 9

rbe fuel cons'mption of a vesse l, at 17 knots,

is 47 tons per day. when the
es to 22 tons per day. At this reduced
*: 13 2 %greater than that at 17

rmit power, we have the equation

(vessel's Speed)3
lVrJ3
Cz
I Vt'
: Crx[]L]'^ :47*tV"lt
Cz
-frit.
lv'l'
Bw fuel cons'mption per rurit power is 13.1 o/o greaterthan
that at 17
knots,
Thus actual consumption per day is '113.2 o/o
of Cz, which is 22 tons
per day,
:.113.2 x47x[]bl 3:
lo0
22. or V2 - l2.66truots.
[r7]t

189
 Example l0 :

A vesser reft port with 300

tonne of fuer in the bunkers,
journey of 2448 nautical covered a
destination with 45 tonne
.ii.r
at a speed of 12 kouts and arrived
at her
in hand. wrrui .p.ed would have
"rrr.r
the ship to arrive at her destination
with ,rr"
enabred
started off from port with ,u,rr" reserve of fuel if she
233 tonne in the bunke.s ?
daily consumption of fuel at what wourd be the
the new speed ?

Ans. Fuel used for voyage in first : 300 45 _.=25_5 tonne

case
Fuel used for voyage ln second :233_
case 45 .= lgg tonne

188 ,12
V
255 tz
Therefore , New Speed : 10.3 knots.

No. of days on voyage at l0 3 knots :244g

10.3 x24
Fuel used per day = Total Fuel
No. of days

2448
: l9 tonnes per day

Example I I

t.a temperature of O, C and pressure

its volume when its temperature
and
ectively.

1913 x240 : 1030 x V.

(0+273) Qs + 273)
Therefore, yz : l0l3 x 240 x 2gg :249 Cnt'
1030 x 273

i90
 Example 12

Ttnt:;ffi:*,t uship at l6 knots is 42t/dav rhe speed is reduced

per urut power is 2l%
greater than at 16
saving of tuet on
knots.
a vo ..(il Jh. percentage
rncrease in time taken. ([r/ the percentage

,'Cr:27 Torwe/da,

= (ff-q=n'.s6k
fime taken at 16 u=
10.416 days; Cons
=tl.4ru!^Xo= or,.o ,
lime taken at 12'g6k
Wo=
= 4000 = r2.g6days; cons- 12.g6x27=347.22t
6 Fuer sa ing = 43:..13i?6;Toooo.6; %ri e inr =l2i3:-t10.4xt00=2l.4
437A7 -
lxample 13

rred at a radi
degrees. Ca
trrrning at I
ercentage slip.
ns. Propeller pitch mean value :
s.7g5 m
4
Propeller speed knots :3 7gl 103 x 60 :
l0'f x 1.852
r2.63knots

Percentage slip : _Shio's x 100

Propeller Speed

:12,63_l2.gx100
12.63

- _ I .346 per cent

;l'd#Jt'#ffllt:iffil'Jff'; o"ater speed trren properrer rhis is

rhale
191
 s fuel per day, when
4 auiliary engine
consumption of ftrer for a vovase of 2030
when the displacement is 13,00b tonnes.
nauticj rniies, ,, u ,oj|l:"lii knots,
Ans. Consumption per day,
a 23 v.l
_E_
.c2
9:
c
16,000v3 74.5 3
13,000 r,
"2 t7 3
.'. Consumption per day, c2 56 2 t / day for rnain propulsion plant
Total consumption per day is
c2 + aux enEne consumption / day
: 56.2+ 2 58.2t / day.
Distance = 2030 nautical miles, and speed : I7 knots,
time taken : Distance : 2030 = I I9.4 hrs, i.e \19.4 : 4.97days.
Speed n 24
Total voyage consumption : Total Consumption
per day x number of davs
289.2 tonnes.
Example l5
The pitch angles of a propeller blade
measured at radii of l, I .5,2,2.5 and3 m
420'32o ,26o are
'22o and 190 respectively. Calculate the pitch of
the propeller. This
propeller turns at I l0 rpm and drives
the ship at 15 knots. If the Wake fraction is
0.30 calculate the Apparent slip and the
Real slip.
Ans. Tan 0 : Pitch , :. pitch : 2 rcRadius x Tan 0
2 n Radius
Pr = 2nxl xTan42,, = 565m
P,
''
= 2nxl.5 x Tan32o = 5.89 m.
P., = 2nx2 xTan26o : 6.13 m
Po : 2nx2.5 x Tan22o : 6,34m.
P5 : 2nx3 x Tanlgo : 6.49 m.
Average pitch sum of all pitches : 5.65 + 5.89 + 6.!3 + 6.34 +6.49 :30.5
= 6.lm
number of readingt
Theoritical speed, Vr:PxNx60 : 6.lx ll0x60:2l.73knots, V_ 15knots.
1852 l8-s2

Apparent slip: V+ -Vx lO0%o : 21.73 - t5 x tOO%o : 30.97 yo.

v, 21.73

Wake fraction, ry : 0.30 = y__ V*

V

Real slip
%-V^xl00o/o = 21.73 - IOJ x t00o/o = 51.67%.
VT 21.73
r92
 Examole l6
The area of an indicator diagram-taken
for one cylinder of a six cylinder, two
large diesel engine is 450 stroke
-o'- The length is 72-r und the indicator
lmm: l'5 bar' The diameterof the cylinders spring scale is
is 900 mm, stroke is lg00 mm and
the rotational speed is 105 rpm.
Calculate :
(i) The indicated power of tire .ngn:,
assuming all cylinders develop equal power.
(ii) The Thrust power, if the mect
ani.ar efficiei.l ortn. engine is 97o/o,
transmission rosses ue 3yo and the
the propelrer .ffiii.n.y is 95%.
Ans.
o Area of the card is grven as 450 mm2.
Trre rength is 72 mm.
Since, Area :
4so : .,;":*f;,irnheight,
height : @ : AI.ZS'mm.
72
Mean effectiv e pressure, p"ru: height x spring constan
= 6.25 x l5 :9.375bar
.'.Mean effective pressure, p"ou : g.375 bar: g375kN
/ m2.
Now, the Indicated power is given
by the formula,
Indicated power : p"; x rength of stroke
powershokes/second. x area of ore x number of
:"" 937.5x l8mx x
l(o,q). ro5
power : 4ao
^.'.Indicated lg7g.4kW per cylinder.
it is given that all cylinders produce
l;tt equat po*.a the total power will be grven
Total Indicated power : Indicated power / cylinder x number of cylinders
: 1879.4x 6- 11276.4kW.
(ii) Shaft power : Total Indicated power x mechanicar efficiency
: 11276.4 x 0.97
: 10,938 kW.

Delivered power : Shaft power xfansmission efficiencv

: 10,938x (100 _3)%
: 10,938 x 0.97
: 10,609.8 kW
Thrust power : Delivered power x propeller efficiencv
: 10,609.8 x 0.95
: 10,079.3 kW.

l9_3
Example 17
o/o' thereby reducing
a ship is 800 n.m. from port, its speed is reduced by 20
When
the daily fuel consumption by 42t, and aniving
in Port with 50 t on board' If the
(0' 136 + 0'001 Vt)' where V is
fuel consumption in t / hr. is given by the expression
the speed in knots, estimate :
a) The reduced consumPtion Per daY,
b) The amount of fuel on boa'd' when her speed was reduced'
part of the voyage' and
c) The percentage decrease in consumption iot the latter
d) The percentage increase in time for this latter period
V, new speed Vr tl 0'8 V'
Ans. Distance: 800 n.m. If original speed V, is
day is C, '
Original fuel consumption / day is C,,new fuel consumptiorV
+ 0'001 V3
Fuel remaining at end is 50 t. Cons/hr: 0'136

CocV3
Cr : Yr': lv l'
C2 Vt' 08v
1.95
1.95 C2
.(t)
cr
Also, (Cr - C2) : 42
(2)

So, l.g5 C2- C2 : 42

c2 42 10.95 -- 44.2t1 daY,

a) The reduced fuel consumption

: 44'2 t / day'
Then,C, : 86'2tldaY'
So, difference is 86.2 - 44'2 : 42 t'
Fuel consumPtion / daY : 44'2

So, Total consumptioll

: 44'2 x 800 x24
0.8v
Also, Cons/lr: 0.136 + 0.001 (0'8V) 1]x24
Consumption / day : Cons/hr x 24 [ 0'136
:
+ 0'001 (0'8V)
But consumPtion I daY :
44 '2
So, 44.2 : [0.136+0.001 (0-8V)3fx24

0.136 + 0.001 (0.8V)

3 : 44-2 124
0'001(0'8VY : l'84 - 0'136 : 1|7
(0.8 v)3 : l7o0
0.8 V : 17003
V : 11.93 / 0,8 : !5 knots,

l9'l
 Original speed is V is 15 knots,
And reduced speed is 0.8 V is 12 knots.

Fuel consumption at reduced speed of 12 knots is 44.2 t I day.

No. of Days :: : 800/ 12 hrs or800/ 12x24 days

?t;,ffi.".r1t0..0

Now, Total consumption : Fuel consumption I day x no' of days

: 44.2 x 2.78
: 122.87 tons.

b) ROB was 50 tons, so fuel at the start, when speed was reduced, was
Total voyage consumption + ROB :
122.81 + 50 :772.87 t.
Fuel on board at the time of reduction 172.87 tons. :
c) No. of Days at old speed of 15 knots, will be
: 800 15 x / 24 :
2.22 daYs.
Total consumption at old speed will be
:
consumptron I day C, x no. of days
:
86.2 x 2.22
:
1 91 .36 tons.

So, decrease in consumption :

191.36 - 122.87 68.49 t :
So decrease in consumption
original
: 68.49 x 100
191 36
Decrease in consumPtion : 35.79 "h.

d) No. of Days : Distance / speed :

800 / 12 hrs. or 800/ 12x24 days
:278 days.
No. of Days at old speed of 1 5 knots, will be
: 800 15 x /24 : 2.22 daYs.
Increase in time taken : :
2.78 - 2.22 0.56 days,
So, the percentage reduction in time :
Increase in time 100 oh x
Original time
:
0.56 x 100 oA
2.22
Percentage increase in time 25.22 "lr. :

195
 Examole 18

,500 nautical mires tavers at a speed of l 1.5

knots
. After five and a half days of uoyrgr,
she gets an
port enroute and takes on more
cargo, such that her
ond leg of the vgyag€ incredses-by l0 o/o.
After
speed rre00 tons orru.r ,,THTi*J:ffili#J Ht#il'ilHrJffiff
speed possible, so as to arrive
at the destination with 70 tonnes reserve
board (RoB). Also find the n,-b., on
of days taken to comprete trre voyage.

Ans.
voyage dist.1 : speedl knots /hr xNo. of hours/ day
x No. of days
I 1.5 x 24 x 5.5 :
l5lg nautical miles.
Voyage dist.r: Total distance - Voyage dist.1
= 6500 _ l5lg = 49g2.
Consumptionl : Cons/ day x No. of :
Joyage days 30 x 5.5 = 165 t.
Voyage Consumption2 = Initial
ROB - Final nOg = 900 _ ?0 =g30 t.

= (Displacement ,) ,rt * $peedrJ2 x Vo.vage dist.1

@isplacement 2) (Speedll Vryag. d,rt.;

165 : (D)"'* (11.5)2x l5l8

830 (l.lD)
The new speed, V2, : 13.79 knots. (Vr), 4s82
The no. of days for Voy2 : Voyage dist.^ ( n.m )
: Yzx24
rcffi2+
(n.m./hr x no. of mla"yy

= 15 days.
The total number of days
= 5.5 ; 15 : , 20.5 days.

Example 19

nt bunkers for a yoyage of 4500 nauticar

mires at a
Main engine's da'y consumption is 50
t at this speed,
sume 2 t / day. Just before sailing,
March, the vesser is ordered to proceed at lg2,4is oo gt
at i.+.L"r, At 0624 hrs. on l lh

t96
March, it receives orders to proceed for the rest of the voyage at 16.2 knots.
Calculate : a) The estimated time of arrival. And b) the bunker (ROB) on
arrival.

Ans.
(Vovaee Consumption)1 : (Displacement ,) "t * (SpeedtJ x Voyase dist.l
(Voyage Consumption)2 (Displacement 2) (Speed2 )
Voyage dist.2
Here, the Displacernent is unchanged, hence this term vanishes.
When Voyage consrmrption is 50 t in one day, at l6 knots, then distance
covered in one day is l6 (n.m./ hr) x 24 (hrs./day):384 n. rniles.
From 1824 hrs. on 3'd March to 0624 hrs. on I lh March is 7.5 days.
:
Thus, at 74 knots, the distance covered is I 4 x 24 x 7 .5 2520 n. miles.
:
Now, if Voy.Cont 50 t, then
50 : 06Fx 384
Voy.Con2 (14)t 2520

.'. Voy. Con2 : 251.22 t for Main engine, and consumption

for Aux. Engines for 7 .5 days is 7 .5 x2: 15 t.
For 2nd ieg, distance remaining:4500 - 2520: 1980 mi, at Vz : 16.5 knots.
50 : (16)2 x 384
Voy. Con2 Q6.42 r 980
: 264.29 t for main engine, and for Aux.
Engines:2x 1980 : 10.18 t
16.2 x24
lnitial bunkers : No. of days x total constunption per day
: 4500 x 50 (Main engine) + 2 (Aux. Engin6)
16 x24
: 609.37 5 t.
Now, Bunkers (ROB) : -
Initial cons. (Muin engine) + (Aux. Eng.)
609.37 s - (2st .22 + 264.29) + (l 5 + I 0.8)
t
68.685 .... ANS.

Days at sea ftoNn 0624 hrs. on 1lft March ! 1980 : 5.0926 days.
16.2 x 24
5 days, 2-224hrs ( 2 hrs., 13.344 min.), which gives 0837 hrs. on 16ft

Thus, ETA is OB37 lrs. on the l6th March ANS.

Example 20.
The area of the indicator diagram, taken on one cylinder of a nine cylinder 2-
stroke Diesel engine is 450 mm2 . Length of the diagram is 72 mm. Spring
scale is I mm: 1.5 bar. Cylinder diameter is 900 mm, stroke is 1800 mm. If
it is nrrning at 100 rpm, calculate the Indicated power developed. State the
assumptions made. lf
the mechanical efficiency is 97o , the transmission
fosses are 3Yo and the propeller efficiency is 95o/o, determine the thrust power.

Ans.
p, : mean effective pressure
: area of diagram (mm2) x spring constant (bar/mm)
length of diagram (nun)
: 450 x 1.5
72
: 9.375 bar : 937.5 kN
A : n & : nx0.92 : 0.6364n2.
ii
L : 1800 mrn : 1.8 m
n : no. of firing strokes / sec,
For 2 stroke engine, there is one firing strokes for every revolution,
: 100 (revlmin)
60 (sec/min)
: 7.67 rev/s.
No. of units : 9
Therefore, total indicated power of the engne is given by,
Indicated power : prn AL n x
no. ofunits
: 937.5x0.6364 x 1.8 x7.67 x9
: 16,141 kW ANS.
Since, Mechanical efficiency, q mech :Shaft power
dicated power
Transmission efficiency, I r*, :
Delivered power
Shaft power
Propeller efficiency, l'lprop : Thrust power
Delivered power
So, Thrustpower : ImechXTl t"r,,Xrl prop:0.97x0.97 x0.95 :0.8939
Indicated power
Thrust power : 0.8939 x Indicated power
Thnrst power : 0.8939 x l6,14l kW :14,428.4 kW. ANS.

198
 Example 21.
A vessel of 10,000 t displacement consumes fuel at a rate of 75 t per
day at
18 knots, of which 7 t are consumed by auxiliary plant.
Calculate bunkers
required for a passage of 3000 n. miles at 12 knots, allowing
for a 4 days
reserve at a speed of I 9 knots.
Ans.
Per day, consumptionl (main propulsion) 75 7 :6g
- : t.
Distancel fuer day): 18 knotsx24 hrs/day :432 n. miles.
:
Distance2 3000 n. miles.
=

: Ig2 x432
I otal voyage consumption2 122 x 3000
Total voyage consumption2 = 209.g76 t.
Now, for 4 days (reserve) at 19 knots :
Dailv consumptionr : Agx V13
Daily consumption2
68 1*
* v"
183
Daily consumption2 it -
Puitv consumption2 = 79.97 t, so 4 days reserve : 4 x 7g.g7= 319.9 t.
Main engine requirement:209.g76 + 319.9:52g.776 t.
Also, for aux consumption, No. of Days = 3000/1 2 x 24
= l0.42days.
Aux. consumption : 7 x (10.42 +4 reserve ) : 100.g7 t.
So, Total consumption = 529.776+ 100.g7 :
630.646t. ANS.
Example 22.
The fuel consumption of a vessel at 14 knots is given
by 0.12 + 6.gg1yr
tlhr, where v is the speed in knots. ca.lculate a; titat voyage
consumption
for a distance of 1700 nautical miles, and b) the speed at
which the vessel
must travel, in order to save l0 t /d,ay of fuel.
Ans.
fuel consumption: A.n + 0.001V3 tAr 0.12+ 0.00(14 :
a) Now, total no. of days = distance =/ speed 1700/14)3 x 24.
:
2.g64 tlhr
and total
:
voyage consumption consumption/day x no. of days
= (2.864 x 24) tlday x 1700/14 x24 :347.7 r
b) For a saving of l0 tJ day 10/24: 0.417 t/hr, rhe newANS.
: fuer
consumption should be 2.g64 0.417 = 2.447 t/hr, hence,
: - we have,
2.447 0.12 + 0.001v3 t/hr, y3 = (2.447 0.t2) / 0.001 :2337,
V: -
13.25 knots. ANS.

t9q
Example 23.
A vessel left port with 560 t of fuel in the bunker tanks, covering a distance
of 5000 nautical miles at a speed of 14 knots, arriving with g0 t nog.
Calculate:
i) The reduced speed it would have to maintain, so as to arrive with
the same RoB, if the initial fuel quantity was only 5l 0 t.
ii)The Daily consumprion at this speed.

Ans. i)
Total voyage consumptionl : 560 - 80 :480 t.
Total voyage consumption2 : 510 - 80 : 430 t.
Since, Total voyage consumptionr : V,t
Total voyage consumption2 V,t

480 r42
430 Y,,
Y,, : 142 x430
480
Y,, : 175.58

The reduced speed,V2 : 13.25 knots. ANS.

ii) Daily consumptiono speed3

Cr - V,'
C2 Yrt
Initial daily consumption, C1, : Total consumption / No. of days
= 480
[5000/ t4 x24)

5000
32.256 t I day
143
n.253
1$\S-xS)*
143
27.34 tlday ANS.
Example 24
A ship's speed is increased by 20 % above the normal for 8 hours, reduced
by lO % below normal for l0 hours and then is maintained at the normal
value for the remainder of the day. Calculate the percentage variation in
fuel consumption for that day, as compbred to the daily consumption at the
normal speed.

Ans.
Let V : normal speed, C : normal hourly consumption,
Then, 24 C is the normal daily consumption.
Consumption / hour varies as the cube of speed, i.e. Cr : Yt] .

Cz Yz'
For the first 8 hours, speed is 20 %o above normal V, i.e. 1.2 V,
Consumption/hour:CI I.2Vi V13 : 1.728C
So, Consumptionfor8hours : L728Cx 8 : 13.824 C.
For the next 10 hours, speed is 10 % below normal V, i.e. 0.9 V,
Consumption/ hour: C [ 0.9 V / V ]' : 0.729 C
So, Consumption for l0 hor:rs : 0.729 C x 10 : 7.29 C.

For the remainder, i.e. 24 - 8 - l0 : 6 hours, speed is normal

So, Consumption for 6 hours : 6 C.

Total forthe day :

13.824 C + 7 29 C + 6 C = 27 .ll4 C.
Whereas, daily consumption at normal speed : 24C.

Percentage change in consumption : 27 .ll4 C - 24 C x 100 : L2.97 "/"-

24C
i.e. an increase in daily consumption by L2.97 "h. Ans.

Example 25 a) A propeller has a diameter of 5.2 rn. pitch ratio of I ' l2 and apparent
stip of Z X. At ship's speed 17.5 knots, determine the speed (rpm)'
b) If L :225 m, B : 38 m, d: 12 m (SW), A: 89,000 t, ftnd Real Slip, given that the
Wake Fraction, w, :0.5 C9 - 0.05
Ans:
1.12, .', P: 5.8?4m App. Slip : 7
: ohi.e'0 07 = 1r', -V/Vr'
D: 5.2m, P/D
.'.0.07 Vr= Vr' 17.5 , .'.V'r = |7.5 l(l - 0.07), .''Vr= l8 8l knots'
Vr.: Pxnx3600 /1852,.. i8,52x 18.81 /(3600r 5.824): rt== l6Crrcr',/s:1.66r60
Arrs = 99.6 rpm.
l, : 225m. R - 38 m. d - 12m (SW), A : 89.0001
Cu: Vol. of displacemettt/ LBd : A / LBd Psw = 89,000i225x38s12x1.025 = 0'846
Wake fraction, w, = 0.5 Cs - 0.05 : 0.5 x 0.846 - 0'05 = 0.373
V-V,r /Y:0'373, 5-\'r-- 175s0373' "'Vr:175(1 0-17-l)-= 10'97knots'
Real Slip= V.r- 1r.r/ \".r= l8 8l .- 10.97 / 18.81 :0 4168 .'.lleal Slip:41.68 7o Ans.
"'17

)-c!
 Example 26

The daily fuel consumption of a ship at 17 knots is 42 tons. Calculate the

speed ofthe ship if the consumption is reduced to 28 tons per day, and the
specific consumption at the reduced speed is l8% more than at 17 knots.

At 17 knots, consumptionday :
i 42 tons
At V knots, consumption / daY : 28 tons
But at V knots, consumption / day: 1.18C
Where C : tvl: ^

42 [17]'
.,. l.l8c : 28
=28
and 28 : l.l8
tvl 3

t.l8 x 42 lr7 I'

V, : 17\28
1.18 X 42
V : 14.06 Knots.
Example 27

The speed of a ship is increased to l8%o above non'nal fbr 7.5 hours then
reduced to9%o below normal for l0 hours. The speed is then reduced fbrthe
remainder of the day so that the consumption for the day is the normal
ammount. Find the percentage between the distance travelled in that day and
the normal distance travelled per day.
Let V:normal speed; C:normal consumption per hour
Then 24C: normal consumption per day ,

For first 7.5 hours, Consumption/hr: C X(V'l

'vl
c xll-=-l-Eg-:
tv / |.643c
Consumption for 7 5Hr:J.5 x i.643C,:12.32C
For next l0 Hrs C ns/Flr = C *IOSI-J-}.7536C
\ v/
:
Consumption for 17.5 hr 12.32C + 7 .536C: 19.856C. Cons for remaining
6.5 hr :24C 19.856 :4.144C. Cons/hr: 4.144C 0'637C
- :
6'5
Reduced speed : u'MIS-: 0.86V.
JC
New distance travelled/day: I .l 8V X 7.5 +0.91V X l0 +0.86V X 6.5 =23'54V
% Reduction in disVday: 24\t' - 23.54V Xl00 : 1.92 Ans
24V
1 ft')
Example 31
Th. speed of a ship is 14 knots and the fuel consumption per hour is
given"orrd
by 0.12 + 0.001 V'tonne, with V in knots.
Calculate a) The Total Fuel Consumption over a voyage of 1500 nautical miles
b) Speed at which vessel must travel to save 10 tonnes of fuel per day.
Ans
a)Fuef consumption: 0.12 +.001 v3t/hr:0.12 + .00(l 4)1:2.864 t/hour
Voyage Consumption : Consumption per day x No ol'days
: 2.864 x 24 x 1500
14x24
:306.8
tons
b) Saving of l0 ton/day : :
10124 0.477 tlhr
New fuel Consumption": :
2.864 -.0.41 7 2.447 tlhr
2.447 :0.12 + 0.001 V':
13.25 knots

Example 32
Propeller has a pitch of 5.5 mtr. Whe r running at 80 rpm, ship speed is 13.2
knots, speed of advance I 1.0 'knots, propeller efficiency 70%o and delivered
power 3000Kw.
Calculate a)Rcal Slip b) Wakc Fraction c) Thrust Powcr d) Thrust
Ans
V'r': 5.5 X 80 X 60 I 1852 : 14.25 knots
Va: ll.0 Y:13.2 '
Real Slip : V'r - Vn / Y;0.2244:22.4Yo' '

W:V-Yol V:0.166
Thrust Power: Delivered Power x Propeller Efficiency : 3000 x 0.7:2100Kw
Thrust : T, I Vum/sec:2100= 371. lkN
I I x 185213600

Examnle 33
A ship of 15000 tonnes displacernent has an Admiralty Coefflcient based on
shaft power of 420, the mech efficiency of machinery is 83%, shaft losses 6Yo,
propeller efflciency is 2550 Kw. Calculate a) lndicated Power b) Ship speed c)
Effective Power if hull efficiency is 98%.
Ans
: :
tp 2550 Kw; dp tp I propeller efficiency = 255010.65
:
sp dp / transmission elliciency :
2550 I 0.65 x 0.94
ip: sp / mech eff: 2550 10.65 x0.94 x 0.83 :5028 Kw
:
cp dp.x QPq :2550 x 0 :
2785 Kr'v
SP:A"'' x V'/C ;V:
0.65 X 0.94 X 0002/i: 14.23 knots

204
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