Module 1

Analog Communication Block diagram of a communication system.

Need for analog modulation. Amplitude modulation. Equation and
spectrum of AM signal. DSB-SC and SSB systems. Block diagram of SSB
transmitter and receiver. Frequency and phase modulation. Narrow and
wide band FM and their spectra. FM transmitter and receiver.

Ref Text Books : Kennedy, Wayne Tomasi

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Block Diagram of Analog Communication

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• Need of Modulation Baseband signal transmission cannot be used for
radio communication. To transmit the baseband signal for radio
communication, modulation must be used.
• Modulation is necessary because of following advantages:
• 1. Reduction in height of antenna.
• 2. Avoids mixing of signals.
• 3. Increase the range of communication.
• 4. Multiplexing is possible.
• 5. Improves quality of reception
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Types of modulation

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Pg 52

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Frequency Spectrum of FM

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Frequency Modulation

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Bessel function of first kind

J1(15)
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 Amplitude relative to unmodulated carrier amplitude

Bessel functions

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Depending on modulation index , FM classified into

mf<1 mf>1

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 Phase Modulation
• Method in which the phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the message signal , keeping amplitude and
frequency constant
• em= Emcosωmt
• ec= Ecsin(ωct+φ)
• The phase is changed according to the amplitude of message signal ,
• φ = k em = k Emcosωmt
• After PM, ePM= Ecsin(ωct+φ)
• = Ecsin(ωct + k Emcosωmt
• = Ecsin(ωct + mpcosωmt)
Where mp= kEm- modulation index in PM
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AM ,FM & PM Waveforms

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Conversion of FM to PM & PM to FM
REFER NOTEBOOK

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FM Generation

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FET Reactance Modulator
• REFER NOTEBOOK

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Armstrong Method-Indirect FM

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 phasor diagram for the original carrier voltage (Ec),
(b) shows phasor of the phase shifted carrier (Ec′),
(c) shows phasors for side frequency components of the
suppressed carrier voltage Eusb and Elsb

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ARMSTRONG METHOD –EXPLANATION

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• The source of carrier for the Armstrong transmitter is the crystal oscillator. A
relatively low frequency sub-carrier (fc) is phase shifted by 90° and is fed to a
balanced modulator, where it is mixed with the input modulating signal (fm).
• A double sideband suppressed carrier wave is produced at the output from the
balanced modulator, and this is combined with the original carrier in the
combing network to generate a NBFM.
• The phasor diagrams illustrate the working of this modulation system. Since
the suppressed carrier voltage (Ec′) is 90° out of phase with (Ec), the upper and
lower sidebands combine to produce a component (Em) which is always
perpendicular to (Ec).
• The Fig2 (d) shows phasor addition of (Ec), (Eusb Eusb) which is the resultant
of the combining network.
• the output from the combing network is a signal whose phase is varied
by fm and magnitude is directly proportional to the magnitude of Em

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FM Slope Detector / Simple FM Slope
Detector (Frequency Discriminator)
• The circuit diagram of a simple slope detector is as shown

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• The output voltage of the tank circuit is then applied to a simple
diode detector of an RC load with proper time constant. This detector
is identical to the AM diode detector. Even though the slope detector
circuit is simple it has the following drawbacks. 
• To overcome the drawbacks of the simple slope detector, a Balanced
slope detector is used.

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1. Balanced FM Slope Detector (Balanced Frequency
Discriminator)
• The circuit diagram of the balanced slope detector is shown in Figure

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• The balanced slope detector consists of two slope detector circuits.
The input transformer has a center tapped secondary.
• Hence, the input voltages to the two slope detectors are 180° out of
phase. There are three tuned circuits,
• Out of them, the primary is tuned to IF i.e., fc . The upper tuned
circuit of the secondary (T1) is tuned above fc by Δf i.e., its resonant
frequency is (fc+ Δf). The lower tuned circuit of the secondary is
tuned below fc by Δf i.e., at (fc – Δf).
• R1C1 and R2C2 are the filters used to bypass the RF ripple. Vo1 and
Vo2 are the output voltages of the two slope detectors. The final
output voltage Vo is obtained by taking the subtraction of the
individual output voltages, Vo1 and Vo2, i.e., Vo= Vo1 - Vo2

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• The circuit operation can be explained by dividing the input frequency into
three ranges as follows:
• (i) fin = fc: When the input frequency is instantaneously equal to fc, the
induced voltage in the T1 winding of secondary is exactly equal to that induced
in the winding T2. Thus, the input voltages to both the diodes D1 and D2 will
be the same. Therefore, their dc output voltages Vo1 and Vo2 will also be
identical but they have opposite polarities. Hence, the net output voltage Vo =
0.
• (ii) fc < fin < (fc + Δf): In this range of input frequency, the induced voltage in
the winding T1 is higher than that induced in T2. Therefore, the input to D1 is
higher than D2. Hence, the positive output Vo1 of D1 is higher than the
negative output Vo2 of D2. Therefore, the output voltage Vo is positive. As the
input frequency increases towards (fc + Δf), the positive output voltage
increases
• If the output frequency goes outside the range of (fc – Δf) to (fc + Δf), the
output voltage will fall due to the reduction in tuned circuit response.

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Drawbacks of Slope Detector
• (i) It is inefficient.
• (ii) It is linear only over a limited frequency range.
• (iii) It is difficult to adjust as the primary and secondary winding of
the transformer must be tuned to slightly different frequencies.
• Advantages of Slope Detector
• The only advantages of the basic slope detector circuit is its
simplicity.

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2. Foster Seeley Discriminator

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• The primary tank circuit consists of C1 and L1.
• C2 and L2 form the secondary tank circuit. Both tank circuits are tuned to the center frequency of
the incoming FM signal.
• Choke L3 is the dc return path for diode rectifiers D1 and D2. Resistors R3 and R4 are the load
resistors and are bypassed by C3 and C4 to remove rf.
• To obtain the different phased signals a connection is made to the primary side of the transformer
using a capacitor, and this is taken to the centre tap of the transformer. This gives a signal that is
90° out of phase.
• When an un-modulated carrier is applied at the centre frequency, both diodes conduct, to produce
equal and opposite voltages across their respective load resistors. These voltages cancel each one
another out at the output so that no voltage is present.
• As the carrier moves off to one side of the centre frequency the balance condition is destroyed,
and one diode conducts more than the other. This results in the voltage across one of the resistors
being larger than the other, and a resulting voltage at the output corresponding to the modulation
on the incoming signal. The choke is required in the circuit to ensure that no RF signals appear at
the output. The capacitors C1 and C2 provide a similar filtering function.
• The operation of the Foster-Seeley discriminator can best be explained using vector diagrams fig. 3
that show phase relationships between the voltages and currents in the circuit. Let's look at the
phase relationships when the input frequency is equal to the center frequency of the resonant
tank circuit.
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Phasor Diagrams

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 Advantages of Foster-Seeley FM discriminator
• Offers good level of performance and reasonable linearity.
• Simple to construct using discrete components.
• Provides higher output than the ratio detector
• Provides a more linear output, i.e. lower distortion than the ratio
detector
• This circuit is more efficient than simple slope detector.
• It has better linearity than the simple slope detector.

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Disadvantages of Foster-Seeley FM discriminator:
Does not easily lend itself to being incorporated within an integrated circuit.
High cost of transformer.
Narrower bandwidth than the ratio detector
Does not easily lend itself to being incorporated within an integrated circuit.
Narrower bandwidth than the ratio detector
The circuit is sensitive to both frequency and amplitude and therefore needs
a limiter before it to remove amplitude variations and hence amplitude
noise.
(i) Even though linearity is good, it is not good enough.
(ii) This circuit is difficult to tune since the three tuned circuits are to be
tuned at different frequencies i.e., fc, (fc+Δf) and (fc – Δf).
(iii) Amplitude limiting is not provided.
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3. Ratio Detectors
• In the Foster-Seeley discriminator, changes in the magnitude of the input
signal will give rise to amplitude changes in the resulting output voltage.
This makes prior limiting necessary. It is possible to modify the
discriminator circuit to provide limiting, so that the amplitude limiter may
be dispensed with. A circuit so modified is called a Ratio Detector Circuit.
• As we now, the sum Vao + Vbo remains constant, although the difference
varies because of changes in input frequency. This assumption is not
completely true. Deviation from this ideal does not result in undue
distortion in the Ratio Detector Circuit, although some distortion is
undoubtedly introduced. It follows that any variations in the magnitude of
this sum voltage can be considered spurious here. Their suppression will
lead to a discriminator which is unaffected by the amplitude of the
incoming signal. It will therefore not react to noise amplitude or spurious
amplitude modulation.

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• With diode D2 reversed, o is now positive with respect to b’, so that
Va′b′ is now a sum voltage, rather than the difference it was in the
discriminator. It is now possible to connect a large capacitor between
a’ and b’ to keep this sum voltage constant. Once C5 has been
connected, it is obvious that Va′b′ is no longer the output voltage; thus
the output voltage is now taken between o and o′. It is now necessary
to ground one of these two points, and o happens to be the more
convenient, as will be seen when dealing with practical Ratio Detector
Circuit. Bearing in mind that in practice R5 = R6, Vo is calculated as
follows:
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Block Diagram of Digital Communication
System

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• 1. Information Source and Input Transducer: The source of information can
be analog or digital, e.g. analog: audio or video signal, digital: like teletype
signal. In digital communication the signal produced by this source is
converted into digital signal which consists of 1′s and 0′s. For this we need
a source encoder. Analog signal can be converted to digital by sampling,
quantisation & encoding . Refer next slide fig
• 2. Source Encoder : like to use as few binary digits as possible to represent
the signal. In such a way this efficient representation of the source output
results in little or no redundancy. This sequence of binary digits is called
information sequence.
• Source Encoding or Data Compression: the process of efficiently converting
the output of whether analog or digital source into a sequence of binary
digits is known as source encoding.
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• 3. Channel Encoder:
The purpose of the channel encoder is to introduce, in controlled manner, some
redundancy in the binary information sequence that can be used at the receiver
to overcome the effects of noise and interference encountered in the
transmission on the signal through the channel. For example take k bits of the
information sequence and map that k bits to unique n bit sequence called code
word.
• The amount of redundancy introduced is measured by the ratio n/k and the
reciprocal of this ratio (k/n) is known as rate of code or code rate.
• 4. Digital Modulator: The binary sequence is passed to digital modulator which
in turns convert the sequence into electric signals so that we can transmit
them on channel (we will see channel later). The digital modulator maps the
binary sequences into signal wave forms , for example if we represent 1 by sin
x and 0 by cos x then we will transmit sin x for 1 and cos x for 0. ( a case similar
to BPSK)

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• Channel: The communication channel is the physical medium that is used
for transmitting signals from transmitter to receiver. In wireless system,
this channel consists of atmosphere , for traditional telephony, this
channel is wired , there are optical channels, under water acoustic
channels.
• 6. Digital Demodulator: The digital demodulator processes the channel
corrupted transmitted waveform and reduces the waveform to the
sequence of numbers that represents estimates of the transmitted data
symbols.
• 7. Channel Decoder: This sequence of numbers then passed through the
channel decoder which attempts to reconstruct the original information
sequence from the knowledge of the code used by the channel encoder
and the redundancy contained in the received data.

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• 8. Source Decoder: At the end, if an analog signal is desired then
source decoder tries to decode the sequence from the knowledge of
the encoding algorithm. And which results in the approximate replica
of the input at the transmitter end.
• Output Transducer: Finally we get the desired signal in desired
format analog or digital

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 Advantages of Digital Communication
• Hardware implementation is more flexible
• Effect of noise ,distortion & interference is much less
• d/g ckts are more reliable
• Encryption & compression can be employed to maintain secrecy of
information
• Probability of error is reduced using error detecting & correcting codes
• Combine d/g s/g using TDM is easier than FDM
• Can be saved and retrieved more conveniently than analog signal
• Adaptive in Digital image processing, digital signal processing etc.

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