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DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND

ENGINEERING

ORA351 – FOUNDATION OF ROBOTICS

ASSIGNMENT - 4

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 (Autonomous)
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Academic Year: 2024-2025 ODD Class: IV YEAR/ VII SEM

ORA351 – FOUNDATION OF ROBOTICS

ASSIGNMENT -4

1.Explain the working principle of force sensors and tactile sensors in robotic systems.How do
these sensors help robots in tasks requiring interaction with objects or human operators (e.g.,
material handling, assembly)? Provide an example of a robotic application where force or
tactile sensors are critical to success.

2. Discuss the different types of proximity sensors (capacitive, inductive, ultrasonic) and their
applications in robotics. How do fail-safe hazard sensor systems enhance safety in robotic
cells? Describe the role of compliance mechanisms in ensuring safe robot interactions with
humans and the environment, particularly in collaborative robotic cells.
Question 1: Explain the working principle of force sensors and tactile sensors in robotic
systems.How do these sensors help robots in tasks requiring interaction with objects or
human operators (e.g., material handling, assembly)? Provide an example of a robotic
application where force or tactile sensors are critical to success.

Working Principle of Force and Tactile Sensors in Robotic Systems

Force and tactile sensors play crucial roles in enhancing the functionality and
safety of robotic systems by enabling them to perceive and respond to physical interactions.
These sensors allow robots to measure contact forces, detect the presence of objects, and adapt
their movements based on real-time feedback. Understanding their working principles and
applications is essential to grasp how these sensors contribute to more refined and adaptive
robotic behavior.

Force Sensors: Working Principle and Applications

Working Principle:
Force sensors operate by converting a physical force into an electrical signal that can be
processed by the robot’s control system. They are typically based on strain gauge technology,
piezoelectric materials, or capacitive sensors:
1.Strain Gauge Sensors: These sensors use a thin, flexible material that deforms under applied
force, causing a change in electrical resistance. This change is proportional to the force exerted
and can be measured to provide feedback.
2.Piezoelectric Sensors: These generate an electrical charge when subjected to pressure or
force. They are highly sensitive and can capture dynamic changes in force, making them
suitable for applications requiring real-time adjustments.
3.Capacitive Sensors: These measure changes in capacitance caused by deformation when
force is applied. They are known for their precision and ability to detect subtle force variations.

Applications in Robotics:
Force sensors enable robots to perform tasks that require precise force application and
controlled interaction. Key applications include:
1.Material Handling: Force sensors help robots handle fragile items by modulating their grip
strength. This prevents damage to objects such as glassware or delicate electronic components.
2.Assembly Operations: Robots equipped with force sensors can insert parts with the exact
amount of force needed, avoiding over-tightening or misalignment during assembly processes.
3.Surface Polishing and Finishing: Robots use force sensors to maintain consistent pressure
during polishing or sanding tasks, resulting in smooth, uniform surfaces.
Example: In automotive manufacturing, robots use force sensors during the assembly of vehicle
components. Sensors ensure bolts are fastened to the correct torque specification, reducing the
risk of over-tightening or loosening, which could compromise vehicle safety.

Tactile Sensors: Working Principle and Applications

Working Principle:
Tactile sensors provide a robot with the ability to detect and interpret touch, mimicking human
skin’s sensitivity to pressure and texture. These sensors work through various technologies,
including:
1.Resistive Sensors: These change resistance based on applied pressure. The contact area
between the sensor’s conductive layers determines the level of resistance, which corresponds
to the force exerted.
2.Capacitive Touch Sensors: Similar to capacitive force sensors, these detect changes in
capacitance when pressure is applied.
3.Optical Tactile Sensors: These use light to measure deformations on a surface. When an
object presses on the sensor, the light path changes, allowing the sensor to map the contact
points and intensity.

Applications in Robotics:
Tactile sensors are critical in applications where fine touch is necessary to ensure safe and
effective task execution:
1.Human-Robot Interaction: Tactile sensors allow robots to respond to human touch, making
collaborative robots (cobots) safer to work alongside people. The robot can detect when a
human operator is guiding it and adjust its movements accordingly.Grasping and
2.Manipulation: For robots to handle irregularly shaped or delicate objects, tactile sensors
provide feedback that enables adaptive gripping. This ensures the object is held securely
without excessive force.
3.Exploration and Mapping: Robots equipped with tactile sensors can explore unknown
environments, using touch to map surfaces and detect obstacles.
Example: In the field of prosthetics, robotic limbs equipped with tactile sensors offer users the
sensation of touch. The sensors relay information about pressure and contact, allowing users to
adjust their grip and interact with objects naturally.

Role of Force and Tactile Sensors in Robot-Object Interaction

Force and tactile sensors enhance a robot's ability to perform tasks that involve interacting with
objects or human operators by enabling real-time feedback and adaptive control. This
capability is particularly important in:
Precision Assembly: During the assembly of sensitive components, such as electronic circuits,
force sensors ensure that components are pressed together with appropriate pressure. If
excessive force is detected, the sensor signals the robot to adjust or stop, preventing damage.
Material Handling: In scenarios where robots need to handle different materials with varying
fragility, tactile sensors inform the robot about the object's surface characteristics. For instance,
handling a glass object versus a rubber piece requires different gripping strategies.
Safety and Collaboration: In collaborative environments, tactile sensors make robots
responsive to touch, allowing them to work safely alongside human operators. A robot can
pause or change its trajectory when it senses unexpected contact, reducing the risk of injury.

Advantages of Using Force and Tactile Sensors

Precision and Adaptability: Robots can adjust their movements based on feedback, resulting
in more accurate and versatile performance.
Improved Safety: Real-time feedback allows robots to detect and respond to unexpected
interactions, protecting human operators.
Enhanced Efficiency: Adaptive capabilities reduce the need for rework and improve the
quality of tasks such as assembly and inspection.

Limitations
Complexity of Integration: Adding sensors and processing their data requires sophisticated
control systems and programming.
Cost: High-quality force and tactile sensors can increase the cost of robotic systems.
Calibration and Maintenance: Sensors need regular calibration and may require maintenance
to ensure accurate performance over time.

Conclusion
Force and tactile sensors are transformative in robotic systems, enhancing precision,
adaptability, and safety. They are crucial for applications requiring delicate manipulation and
real-time interaction feedback. While they come with challenges such as integration
complexity and cost, their benefits in enabling robots to perform complex tasks with human-
like sensitivity make them invaluable in modern robotics.
Question 2: Discuss the different types of proximity sensors (capacitive, inductive,
ultrasonic) and their applications in robotics. How do fail-safe hazard sensor systems
enhance safety in robotic cells? Describe the role of compliance mechanisms in ensuring
safe robot interactions with humans and the environment, particularly in collaborative
robotic cells.

Types of Proximity Sensors in Robotics

Sensors play a crucial role in robotics, enabling robots to detect and interact with
their surroundings without physical contact. These sensors help robots navigate their
environments, avoid obstacles, and ensure safe interaction with humans and objects. Three
common types of proximity sensors used in robotics are capacitive, inductive, and ultrasonic
sensors, each with distinct characteristics and applications.

Capacitive Proximity Sensors

Capacitive proximity sensors work by detecting changes in capacitance when an

object comes close to the sensor. These sensors use an electric field to sense the presence of
conductive and non-conductive materials. The sensor measures the change in the dielectric
constant of the surrounding area, which changes when an object enters the electric field.

Applications in Robotics: Capacitive sensors are widely used in robotics for tasks requiring
detection of materials like plastic, glass, liquids, and other non-metallic objects. In robotic
applications, capacitive sensors can be used for detecting the presence of workpieces,
measuring the thickness of materials, or identifying objects in assembly lines. These sensors
are particularly effective in industries where robots need to interact with a variety of materials,
especially when precision in non-metallic object detection is required.

Inductive Proximity Sensors

Inductive proximity sensors are designed to detect metallic objects by generating

an electromagnetic field and measuring the change in inductance when a metallic object enters
this field. These sensors work on the principle of electromagnetic induction, where the presence
of a metal object affects the inductance of the sensor's coil.

Applications in Robotics: Inductive sensors are often used in industrial robotics, especially in
environments where metallic objects are present. Their robustness, reliability, and resistance
to harsh environmental conditions make them ideal for applications such as detecting the
presence of metal parts, positioning workpieces, or checking the status of mechanical
components in robotic arms. They are commonly found in applications such as conveyor belt
systems, robotic assembly lines, and automotive manufacturing, where metal components are
prevalent.
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors

Ultrasonic proximity sensors work by emitting high-frequency sound waves and measuring the
time it takes for the sound to bounce back after hitting an object. The sensor calculates the
distance to the object based on the time delay of the sound waves. These sensors are non-
contact and can detect both metallic and non-metallic objects.

Applications in Robotics: Ultrasonic sensors are frequently used in robotic navigation and
obstacle avoidance systems. Due to their ability to measure distance accurately, they are
commonly employed in autonomous mobile robots (AMRs) for navigation, path planning, and
collision avoidance. Ultrasonic sensors are also used in robotic arms for positioning, as well as
in safety applications, where robots need to maintain a certain distance from humans or other
equipment.

Fail-Safe Hazard Sensor Systems in Robotic Cells

Fail-safe hazard sensor systems are critical in enhancing safety in robotic cells, where robots
work in proximity to humans or valuable machinery. These systems are designed to detect
hazardous situations and trigger safety mechanisms, such as stopping or slowing down the
robot, to prevent accidents or injuries.

Key Components and Functionality: Fail-safe systems typically include various types of
sensors, such as light curtains, laser scanners, pressure mats, and vision-based systems, to
detect the presence of people, objects, or anomalies within a robotic cell. These sensors monitor
the environment and ensure that the robot operates within predefined safety parameters. If an
object, person, or potential hazard enters a predefined danger zone, the system will activate an
emergency stop (e-stop) or slow down the robot’s movement, reducing the risk of injury.

For example, light curtains create an invisible barrier around the robotic work area. When an
object or person crosses the beam, the system triggers a stop signal to the robot. Similarly, laser
scanners can detect the position of human workers or objects and provide continuous
monitoring to ensure the robot maintains a safe distance from people or obstacles.

Applications in Robotics: Fail-safe hazard sensors are widely used in industrial robotics,
particularly in collaborative robots (cobots) that work alongside human operators. In these
scenarios, the sensor systems ensure that robots respond to dynamic changes in the
environment, such as the sudden presence of a human. These systems enhance safety by
preventing collisions, reducing the likelihood of accidents, and promoting safer human-robot
collaboration.
Compliance Mechanisms in Collaborative Robotic Cells

Compliance mechanisms are safety features integrated into robots that allow them to interact
safely and effectively with humans and their environment. These mechanisms are designed to
enable robots to yield or adjust their movements when encountering external forces or objects.
Compliance mechanisms ensure that robots can operate in close proximity to humans without
causing harm, and they play a vital role in collaborative robotic cells.

Types of Compliance Mechanisms:

Force/ Torque Sensors: These sensors measure the force or torque applied to a robot’s end
effector or other parts of its body. If the robot encounters an unexpected obstruction, the
force/torque sensor can detect the resistance and adjust the robot’s movement to reduce the risk
of injury or damage.

1.Elasticity in the Robot's Joints: Some robots are designed with compliant or flexible joints
that allow them to adjust their movement if an external force is applied. These compliant joints
are often used in collaborative robots to ensure smooth and safe interactions with humans.

2.Human Detection Sensors: These sensors, often based on infrared, vision, or proximity
sensors, help robots detect human presence and adjust their movements accordingly. By
reducing speed or stopping when humans enter the robot’s work zone, these sensors enhance
safety and minimize the risk of accidental injury.

3.Collision Detection and Response: Modern robots are equipped with advanced collision
detection systems that use a combination of sensors and algorithms to detect collisions with
objects or humans. Upon detecting a collision, the robot may stop or change its trajectory,
allowing for a safer interaction.

Conclusion

In modern robotics, proximity sensors such as capacitive, inductive, and ultrasonic sensors play
a crucial role in ensuring safe, efficient, and intelligent robot operations. Fail-safe hazard sensor
systems and compliance mechanisms further enhance safety, allowing robots to work alongside
humans and navigate complex environments without causing harm. The integration of these
technologies into robotic cells enables more collaborative and dynamic workflows while
maintaining a high standard of safety in both industrial and research settings. As robotics
continue to advance, the role of these safety systems will only become more critical in creating
reliable, human-friendly automation.