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(Eee-Theory) Elements of Electrical Engineering

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

20 views

(Eee-Theory) Elements of Electrical Engineering

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Mehul Joshi

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MECHTEST PLUS 2024

SYLLABUS
UNIT - I : MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

1.1 Magnetic flux, Flux density, Magnetomotive force, Magnetic field strength, Permeability,
Reluctance

1.2 Electric and Magnetic circuits

1.3 Series and Parallel magnetic circuits

1.4 Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction, Fleming's right hand rule, Lenz's law

1.5 Dynamically and Statically induced emf, Self and Mutual inductance

1.6 B-H curve and Hysteresis, Hysteresis loop and Hysteresis loss

UNIT - II : A.C. FUNDAMENTALS

2.1 A.C. and D.C. quantity, Advantages of A.C. over D.C.

2.2 Single-phase A.C. sinusoidal wave : Instantaneous value, Cycle, Amplitude, Time
period, Frequency, Angular frequency, R.M.S. value, Average value for sinusoidal
waveform, Form factor, Peak factor

2.3 Vector representation of sinusoidal A.C. quantity, Phase angle, Phase difference,
Concept of lagging and leading – by waveforms, mathematical equations and phasors

2.4 Pure Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in A.C. circuit

2.5 R-L and R-C series circuits

2.6 Impedance and Impedance triangle

2.7 Power factor and its significance

2.8 Power – Active, Reactive and Apparent, Power triangle

UNIT - III : POLYPHASE A.C. CIRCUITS

3.1 3-phase system over 1-phase system

3.2 3-phase e.m.f. generation and its waveform

3.3 Phase sequence and Balanced and Unbalanced load

3.4 Phase and Line current, Phase and Line voltage in Star-connected and Delta-
connected balanced system

3.5 Current, Power, Power factor in a 3-phase balanced system

3.6 Star and Delta connections

UNIT - IV : TRANSFORMERS AND D.C. MOTORS

4.1 Transformer : Working principle, E.M.F. equation, Voltage ratio, Current ratio and
Transformation ratio, Losses

4.2 Auto-transformer : Comparison with two winding transformer, Applications

4.3 D.C. motor : Construction, Parts, Its function and Materials used

4.4 D.C. motor – Principle of operation

4.5 Types of D.C. motors, Schematic diagram, Applications of D.C. Shunt, Series and
Compound motors

UNIT - V : FRACTIONAL HORSE POWER (FHP) MOTORS

5.1 FHP : Schematic representation, Principle of operation and Applications of :

Split-phase Induction motor, Capacitor-start induction-run, Capacitor-start capacitor-run
and permanent capacitor motors, Shaded-pole motors.

5.2 Universal motor : Principle of operation, Reversal of rotation and Applications

5.3 Stepper motor : Types, Principle of working and Applications.

UNIT - VI : PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND SWITCHGEAR

6.1 Fuse : Operation, Types

6.2 Switch Fuse Unit and Fuse Switch Unit : Differences

6.3 MCB, MCCB and ELCB : Operation and General Specifications

6.4 Earthing : Importance of earthing, Factors affecting earthing

6.5 Methods of reducing earth resistance, I.E. rules relevant to earthing.

❒❒❒
CONTENTS
0
2 -* 2 --3-
1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Magnetism and its Effects 1.1
1.3 Magnetic Field due to a Straight Conductor 1.3
1.4 Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field 1.5
1.5 Magnetic Field due to a Solenoid 1.7
1.6 Permeability 1.8
1.7 Magnetic Circuits 1.10
1.7.1 Quantities Associated with a Magnetic Circuit 1.11
1.7.2 Comparison of Magnetic and Electrical Circuits 1.12
1.7.3 Magnetization Curves 1.14
1.7.4 Series Magnetic Circuits 1.16
1.7.5 Parallel Magnetic Circuits 1.18
1.7.6 Magnetic Leakage and Fringing 1.19
1.8 Points to Remember 1.26
1.9 Important Formulae at a Glance 1.28

2 * 2 -3
2.1 Introduction 2.1
2.2 Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction 2.1
2.3 Direction of Induced E.M.F. 2.3
2.3.1 Fleming's Right Hand Rule 2.4
2.3.2 Lenz's Law 2.4
2.4 Nature of Induced E.M.F. 2.5
2.5 Dynamically Induced E.M.F. 2.6
2.5.1 Magnitude of Dynamically Induced E.M.F. 2.6
2.6 Statically Induced E.M.F. 2.7
2.7 Self-Induced E.M.F. 2.8
2.7.1 Magnitude of Self-Induced E.M.F. 2.9
2.8 Co-efficient of Self-Induction and Dimensions of the Coil 2.10
2.9 Factors Affecting the Inductance of a Coil 2.11
2.10 Mutually Induced E.M.F. 2.13
2.10.1 Magnitude of Mutually Induced E.M.F. 2.14
2.11 Co-efficient of Mutual Induction and Dimensions of the Coil 2.15
2.12 Co-efficient of Coupling 2.16
2.13 Theories of Magnetism 2.20
2.14 Magnetic Hysteresis 2.21
2.14.1 Hysteresis Loss 2.23
2.14.2 Practical Importance of Hysteresis Loop 2.24
2.15 Eddy Current Loss 2.26
2.16 Core Loss or Iron Loss 2.27
2.17 Points to Remember 2.28
2.18 Important Formulae at a Glance 2.29

0
2 *2 4 2 2 -3 /
3.1 Classification of Electrical Current 3.1
3.1.1 Advantages of Alternating Current Over Direct Current 3.2
3.1.2 Applications of Direct and Alternating Currents 3.2
3.1.3 Comparison of Alternating Current and Direct Current 3.2
3.2 Generation of Alternating Current and Voltage 3.4
3.2.1 Elementary Alternator 3.4
3.3 Solve Important Terms 3.7
3.4 Equations of Alternating Voltages and Currents 3.9
3.5 Effective or Root Mean Square (R.M.S.)
Value of Sinusoidal Current or Voltage 3.11
3.6 Average Value of Sinusoidal Current or Voltage 3.14
3.7 Peak Factor and Form Factor 3.15
3.8 Phasor Representation of Alternating Quantities 3.21
3.9 Phase and Phase Difference 3.22
3.10 Phasor Diagrams 3.24
3.11 Addition and Subtraction of Sinusoidal Alternating Quantities 3.26
3.12 Complex Notation 3.29
3.13 Phasors in Rectangular Form 3.29
3.13.1 The j Operator 3.30
3.13.2 Addition and Subtraction of Phasors in Rectangular Form 3.31
3.13.3 Multiplication and Division of Phasors in Rectangular Form 3.31
3.14 Phasors in Polar Form 3.31
3.14.1 Multiplication and Division of Phasors in Polar Form 3.31
3.15 Interconversion of Rectangular and Polar Forms 3.32
3.16 Points to Remember 3.39
3.17 Important Formulae at a Glance 3.40

2 * 0 2 2 -3 5
4.1 Introduction 4.1
4.2 Purely Resistive A.C. Circuit 4.1
4.3 Purely Inductive A.C. Circuit 4.3
4.4 Purely Capacitive A.C. Circuit 4.6
4.5 Circuit with Resistance and Inductance in Series 4.10
4.5.1 Measurement of Power in an Inductive Circuit using Three-Voltmeter Method 4.18
4.6 Circuit with Resistance and Capacitance in Series 4.21
4.7 Power Factor and its Significance 4.24
4.8 Capacitor as a Power Factor Improving Device 4.25
4.9 Active Power and Reactive Power in A.C. Circuit 4.25
4.10 Application of Complex Notation Method to A.C. Circuits 4.26
4.10.1 Series Circuits 4.27
4.11 Points to Remember 4.36
4.12 Important Formulae at a Glance 4.37

2 6* 2 2 6-−6 /
5.1 Polyphase Systems 5.1
5.2 Generation of Three-Phase Voltages 5.3
5.3 Three-Phase Supply Systems 5.5
5.3.1 Three-Phase, Three-Wire System 5.5
5.3.2 Three-Phase, Four-Wire System 5.6
5.4 Balanced and Unbalanced Loads 5.7
5.5 Balanced System 5.9
5.6 Voltage, Current and Power Relations in a Star Connection 5.9
5.7 Voltage, Current and Power Relations in a Delta Connection 5.13
5.8 Apparent Power and Reactive Power 5.17
5.9 Applications of Star and Delta Connections 5.17
5.10 Points to Remember 5.24
5.11 Important Formulae at a Glance 5.25

2 5* 0 2 2 4 5-−5
6.1 Introduction 6.1
6.2 Principle of Working 6.1
6.3 Constructional Features 6.2
6.4 Types of Transformers 6.6
6.5 E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer 6.8
6.6 Voltage and Current Ratios of a Transformer 6.11
6.7 Kilovolt-Ampere Rating of a Transformer 6.13
6.8 Transformer Losses 6.15
6.9 Voltage Regulation and Efficiency of a Transformer 6.16
6.9.1 Regulation of a Transformer 6.17
6.9.2 Efficiency of a Transformer 6.18
6.10 Applications of Transformers 6.20
6.11 Auto-Transformers 6.20
6.12 Points to Remember 6.23
6.13 Important Formulae at a Glance 6.24
2 * -− -
7.1 Introduction 7.1
7.2 General Principle of an Electric Motor 7.1
7.3 D.C. Motors 7.2
7.4 Principle of Operation of a D.C. Motor 7.3
7.5 Practical D.C. Motors 7.5
7.6 Constructional Features of a Practical D.C. Motor 7.6
7.6.1 Field System 7.6
7.6.2 Armature Assembly 7.7
7.6.3 Miscellaneous Parts 7.8
7.7 Types of D.C. Motors 7.9
7.8 Voltage and Current Relationships 7.10
7.9 Applications of D.C. Motors 7.11
7.10 Points to Remember 7.11

2 /*4 2 2 7 84 9 /-−/ /
8.1 Introduction 8.1
8.2 Single-Phase Induction Motors 8.1
8.3 Types of Single-Phase Induction Motors 8.4
8.3.1 Resistance Split-Phase Motors 8.4
8.3.2 Capacitor Split-Phase Motors 8.6
8.3.3 Shaded-Pole Motors 8.9
8.4 Universal Motors 8.11
8.5 Stepper Motors 8.13
8.6 Types of Stepper Motors 8.13
8.6.1 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motors 8.13
8.6.2 Permanent-Magnet Stepper Motors 8.16
8.6.3 Hybrid Stepper Motors 8.18
8.7 Stepper Motor Characteristics 8.19
8.7.1 Static Characteristics 8.19
8.7.2 Dynamic Characteristics 8.21
8.8 Drive Systems of Stepper Motors 8.22
8.9 Applications of Stepper Motors 8.23
8.10 Points to Remember 8.23
0

2 .* 2 7 2 .-−.
9.1 Introduction 9.1
9.2 Fuses 9.1
9.3 Types of Fuses 9.2
9.3.1 Semi-Enclosed or Rewirable Type Fuses 9.2
9.3.2 High Rupturing Capacity (H.R.C.) Cartridge Fuses 9.3
9.4 Current Rating and Minimum Fusing Current 9.5
9.5 Switches 9.5
9.6 Composite Units of Switches and Fuses 9.5
9.6.1 Switch Fuse Unit (SFU) 9.5
9.6.2 Fuse Switch Unit (FSU) 9.6
9.7 Introduction to Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers 9.7
9.7.1 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) 9.8
9.7.2 Moulded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB) 9.9
9.7.3 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) 9.10
9.8 Importance of Earthing 9.11
9.9 Methods of Earthing 9.12
9.9.1 Earthing through a Water Main 9.13
9.9.2 Plate Earthing 9.13
9.9.3 Pipe Earthing 9.14
9.10 Factors Affecting Earth Resistance 9.15
9.11 Maximum Permissible Value of Earth Resistance 9.15
9.12 Methods of Reducing Earth Resistance 9.15
9.13 Indian Electricity Rules Relevant to Earthing 9.16
9.14 Points to Remember 9.17

❒❒❒
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• + % #

7>° = 7>°
∴ ° = °
• ; 3% # 1

7>° = 1 x 7>°
∴ ° = 1°
6
• + 6% #
1
6 °
° = 1
1
$ 4 .
#
• $ * 1π
* #
ω = 1π A
* ,
0 5 -
• + $ 1 # %
#
#
• . # *

; = -
= #
= (
ω = # A
# = < # A = ω
• ( & B8B
, # θ=ω
• 7 ; θ
# #
-
7
)* ! "

v sin θ
v

θ
B
v cos θ
Y
6 % " %* $ "# ! ) &#
• ' C# θD
# ' - 13

E = ;# θ#
∴ ' = 1;# θ# 3
• ! θ = ?>° , ;
- - .
- # - 3 θ = ?>°
= 1;## θ=
• ' * 3 #

= θ= ω = 1π ω = 1π
1π
= 5
'
• ' # #
- *
1π
= + θ=+ ω =+ 1π = + 7
'
7 & $ $ %&' (%)
# *+ ,

%
(''
"$ " ) *
= 1π
E - # = 38 - %
ω = 1π = 3
3
∴ = = 38 9: %
1π
)) ! "

' # = #
>>

= 5> 3×
>>
+ # * + #
# #
@>°
= 5> 3× ×
>> π
= +; <6 - %
7 & $ +
$ %'' ω
- - $ ' ''& ! " $ &' ., ! " $ %&' ., /
# - - $' $ ' '%
#
"$ "
= >> ω = >> 1π = >> 1π × 5> × = >> 3
@>°
= > >>5 = >> 3 × > >>5 × π
= 88 - %
= >> ω = >> 1π = >> 1π × 5> × = >> ?31 3@
@>°
= > >>5 = >> ?31 3@ × > >>5 π
= = 88 - %
9 # #
At 50 Hz
100 At 150 Hz
e (volts)

0 0.0033 0.005 0.0066 0.01

Time (seconds)

> $. "$ / #" &%' 7 & $ +

3 - 1 5 1 -
-
• ' #

• ' / # #
) ! "

• $ #
8
• ; # #
Y
i4 i5

i2
Current
i1 in
X
O
t
Time

< 1) " ) & !") " # ) & % * $

• . # #
@
• ' # #
2
! $ 1 !")
• *
• E # #
' #
#
• # CD # * # A
• % 1 # # #
#
• < (
• ! &
'
1
4 # = ( /

1
4 1 # = 1
( /

1
4 # = ( /
1 1 1
F 1 F F
∴ ' = ( / 9
) ! "

• . # # + ' #
+ (
= +1 ( / @
• ; # - 9 @
*
1 1 1
1
F 1 F F
• ' + ( = (
1 1 1
F 1 F F
+ = ?
= $* * #
#
• ' # #
# - ? $
• ' # # #
-
1 1 1
# F #1 F F#
0 = >
$. $ 1 !")
• $ #
- # !
#
= + θ
1
∴ 1 = + 1 θ

1
• + * # # 1 =+ 1 θ ?
# # #
π
1
* # # = θ
>
2 2 2
i = I m sin q

2
i

0 p 2p
q dq
i = Im sin q

; 1 * $ "# % %" ) $
)# ! "

• $ π # *
1
# #
* # #
=
< #
π π
1 1 1
= π θ=π + θ θ =+ θ
> >
1 π 1 π 1 1
+ G 1θ + 1θ + +
= π θ= θG = ×π=
1 1π 1 > 1π 1
>
• 4 #
1
+ +
+ = =
1 1
8 + = > 9>9 +
' 0'0 #
• + # # #
0 = > 9>9 0 1
• + # *
0 +
, $ & " "# 1 - $ %
• ' # - # #
*
• E # #
6 - - -
#

• # - # #
# , 4
# #
• $ # # # #

! $ 1 !")
• # # *
% # # @
F 1 F F
# # # + # =

# F #1 F F#
• $ # 0 # = 3

$. $ 1 !") #
= + θ
)$ ! "

> #

Current
i
0 π 2π
θ dθ

8 * * $ "# % %" ) $
• ' # #
π
= θ
>
• ∴ # # #
π
# #
+ # = =π θ
< #
>
π
= π + θ⋅ θ =+ θ
>
+ π 1+
= π HG θI> = π
+ # = >7 9+ 5
' 1(0 #
• ' #
0 # = >7 90 7
, $ & " "# * - $ %
• $
-
&
• + # #

• + &
# #
• ' # #
>, ? 1
• ' - # #
*
, @ "
+ #
• '
)% ! "

• #
E - # E - #
6 & = =
(E$ # > 9>9 × E - #
= 3 3 9
• $ # - # #
& # &

"& "

• #
(E$ # > 9>9 × E - #
= =
# # >7 9× E - #
= @
• ' & #
* # # # #
7 & $ 2
# 3& * 4
"$ "
E - # 15
(E$ # = = = > 6< … %
6 & 3 3
(E$ # 9 7@
∴ # # = = = 3; %

7 & $ 0 5 $ ω
# & %6%''

"$ " =50 = = = >> 4,

' >>
' * #
= ω = 1π = 5 1π × >> × = 5 71@ 1 #
∴ # # # # = >7 9× 5 = <3 - A %
#

Em
0.005 0.01
0

Time (s)

2 * #" & "# *"$ ' 7 & $ 0

)& ! "

7 & $ 3 #
π
$ %)% )3 %&0 '7 8
%3
9
π J
"$ " # = 3 31 59 >@ F #
1
4 0 = 3 31 0
∴ # #
3 31
0 = = 88 - %
1
59 >@
* = = +3 9: %
1π

6 ' = = = 8 80 % %
15
7 & $ 6 1' ., %) %) ,
$'
!" 2
! "
! " 5 :%'

"$ " =+ ω = 3 3 1π = 3 3 1π × 7>

8
B 0 0% +8ππ & % %
+ 3 3
(E$ # + = =
1 1
= 8 %
' # G > #
= G >= 3 3 1>π
G >
∴ 1> π = = G > 9>9
3 3
5π 9π
∴ 1> π = 115° 5°
3 3
$ & # G >
& # #
5π
1> π =
3
∴ B 8 8 80 % %

J
( 6 1>
)' ! "

7 & $ > &' .,

3' 2 ;
! " ' ''3& ! " ' '%3& #
"$ " (E$ # + = 1>
∴ E - # + = 1> 1 = 1@ 1@
4 # #
=+ ω =+ 1 π = 1@ 1@ 1π × 5> ×
8
= +< +< % 0 %
6 > >1
' # - # = = = > >>5
3 3
= > >>5 F > >>15 = > >>95
@>°
= 1@ 1@ 3 × > >>95 π
= +8 8+ %
= > >>5 F > > 15 = > > 95
@>°
= 1@ 1@ 3 × > > 95 π
= = +8 86 %
7 & $ <

' 3' )' 1' 7' %'' %3' %)' %1' %7' 3''
' ) 7 %3 %1 3' %1 %3 7 ) '

# 5 ;
!" ! "+</ ! "9
"$ " 1 # #
20 Mid-ordinates

16
Voltage (V)

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time (ms)
+ 2 * #" & #" *"$ "# 7 & $ <
)( ! "

# # # 4 #
; # #
% # # , 4 %
#
# F #1 F # F F#
# # 0 # =
> F 3 F @ F 1 F 7 F 1> F 7 F 1 F @ F 3
=
>
>>
= = 8- %
>
>1 F 31 F @1 F 11 F 71 F 1>1 F 71 F 11 F @1 F 31
E # #1 # =
>
7>
= = 70
>
∴ (E$ # 0 = E # #1 #
= 7= 66 - %
(E$ # 77
= =
# # >
= 66 %
7 & $ ; 9
&
&
"$ " #
10 Resultant Wave
Current (A)

D.C. Component
5

0 90º 180º 270º 360º

A.C. Component
Angle (degrees)
/ * #" &% "# 7 & $ ;
' #
- = F =5F5 ω =5F5 θ
# # # , 4
# # # * #
'
# # + #=3 %
* ! "

< + # (
' *
#
#
1
5
+1 ( = 51 × ( × F ×(×
1
4 # 5A 1
∴ (E$ # +=6 + > %
7 & $ 8 1' ., 0 '0 $'
%' 3 $' ;
!" #
! " < $ ' '%3& $ ' '3& $'
"$ " $ # # F9 >9 =>
# # #
& 3
i = Im sin (wt + a)
7.07 A

0
a Time

t=0
0 / * / ! ! % $ α' 7 & $ 8
' # *
= + ω Fα =+ 1π F α
α & #
. = 7> 4, + = 1+ = 1 × > 1 = 1>
= 1> 1π × 7> × F α = 1> 97 ?? F α
# => = 9 >9 4
9 >9 = 1> 97 ?? × > F α
9 >9
∴ α = => 5 5
1>
∴ α = 1> 9° > 7

J
,
! " 5 ,
#
$I !ω ± α" . !8"
$' !−"
$'
/ # $ !ω ± α"
) ! "

4 -
= +8 % >6 ;; C 8 6 & % %
= > > 15
@>°
= 1> 97 ?? × > > 15 F > 7 π
B = <> %
= > >15
@>°
= 1> 97 ?? × > >15 F > 7 π
B = > 8> %

< ,9 , 5
• + # * +
# * #
* & =+ ω
• + #
* 8
• #
*
• ) 8 % &
# 5
• + / B% -
# '
* #
• < 8 5 *
+ 8 & * - # +
/ B% -
8; = 8 θ =+ θ
• 4 8; = # '
& * - # *
/ B% - #
# *
• + * # *
E # # - # '
*
• + / B% - #
# 1 #
! "

• + %
&
• ' # # '
& # #
Projection
on Y Axis
Y Y
Current

B A
i
i
q
O X p X
O 2p
q
Angle

3 ,! %" % " "# ! $ 4 .

; ,9 ,9
• ) * ,
# '
# # & *
• - 7 * 6 'A3
- πA1
• +
-
* #
• ) 6 7
π
8 - 8K '
1
π
1
Y
Y
Alternating
A Quantity

P
X
O 0 T
p p 2pX
2
4

6 ,! % "# $ 4 .
• + #
*
,! % ##
• ) % ;
9
! "

Y
eA
eB

EMF
Coil A

O θ = ωt
0 π 2π

Coil B

Angle

(a) (b)

> /" $ 4 % ! %
• < #

• ' 1
' # *
# #
• # # #
# - , # 9 $

'
! , # "
• ' ; #
* = θ= ω ?

; = ; θ= ; ω 1>
• . ; α @
+ #
- , # '

• @ # +
α # '
# &

• ! * πA1 ?>
@>
# ! "

< /" $ 4 %" "# ! %

• ' # @ # ;
, - # α
• ' ; α
#
α ;
' ,
#
$ , #

• + # &
*
= ω 1
;
; = ; ω Fα 11
• 8 ; & @
*
; = ; ω 1
*
= ω Gα 13
'
!
8 ,9 1
! "

• ' * *
% & # ω = 1π
• - # '
$ ! "

; ,! %" ) & #" /" $ 4 %

• - %
; @
• + # #
, => #
; # # #
α , # ?
• ' - #
? ' α
#
• '
K B - - '

'
' ,
# ?
# $ *
& #
# #
? ; α '

*
# + * & #
-
#
• + * *

+ # -
% ! "

D
5
• ! * #
*
• ' #
4 #

• 6 *

• ! # # &

• 8
' #

• -
+ #
#
• ' # %
•
, # -
• ' , # "
# , # #
" # #
• +
# ' -

7 & $
π
# ; % $ (' ω 3$ 3' ω :
)
5 # ! " ! "

"$ " # * - # #
-= >0 1 - = 1> 0
GJ G
' * 1 1 πA3
35 !
- #
1>

J
!:" !⋅"
2
G G G G
1 + 1 +
& ! "

E1max = 30 V
O
f
45º E

E2
max

m
ax
=
20
V
+8 )) " "# ! %" % "# 7 & $
G
; - #
= 37 15 0
- φ= @ >
4 # # #
B 06 +3 % ω =8 *"$ % %
G G
'
# -
' - # 1>
( # K B
G
( , K = > F 1> 35° = 33 3 0
G
( # B = > G 1> 35° = G 3 3 0
4 - #
G G
- = K)1 F B 1 = 33 3 1 F G 3 3 1 = 37 5 0
G G
+ φ
3 3
φ = G = G > 1>
33 3
∴ φ = G 9 97° G>
4 # # # -
B 06 3 % ω =8 *"$ % %
G G
' 1 1 ;
E2
m

ax
ax

Em
(re
ve
r
se

f
d )

O E1max = 30 V
45º
E2
m
ax
=
20
V

+ ( " "# ! %" % "# 7 & $

' ! "

- = 1 0 φ = 31° >9
G G
$ #
# *
B + % ω C8> *"$ % %
# # K B
G
( , K = > G 1> 35° = 5 @7 0
G
( # B = > F 1> 35° = 3 3 0
∴E - # #
G G
- = K1F B1= 5 @7 1 F 3 3 1 = 1 15 0
3 3
φ = = > @? 7
5 @7
∴ φ = 3 91° > 91@
4 # # #
B + +3 % ω C 8 >+< *"$ % %
7 & $ +
π π π
% $ %&' ω 8 3 $ )' ω 8 ( $ 7' ω :
) 3 1
9

"$ " ' - # 11

+ - = 1>5 φ= ° > 53
Y Y
30º
I3
A
0

ma
I2max = 40 A 90º =8
15

x
0A
=
ax

A
m

I2max = 40 A 0
I1

15
=
45º ax I max
I 1m
O X
I3 30º f
ma 45º
x =
80 O X
A
(a) (b)
++ ,! %" ) & "# 7 & $ + ( ,! %" "$. "
G
! + -
= +83 % ω C 8 30 & % %
' #
1>5
+ = = 00 ;6 %
1
( ! "

# # K B
' ,
G
K = 5> 35° F > F @> >° = >7 >9 F > F 7? 1@ = 95 5
' #
G
B = 5> 35° F 3> G @> >° = >7 >9 F 3> G 3> = >7 >9
∴E - #
G G
+ - = K1F B1= 95 5 1 F >7 >9 1 = 1>3 ?3
>7 >9
φ = = > 7>3?
95 5
∴ φ = 9° > 533
4 *
= +80 ;0 % ω C 8 300 & % %
' #
1>3 ?3
+ = = 00 ;+ %
1
+ 1, E
• $ #
• 4 # # - $
-
• + * #
- '
#
• '
( 6
• ' -
'
-
,9 1
G
• ) 0 θ - 1
G
• ' 0 - - ?>°
G
- ' 0 -
G
• ' - 0=-F/ 15
1 1
• 4 0= - F
- #

θ =
-
• ' * 15
* ! "

• 6 #$ "
"
Y Y V1

V2
V y y1
y2
q x3 x4
x X x2 X
O O x1
y4
y3

V4
V3
(a) (b)
+ ,! %" % ) ! "& " %

! F "
• ' / * 15
-
• + / *
?>° % & ' /
?>°
• 4 * @>°
1
// = / =G

' # /1 = G /= G
• ' * - -F/ % " ) -

• + - /
G
• + - -
4 #
&
#
• ! -
% *
G G G G
0 01 0 03 1 ' -
#
G G G G
0 =- F/ 01 = G -1 F / 1 0 =G- G/ 03 = -3 G / 3
) ! "

+ )) " ) ( " "# ,! %" % $ " &

• ! % *

• $ % *

4 #
* &
: : : : : :
7 & $ % $ !0 8 = >" 3 $ !( : = &" 9 ;! " % 8 3 ! " % : 3
G G
"$ " 0 F 01 = 9 F / ? F G / 5 = 9 F F/ ?G5
B 8CF0 - %
G G
0 G 01 = 9 F / ? G G / 5 = 9 G F/ ?F5
B 0CF 0 - %
1 $ $ " ) * % " "# ,! %" % $ " &
• E -
G /1
• ! #
# / +
'
• ' / - # / '
# -
:
: : %
7 & $ 0 9 # ( %( ;! " % ⋅ 3 ! "
:
3
G G
"$ " 0 ⋅ 01 = 9 F / ? × G / 5 = 1 G / 5 F / 19 G /1 35
= 1 G / @ F 35 /1 = G
B 66 = F < - %
G
0 9 F /? 9 F /? F /5 1 F / 5 F /19 F /1 35 1 F /71 G 35
= = × = 1 =
G G /5 G /5 F /5 G /1 51 ? F 15
01
G13 F /71
= = =8> CF <+ - %
3
0 ,9 , 1
• +
G
K% - & - - 0 1

G
0 = 0∠θ 17
G
0 0 θ K% -
! "

G
• ' 0 " 0 ∠θ

• + # #
# %#
G
• - # 0 1 -
G
0 = -F/
G
• ' - 0=0∠θ

1 0= -1 F 1
θ= G
-
• # -=0 θ =0 θ
' , # #
G
0 = -F/ =0∠θ=0 θF/ θ
0 1 $ $ " ) * % " "# ,! %" % ,"$ " &
• E &

• 8 # & *

: :
7 & $ 3 % $ %3 ∠ 1'° 3 $ ( ∠ : ('°
:
: : %
9 ;! " % ⋅ 3 ! "
:
3
G G
"$ " 0 ⋅ 01 = 1 ∠ 7>° × ∠ G >° = 1 × ∠ 7>° G >°
= 6 ∠ 8°° - %
G
0 1 ∠ 7>° 1
= = ∠ 7>° F >°
G ∠ G >°
01
= 0 ∠ ;8°° - %
3 - , 1
•
• E # #
• ' # # *
# #
• - 7 - # * &
*
*
• + - * -
&
! "

7 & $ 6 / # ( %3 #
"$ " ( -
# 11 - #
- - #
G
+ - = 5> ∠ 35° = >7 >9 F / >7 >9
G G
+1 - = 3> ∠ ?>° = > F / 3> + - = @> ∠ G >° = 7? 1@ G / 3>
∴(
G G G G
+ - = + - F +1 - F+ -

= >7 >9 F / >7 >9 F > F / 3> F 7? 1@ G / 3>

= 175.35 + j 106.07 = 204.94 ∠ 31.17° A
∴ L+ -L = 1>3 ?3
φ = 9° > 533
4
= +80 ;0 % ω C 8 300 & % %
' #
1>3 ?3
+ = = 00 ;+ %
1
7 & $ > 5 ! "
;
π
!" / %' ! " &' ., , ω $
(

! " / 7 &' ., ,
π
ω $:
1
"$ "

E - # = > 1 = 3 3
π π
∴ =+ ω Gα = 3 3 1π × 5> × G = 0 0% 88 π = & %

A %
' # 13
E - # = @
π π
∴ = + ω Fα =@ 1π × 5> × F =<% 88 π C & % A %
7 6
# ! "

' # 13

i = 14.14 sin (100 πt – π/3) i = 8 sin (100 πt + π/6)

i i
14.14 A 8A
π/3

π/6

ωt ωt
(a) (b)
+0 / * #" &%' 7 & $ >
7 & $ < #
π
$ %' 3π × 1' × :
1
9 ;
!" $'
! " -- , $'
! " # $'
5 $'
?
"$ "
+10 A

i (amperes)

t=0
t= t (seconds)
–5 A t = 0.001389 s 0.01389 s

–10 A
T = 0.01667 s
+3 / * #" &' 7 & $ <
15 # #
ω 1π × 7>
* = = = 7> 4,
1π 1π

∴ 6 ' = = = 8 8 66> % A %
7>
0 =>
π
= > 1π × 7> × > G = =3 A %
7
$ ! "

' , # #
π
= > = > 1π × 7> × G
7
π
∴ 1π × 7> × G = >
7
∴ = 8 88 <; % A %
' # - # #
' × > > 779
= > >> @? F = > >> @? F
3 3
= 88 <; % A %

7 & $ ; &' ., # >3

2 ! " ' ''3 ,
! " ' '')& # */

"$ "
9.2 A
5.41 A
Current
1.439 A

t = 0.002 s t = 0.0095 s

Time

+6 / * #" &' 7 & $ ;

E - # + = ?1
4 # #
=+ ω =+ 1π = ? 1 1π × 5> × = ? 1 3
@>M
= > >>1 = ?1 3 × > >>1 π =30 A %

6 > >1
' # - # = = = > >>5
3 3
4 = > >>5 F > >>35 = > >>?5
@>M
= ?1 3 × > >>?5 π = 0 ; A %

17 #
% ! "

7 & $ +8 $' 1' ., 8&

%'
!" 2 # ! " 9 $ ' '%
$ ' '%&
! " /
"$ "

i = 14.4 sin (377t + 0.3614) amperes

Current (A)
5A

t = 0.01s t = 0.015s

t=0 –3.73 A

–11.82 A
Time (s)

+> / * #" &' 7 & $ +8

(E$ # + = >

E - # + = > 1= 3 3
' # # * ,

=+ ω Fα = 3 3 1π × 7> × F α = 3 3 99 F α
; # = > = F5
∴ 5 = 3 3 99 × > F α
5
∴ α = = > 5 7
3 3
∴ α = 1> 9M > 7 3
4 -
= 0 0% >> C 8 6 0 & % A %
= >> = 3 3 99 × > > F > 7 3 = = <+ A %
= >> 5 = 3 3 99 × > > 5 F > 7 3 = = > A %
' # 19
7 & $ + 9
%'
π π
$ %3 ω 81 (ω : 8) &ω 8
1 (
& ! "

"$ " < + # (

' *
#
#
1 1 7 1 3 1
+1( = >1 × ( × F ×(× F ×(× F ×(×
1 1 1

4 # + A 1
∴ # #
1 1 7 1 3 1
+ = >1 F F F = 0 8> A %
1 1 1
7 & $ ++ 9
π π
% $ %' ω 3 $ 3' ω : ( $ (' ω 8
) 1
"$ " ' #
- (
# # #
# = > ω
π
#1 = 1> ω G
3
π 1π
# = > ω F = > ω F
7
- - #

− >
0 = ∠ > = 9 >9 ∠ > = 9 >9 F /> 0
1

− 1>
01 = ∠ G35 = 3 3 ∠ G35 = >G/ > 0
1

− >
0 = ∠ 1> = 1 1 ∠ 1> = G > 7 F / @ 9 0
1
− − − −
∴ ( # 0 = 0 F 01 F 0 = 9 >9 F /> F >G / > F G >7 F / @ 9
= 7 37 F /@ 9 = > 59 ∠ 51 3 0
' # - * #
π
# = 1 × > 59 ω F 51 3 × = 0 ;3 % ω C8; A %
@>
' ! "

7 & $ +
π
$ 0 '0% %&0 '7 :
)
9
# / $ '
"$ " - #
+ = 9 >9 ω = 59 >@ A
∴ # #
+ 9 >9
+ = = = 3 %
1 1
ω 59 >@
* = = = 15 4,
1π 1π

∴ 6 ' = = = 8 80 % " 08 &% %

15
π
= 9 >9 59 >@ G
3
' = 9 >9 #
π
9 >9 = 9 >9 59 >@ G
3
π
∴ 59 >@ G =
3
π
∴ 59 >@ G = 59
3
∴ ' # - #
= 88 3% " 3 &% %

7.071 A p
i = 7.071 sin (157.08 t – —)
4
15 ms

Current 0 Angle

p
40 ms
4
radians
+< / * #" &' 7 & $ +
1@ #
( ! "

6, 1 1D
• '

• 0 * &

• ' # *
#
• *

• * *

• ' * &
+ (
• ' - # * # #

• '
• ) * -
• ' #
# #

• # #
# # # #
• - # *
#
• ' # # #
*
• ! * * #
, # -

• , -
# *
• , - #
*
• ' * *
&
#* ! "

> 1, 1
• 6 '=

= * ,
• * ω = 1π A
= * ,
• (E$ #
1 1 1 1
F 1 F F…F
+ =

1 … =+ # #

• (E$ #
+
+ = = > 9>9 +
1
+ = 6 &#
• # #
F 1 F F…F
+ # =

1 … =+ # #

• # #
1+
+ # = π = >7 9+
+ = 6 &#
E - #
• 6 & * = = 3 3
(E$ #
(E$ #
• * = =
# #
•

•
•

• !

•
" #$% &
• ' () ω
* + ,

) ω
( ( %# $&
• ! % & ω
)
∴ ( %# -&
R
v
i

i
I V
0
p 2p

v = Vm sin wt
(a) (b) (c)
! " ! ! #$ $ "! # !%&
• . /' %# $& ( ω … %# 0&
!" # $

• /' %# 0&

• " #$ % & " #$ % &

1
%) &
)
• /' %# -& (
)
)
(
2 323 2 323
)
∴ ( %# #&

'#
• % &
% &
•
% & %&
• " #-

• "
1 ! 4

p
v
i
Average
Power

0 p 2p

'# (# ) "* #%& #$ $ (#

• () ω ( ω
(
- )
( ) ω ( %$ 5 -ω&
-
) )
( 5 -ω %# 6&
- -
% !" # $

)
• !
-
)
-ω '
-

1
∴
) )
7 ( 5 -ω
- -
) )
( ( × () %# 8&
- - -

)- -
• 7 ( ) ( ( %# 3&

+
9
•
" #0% &
• () ω
•
! :
• ; :

(5 % /' - 3&
L v
i V
i 90º

0 p
p 2p
2 I
v = Vm sin wt

(a) (b) (c)

+ ! "!! !, "! # !%&

9
!" # $

( 5 ( %# <&

• 4 () ω !

) ω (
)
∴ ( ω
•
) ) 5) π
( ω ( %5 ω&( 5ω
ω ω -
) π
( ω 5 %# =&
ω -
π
• ! % & ω 5
-
)
∴ ( %# $2&
ω
• 4 /' %# =&
π
( ω 5 %# $$&
-
• /' %# $$&
=2

!
" !#
" #0 % & % &
!, (# #" "! #
)
• /' %# $2& (
ω
)
)
(
2 323 2 323 ω
)
∴ ( %# $-&
ω
• ω !
>.
)
∴ ( %# $0&
>
& !" # $

• ! /! %# #&
4

• !
4 > ( ω ( -π %# $#&
> ∝
• " ## '

Y
XL

X
O f
" " ! )- ' .)
'#
• " #6

v
p
i

+ +
0 – p – 2p

/ '# (# ) "* #%& !, (#

π
• ; () ω ( ω 5
-
π
( () ω ω 5 (5) ω ω
-
)
( 5 -ω %# $6&
-
'
$ %
5)
∴ 7 ( -ω (2 %# $8&
-
' !" # $

• " #6
• ?

• ; :

• :
! '
1
/
• . 7( (2 %# $3&
7

%
0"1*%# &
!' ()! * '! %
% !
> ( ω ( -π ( -π × 62 × 2 6 ($63 Ω
) -02
∴ ( ( 2 3 !$
> $63

• ; %
& % &
'
• 4 ( ) ω
%" # 8 &
v
C I

i
90º
i V
p 0 p 2p
2

v = Vm sin wt
(a) (b) (c)
4 ! "!! "*" "! # !%&
• %'&
' ( ( ) ω
( !" # $

• '

' ( % ( × &
'
∴ ( ( % ) ω&(ω ) ω
π
( ω ) ω @ %# $<&
-
• ! % &
π
ω @ ( $
-
∴ ( ω ) %# $=&
• 4 /! %# $<&
π
( ω @ %# -2&
-
• " /! %# -2&
=2

+
!
" #8 % & % &

"*" (# #" "! #

• /' %# $=& :
( ω )
)
∴ ( ω ×
2 323 2 323
)
∴ ( ω )( %# -$&
%$Aω &
)
$
• : > .
ω
)
∴ ( %# --&
>

$ $
• 4 > ( ( %# -0&
ω -π
$
> ∝
) !" # $

• ' >
" #3
Y

XC O X
f
3 " " ! )- ' .)
'#
π
• () ω ( ω @
-

π
( () ω ω @ () ω ω
-
)
( -ω %# -#&
-

' :
%
)
∴ 7 ( -ω (2 %# -6&
-
v
p

i
+ +
p 2p
0 – –

5 '# (# ) "* #%& "*" (#

• " #<
•

:
! ' 1

%
* !" # $

0"1*%# & $ ,!! µ&

()! * '! %
% ! ; :
) $ $ $
( > ( ( ( ( 0$ <0 Ω
> ω -π -π × 62 × $22 × $258
-02
∴ ( (3 + !$
0$ <0
0"1*%# + '! % ()! *
(- ' µ&
"# . + / % 0
1!
" # 2
" # 2
" # 3
% !
I
v
i

V
p
2

Time
(a) (b)
6 7"(#) 1$ "!, *."$ ," "1 ) ( % " # "!, #! 8 0"1*%# +
$ $ $
> ( ( (
ω -π -π × 62 × -8 6 × $258
( 9 Ω !$
) -02
∴ B4 ( ( ( $ =$
> $-2 $-
: ' '
( ) ω ( ) -π ( - × -02 -π × 62 ×
( + / 3$!+ ( %$ !$
"
π
=2 ' C
-
π π π
( ω @
( -π @ ( - × $ =$ -π × 62 × @
- - -
π
( 3$! + : "1*# #$ !$

" #= % & " #= % &

+, !" # $

/ 7 ;
•
" # $2 % &

) ) ( % &
) ) ( > % =2°&
> %( ω &
R L
VL

I V V=IZ
VR VL VL= I XL
f f
V I
VR VR = I R
(a) (b) (c)
9 ! "!! #$ $ "! # "!, !, "! # ! $# #$
•
: " # $2 % &
•
• :

• !

•
) )
5 5 5
) ( ) @) %7 &
• " # $2 % &
- - -
) ( ) @) ( % & - @ % > &- ( -
@>
) )
∴ ( ( %# -8&
- - D
@>
- -
D ( @> %# -3&
1*#,"! #
- -
• ' @> ! 1*#,"! #
D

• % & %> &

++ !" # $

."$# #%" !$. * <# '##! % " # "!, #!

• " " # $2 % &
φ
) ⋅> >
φ ( ( ( %# -<&
) ⋅
) ⋅
+ φ ( ( ( %# -=&
) ⋅D D
•
( ) ω
( %ω 5 φ&
v
i

Z
XL
2p f
0 f p R

" <
$# #$ " 7"(#) 1$ < 1*#,"! # "! %#
" # $$ % &
1*#,"! # "! %#
• * %" # $2 &
" # $$ % &
•
: "
C
- -
D ( @>
( % &- @ % &-
>
φ ( φ(
D
φ
'#
•
7 ( % : &
@% : &
• * :
1 .
∴ 7 ( : ( - (% & ()
( ) φ× % " ) () φ&
7 ( ) φ %# 02&
+ !" # $

% # !" (# )
• ! C
() ω () θ
( %ω 5 φ& ( %θ 5 φ&
• . φ
∴
( () θ× %θ 5 φ& ( ) θ %θ 5 φ&
• : *
- * ( % 5 *& 5 % @ *&
• E
) $ $
( F φ5 %-θ 5 φ&G ( ) φ5 ) %-θ 5 φ& %# 0$&
- - -
∴
$ -π $ -π $ $
7 ( θ( ) φ5 ) %-θ 5 φ& θ
-π -π - -
2 2
-π
) %-θ 5 φ&
( % φ& θ 5
#π - 2

) %#π 5 φ& %5φ&

( % φ& -π 5 @
#π - -
) φ φ $
( % φ& -π @ 5 ( ) φ
#π - - -
$
• /! %# 0$& * ) φ
-
! '
$
) %-θ 5 φ& 1
-
$ )
7 ( ) φ( × φ() φ
- - -
)
C
**" #! '#
• %)& %& /! %# 02&

# '#
• ! 7() φ
+% !" # $

'# " $φ

) φ
• ∴ 7 ( ( ( φ %# 0-&
)

•
• %" # $$ &

7 ( φ(
D
•

• +

• "
φ ( =2
• " φ(2
• 4 ! 23
! 32 H
. =! %
• B I
4
• ! :

•
.
'
•

• E :
:

• :

• 4 :
% ( )AD&
+ !" # $

• :
!

0"1*%# ,,! Ω !'

()! * '! % 3 4 " # " # " #
" #
% ! " # $2 % &
% & > ( ω ( -π
( -π × 62 × 2 6
( /3 Ω !$
- -
% & D ( @>
( $$2- @ $63-
2 6 3Ω !$
) -02
% & ( (
D $=$ 3
( !$
$$2
% & 7 φ ( (
D $=$ 3
( 9 /3 %" ! !$
∴ φ ( / 65°° ≈ //°° !$
66°

0"1%# / ,,! ,!! . ()! * '! %

$ 5
3 $ 5
+ . 6
% !
"$# "1* ! # #$ ' . " . = ! %
9
• " # $- % &
:
• " # $- % & )
) : =2 )
) )

9
+& !" # $

R L

VL
I
VR VL V

f
V = 230 volts
VR I

(a) (b)

" %"1* ! $# #$ ' . " . = ! %8 0"1*%# / < ."$ ," "1

•
- -
)- ( ) @ )
-
∴ -02- ( $$2- @ )
∴ ) ( -2$ == )
$22
( ( 2 =$
$$2
∴ :
) -2$ ==
> ( ( ( --$ =3 Ω
2 =$
> > --$ =3
∴ ( ω( ( 293 ; !$
-π -π × 62
4 :

"$# "1* ! # #$ ' . " ! !, (# #$ $

• " # $0 % & J
' % &
• ) )J %" # $0 &
• )
J
) ( ) @)

J
∴ ) ( ) 5 ) ( -02 5 $$2 ( $-2 )

; 2 =$
J
) $-2
J ( ( 2 + 53 Ω !$
2 =$
+' !" # $

R R'

V'R
I
VR I
VR V'R

V = 230 volts

(a) (b)
+ " %"1* ! $# #$ ' . " ! ! !, (# #$ $ ) 0"1*%# /
< ."$ , " "1
7
( - J ( 2 =$- × $0$ <3
( $2= - ;
+
0"1*%# 4 ,!! * 5
,! )!! .
'! *

% !
• %" # $#& > D
* > * D*
*
• ( @ *

• > ( > @> *

- - ) $22
• D ( @> ( ( ( $2 Ω
$2
-
• 7 ( ( 022 ; % &
022
∴ ( (0Ω
$2-
RA XLA RB XLB
I = 10 A

VA = 50 volts

V = 100 volts

," "1 ) 0"1*%# 4

+( !" # $

∴ > ( D- 5 -
( $2- 5 0- ( = 60= Ω
-
7 (
-
7 * ( *
-
- ( - * % &
∴ ( - * %&
( @ * (0Ω % &
4 /' %& /' % &
- * @ * ( 0
∴ * ( Ω !$
∴ ( - * ( Ω !$

) 62
D ( ( (/Ω !$
$2
- -
∴ > ( D 5 ( 6- 5 --
( /5+ Ω !$
4 > ( > @ > * ( = 60= Ω
> * ( = 60= 5 # 6<0 ( 6/4 Ω !$
( - Ω > ( # 6<0 Ω * ( $ Ω > * ( # =68 Ω
0"1*%# 3 $ (7! * . +
'! % $ -!
+ ,!! % 7! 3

% ! :
7 . /9 ;> **%&
) -#2
D ( ( (#Ω
82
-
∴ @ %-π × 62 × &- ( #
-
+ @ %-π × 62 × &- ($8 %&
7 . 99 ;> **%&
) -#2
D ( ( (8Ω
#2
-
∴ @ %-π × $22 × &- (8
+ @ %-π × $22 × &- (08
- % &
4 ' %& % &
( + 9// Ω (5 × 9?+ ; !$
+) !" # $

0"1%# 5 $ ,!! . ,!!

('! * '! % 5 $
-'° 4
"# 8 $
" # 9 $ " #
% !
R
r L
L.B.

I
VR = 100 volts VL

250 V, 50 Hz
/ , " "1 ) 0"1*%# 5
7 : 7 ( # x $22 ( #22 ;
7 #22
: ( ( (#
) $22
) $22
: ( ( ( -6 Ω
#
7 ( ) φ ( -62 × # × 86°
( 4 7 !$
∴7 :
7 ( 7 5 7 ( #-- 8- 5 #22
( 4 7 !$
7 -- 8-
∴ : ( -(
#-
( Ω !$
) -62
D ( ( ( 8- 6 Ω
#
∴ :
> ( D 5 % @ &- ( %8- 6&- 5 %-6 @ $ #$#&- ( 68 8# Ω
-

> 68 8#
∴ : ( (
-π -π × 62
( 9 5; !$
/ @#"$ #1#! ) '# ! "! !, (# $!
. ## % 1# # @# . ,
•
•

% :&
" # $8 % &
+* !" # $

• ) ) ) % &

I XL RL R
A
A.C. Supply (V)

V VL
VL VR

f fL
O I
VR
(a) (b)
4 . ## ( % 1# # 1# . , ) 1#"$ ! * '#
) ( ) % >&
φ
) ( )
) ( 4
• " # $8 % & "
φ C
- - - -
)- ( ) @ ) 5 - ) ) %$<2° 5 φ & ( ) @ ) @ - ) ) φ
- -
)- 5 ) 5 )
∴ φ (
-) ⋅ )
• .
- -
%)- 5 ) 5 ) &
7 ( ) φ ( %# 00&
-)
)
• + ( %+ J &
$ - -
7 ( %)- 5 ) 5 ) & %# 0#&
-
• " C
%& 4

% & φ
'
% & '

0"1*%# 6 5
4
2 1 ()! *
* 5 1 ,7! *
* 1 ,(! *
3 1'
, !" # $

3 4"# :" # :" #9

: " # 9 5 : " #
$ :" #9 :" #8

% ! " # $8 % & % &

( 6

) $-2
D ( ( ( Ω !$
6

) -02
D ( ( ( 4Ω !$
6
7
- -
%)- 5 ) 5 ) &
7 (
-)
6 %-02- 5 $-2- 5 $#2-&
( ( ++3 / 7 !$
- × $#2
) $#2
+ ( ( ( -< Ω
6
$ - -
∴ 7 ( %)- 5 ) 5 ) &
-
$
( %-02- 5 $-2- 5 $#2-& ( ++3 / 7 !$
- × -<
7
7 ( - ( 6- × -< ( 399 7 !$
+
7 ( ) ( $#2 × 6 ( 399 7 !$
:
7 ( 7 @ 7 ( 003 6 @ 322 ( 9+3 / 7 !$
7
7 003 6
φ ( ( ( 9 /4+ %" ! !$
) ⋅ $-2 × 6
7
7 $203 6
φ ( ( ( 9 69 %" ! !$
)⋅ -02 × 6
+ !" # $

% & %> &

( D φ ( -# × 2 680 ( + / Ω !$
> ( D φ ( -# × 2 <-3 ( 6 5 Ω !$
4 7 ;
• " # $3 % &

) ) ( % &
) ) ( > % =2°&
$
> (
ω
R C
VR VR = I R
I
f f
I
VR VC VC = I XC
V=IZ

V VC V

(a) (b) (c)

3 ! "!! .# #$ $ "! # "!, "*" "! # ! $# #$
• " # $3 % &
) ) )
' " # $3 % &
- - -
) ( ) @ ) ( % & - @ % > &- ( -
@>
) )
∴ ( ( %# 06&
- - D
@>
- -
D ( @> %# 08&
1*#,"! #
- -
• 4 ' @> D

."$# #%" !$. * <# '##! % " # "!, #!

• " # $3 % &
φ
5) 5 ⋅> 5>
φ ( ( ( %# 03&
) ⋅
) ⋅
+ φ ( ( ( %# 0<&
) ⋅D D
!" # $

•
' ( ) ω
( %ω @ φ&
" # $< % &
v

i R
f
2p
XC
0 p Z
f

(a) (b)
5 $# #$ " 7"(#) 1$ < 1*#,"! # "! %#
1*#,"! # "! %#
• " # $< % &

%" # $3 &
• 4 > K ! :
• "
- -
D ( @>
5>
φ ( φ(
D
φ
'#
• 4 : 1

7 1
∴ 7 ( :
( - (% & ()
( ) φx % " ) () φ&
7 ( ) φ %# 0=&
φ
• /! %# 0=&
% # !" (# )
• ! C
() ω () θ
( %ω @ φ& ( %θ @ φ&
• . φ
∴
( () θ× %θ @ φ& ( ) θ⋅ %θ @ φ&
% !" # $

• : *
- * ( % 5 *& 5 % @ *&
• E
)
( F %5φ& 5 %-θ @ φ&G
-
$ $
( ) φ5 ) %-θ @ φ& F %5φ& ( φG
- -
• ∴
-π -π
$ $ $ $
7 ( ⋅ θ( ) φ5 ) %-θ @ φ& θ
-π -π - -
2 2
-π
) %-θ @ φ& ) %#π @ φ& φ
( % φ& θ 5 ( % φ& -π 5 @
#π - 2 #π - -
) φ φ $ )
( % φ& -π 5 @ ( ) φ( × φ
#π - - - - -
( )⋅ φ
)
0"1*%# 9 ,!! Ω '! µ&
()! * '! % & 4" # " # " #
" # " # "#
% ! " # $3 % &
$ $ $
% & > ( ( ( ( 80 88 Ω
ω -π -π × 62 × 62 × $258
- -
∴ D ( @> ( $22- @ 80 88-
( 5/ Ω !$
) -02
% & ( (
D $$< 6#
( 6 !$
% & ) (
( $ =# x $22 ( 6 !$
% & ) ( > ( $ =# × 80 88
2 +/ !$
$22
% & 7 ( φ( (
D $$< 6#
( 9 5 +/ %#", ! !$
" # $3 % &
) $=#
φ ( ( ( 9 5 +/ %#", ! !$
) -02
!" # $

%& 7 ( ) φ ( -02 × $ =# × 2 <#06

( +34 +4 7 !$
+ 7 ( - ( $ =#- × $22
( +34 +4 7 !$
0"1*%#
1 ,'! ),7
π
1 ,! ),7 ;
7
2$ &

% ! " '
πA# #6°
" # $< % & φ(πA# #6° " '

B ! ) ( $62 )
∴ B4 ) ( 2 323 × $62 ( $28 26 )
4 B !
( $2
∴ B4 ( 2 323 × $2 ( 3 23
) $28 26
∴ D ( ( ( $6 22 Ω
3 23
% & %> &
%" # $< &
( D φ ( $6 #6 ( $6 × 2 323
( 94 Ω !$
> ( D φ ( $6 #6° ( $6 × 2 323
( 94 Ω !$
$
4 > ( ω ( 0$# %" ' &
ω
$ $
( (
ω> 0$# × $2 8$
( +99 4 x 9?4 !$
3 7 A
; : 7 ( ) φ
φ
7
∴ ( … %# #2&
) φ
• " ! '
& !" # $

•
C
%& '
'
% &
% & !
' :
•

• :

5 7 @ A
•

• :

• . !

6 7 7
• ;
% &
% &
• " # $= :

•
φ φ ' % =2°&

" <
6 (# "!, #" (# 1* !#! $ ) #!
" !, (# < "*" (#
' !" # $

(# 1* !#! ) #!
• "
7 ( ) φ
( ) ×
φ

#" (# 1* !#! ) #!
φ =2° :

(# '#

% 7() φ&

•
#" (# '# B
' ) φ

•
:

'# "! %#
-
%" # $$ # $< &
" # -2
• "
4( 7- @ L- 7(4 φ L(4 φ %# #$&

9 '# "! %# " !, (# < "*" (#

9 @ - @ ;

• !
( !" # $

9 # #$ $
% " #8 #! "!, 1*#,"! #
•
> %" # $2 &
• " # $2 % &
! C
• 4 '
5
( @ I 2 ( ∠ 2°
• " %" # $$ &

5
D ( @I> (D∠φ
- -
D ( @>
>
φ ( 5$

•
5 5 5
) ( ⋅ D ( ∠ 2° x D ∠ φ° ( D ∠ φ
5 5
• ) φ°
" # $2 % & D
• !
> %" # $3 & '
5
( @ I 2 ( ∠ 2°
• " %" # $< &
5
D ( 5I> (D∠5φ
- -
D ( @>
5$ 5>
φ (
5 5 5
∴ ) ( ⋅ D ( ∠ 2° × D ∠ 5 φ° ( D ∠ 5 φ
5
• ) φ°
" # $3 % & D
• !

!
• " : ' %
&
5
) ( ) ∠ 2°
) !" # $

5
(
∠ 2° % &
5
5 ) ) ∠ 2° )
∴ D ( ( ( ∠ 2° ( ∠ 2° ( % @ I2&
5 ∠ 2°

• " : '
5
) ( ) ∠ 2°
5
( ∠ − =2° % =2°&
5
5 ) ) ∠ 2° )
∴ D ( ( ( ∠ =2° ( > ∠ =2° ( %2 @ I> &
5 ∠ − =2°

• " : '
5
) ( ) ∠ 2°
5
( ∠ =2° % =2°&
5 ) ∠ 2° )
∴ D ( ( ∠ − =2° ( > ∠ − =2° ( %2 − I> &
∠ =2°
1*#,"! #$ ! # #$
• D$, Z2, Z3
) %" # -$& !
5 5 5 5
) ( )$ @ )- @ )0 @
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
∴ ⋅ D ( ⋅ D$ @ ⋅ D- @ ⋅ D0 @
D ' D$, Z2, Z3

! "!! 1*#,"! #$ ! $# #$
5 5 5 5
. D ( D$ @ D- @ D0 @ %# #-&
• "
5 5 5
D$ ( $ @ I >$ D- ( - @ I >- D0 ( 0 @ I >0
5
D ( % $ @ I >$& @ % - @ I >-& @ % 0 @ I >0& @
( % $ @ - @ 0 @ & @ I %>$ @ >- @ >0 @ &
( @I>(D∠φ
( $@ -@ 0@ > ( >$ @ >- @ >0 @
- 5$ >
D ( @ >- φ(
* !" # $

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES INVOLVING A.C. FUNDAMENTALS

0"1*%# +
(π
1 )' )' ω <
'
π
1 = != ω <
)
ω 1 ),7 >
2$ 3
+
% ! " # --
%& B ! ) ( 06 06 )
06 06
∴ B4 ) ( ( -6 )
-
B ! ( 3 23
3 23
∴ B4 ( (6
-
2p
— radians
72º
5
O Reference Axis
p radians
60º —
3
12º
I

V
."$ ," "1 ) 0"1*%#
. ! ! % &
5 5
) ( -6 ∠ 5 3- ) ( 6 ∠ 5 82
∴
5
5 ) -6 ∠ 53-°
D ( ( (/∠? Ω !$
5 6 ∠ 582°

% &
M
7 ( ) ) () φ ( -6 × 6 × $-
( 37 !$
% & 7
φ ( $- ( 9 635 %#", ! !$
ω 0$#
% & " ' ( ( ( /9 ;> … !$
-π -π
%, !" # $

π
0"1*%# + (! ω (! ωt+6
?0
"@ ; A-# Ω

% ! $ ( -2 ω
π
- ( -2 ω @
8

) $ -2
)$ ( ( ( $# $# )
- -
) - -2
)- ( ( ( $# $# )
- -
" ' )2 )1
πA8 02o : )1
!
5
)$ ( $# $# ∠ 2 ( %$# $# @ I 2& )
5
)- ( $# $# ∠ 02 ( %$- -6 @ I 3 23& )
;
5 5 5
) ( )$ @ )- ( %$# $# @ I2& @ %$- -6 @ I 3 23&
( -8 0= @ I 3 23 ( 3 + ∠ / !$
5
D ( < @ I 8 ( $2 ∠ 08 <3 Ω
5
5 ) -3 0- ∠ $6°
∴ ( ( ( 3+ ∠ ? 53 !$
5 $2 ∠ 08 <3°
D
M
7 ( ) ) () φ
( -3 0- × - 30- x %$6 @ -$ <3 & 2 /6 3 7 !$
0"1*%# 1 , 7,7 "(π × '! × #
,!! Ω ! ),@), &
0 "# " #
" #
% ! ( $ #$# %-π × 62 × &
∴ " ' ( 62 .1
. > ( -π ( -π × 62 × 2 0$<0$ ( $22 Ω
%+ !" # $

$ #$#
%& B4 ( ( ($
- -
) ( ( $ × $22 ( $22 )

'
( ) ω ( - × $22 %-π × 62 × &
( $!+ ( %$ C !$
% & ) ( > ( $ × $22 ( $22 )
π
=2N
-
π
( - × $22 ω @
-
π
( $! + : ( %$ C !$
% &
-
D ( - @> ( $22- @ $22- ( $#$ #- O
∴ )
) ( D ( $ × $#$ #- ( $#$ #- )
$22
7 φ ( ( ( 2 323
D $#$ #-
π
∴ φ ( #6N
#
π
4
#

π
( - × $#$ #- 0$# @
#
π
( 99 $ ! + : ( %$ C !$

0"1*%# / 1 (!! ,!! π 8 1 (!! Ω

/ 1 -)@ ? 4
"# ?0 1I "ω ± φ#
" # 9
" # 8
" # * 8 /
% !" # $

-22
% ! %& B4 ) ( ( $#$ #-$ )
-
ω ( -π ( $22 π
∴ ( 62 .1
> ( ω ( -π ( -π × 62 × 80< × $250 ( -22 #0 O
−
D ( @ I > ( -22 @ I -22 #0 ( -<0 $#= ∠ #6 28N O
−
− ) $#$ #-$ ∠ 2N
( − ( ( 2 6 ∠ 5 #6 28N
-<0 $#= ∠ #6 28N
D
π
. ( - × 2 6 ( 2 323 φ ( 5 #6 28N 5
#
π
∴ ( 9 393 $ ! 99 π ? "1*# #$ C !$

% & 7 7 ( ) φ ( $#$ #-$ × 2 6 × #6 28N

( /9 7 C !$
% & L ( ) φ ( $#$ #-$ × 2 6 × #6 28N
( /9 C !$
% & ) ) ( ( 2 6 × -22 ( 99 C !$
) ) ( P > ( 2 6 × -22 #0 ( 99 C !$
0"1*%# 4 1 ,!! ),7 (' Ω
@! B& & 4 " # ?0
" # 9
% ! %& B4
$22
) ( ( 32 3$
-
ω ( -π ( 0$#
0$#
∴ ( ( 62 .1
-π
$ $ $
> ( ( ( ( 0= < Ω
ω -π -π × 62 × <2 × $258
−
D ( 5 I> ( -6 5 I 0= < ( #3 ∠ 5 63 <3N Ω
−
− ) 32 3$ ∠ 2N
( − ( ( $ 62# ∠ 63 <3N
#3 ∠ 5 63 <3N
D
∴ ( - × $ 62# ( - $0 φ ( 63 <3N $
∴ ( - $0 %ω @ $& ( +$! + : "1*# #$ C !$
% & 7 7 ( ) φ ( 32 3$ × $ 62# × 63 <3° ( /4 /4 7 … !$
+ 7 ( - ( %$ 62#&- × -6 ( /4 // 7 … !$
%% !" # $

0"1*%# 3 (( $. !@ " #
7(! * ,5 '! % & 4 "# 3 " # 9
" # " #8 " #8 " #. +
" #C
% !
o
V = 420 volts
36.87

I = 65.48 A
+ ."$ ," "1 ) 0"1*%# 3
7 -- × $20
%& ( ( ( 4/ 5 C !$
) φ #-2 × 2 <
% & 7 φ ( 5$ 2 < ( +4 53D C !$
−
− ) #-2 ∠ 2N
% & D ( −(
86 #< ∠ 5 08 <3N

( 4 ∠ +4 53D 2 / + : E + 5/ Ω … !$
% & ∴ ( / +Ω C !$
% & > ( + 5/ Ω C !$

% & ) ( -)( - × #-2 ( 6=0 =3

∴ ( ) ω ( 6=0 =3 -π × 62 ×

( /6+ 63 $ ! + ( %$ C !$

( - ( - × 86 #< ( =- 8
φ ( 08 <3N 2 8##
∴ ( %ω 5 φ& ( =- 8 %-π × 62 × 5 2 8##&
( 6 4$! + ?94 "1*# #$ C !$
% & " # -0
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES ON A.C. SERIES CIRCUITS
0"1*%# 5 ,! Ω !,
()! * '! % & " # " # " #

% ! " # $2 % &
> ( ω ( -π ( -π × 62 × 2 $ ( 0$ #- Ω
5
∴ D ( @ I > ( $2 @ I 0$ #-
( + 63 ∠ 3 +/ Ω !$
% !" # $

: '
5
) ( -02 @ I 2 ( -02 ∠ 2° )
5
5 ) -02 ∠ 2°
∴ ( (
5 0- =3 ∠ 72.35°
D
= 4 65 ∠ ? 3 +/°° !$
3- 06°
0"1*%# 6 3
+ '! %
" # (' ; A )! Ω " # < A @! Ω " # (! ∠ -! Ω
% !
%& -6 @ I 02 ( % @ I > & Ω
∴ 2 /Ω !$
> 02
( ( 2 9 96// ; !$
-π -π × 62
% & 2 5 I <2 ( % 5 I > & Ω
∴ ( 9 … !$
$ $
( (
%-π & ⋅ > %-π × 62& × <2
( + 65 x 956 +6 5 µ !$
% & -2 ∠ 82 ( $2 @ I $3 0- ( % @ I > & Ω
∴ ( 9Ω … !$
> $3 0-
( ( ( 9 9// ; !$
-π -π × 62
0"1*%# 9 $ ) !@ ,' *
$ ) != =' * .
+ )
6&
% ! φ ( 2<% &
∴ φ ( 08 <3°
5
5 ) $6 ∠ 2°
D ( ( ( 6 ∠ 08 <3° ( %# @ I0& Ω
5 0 ∠ 508 <3°

φ* ( 2 3 % &
∴ φ* ( #6 63
5
5 ) 3 6 ∠ 2°
D* ( ( ( - 6 ∠ #6 63° ( %$ 36 @ I $ 3=& Ω
5 0 ∠ 5#6 63°
*
%& !" # $

∴ *
5 5 5
D ( D @ D*
( %# @ I0& @ %$ 36 @ I $ 3=& ( 6 36 @ I # 3=
( 3 #< ∠ 0= <° Ω
∴ ) ' ) ( D ( 0 × 3 #< ( !$
7 φ ( 0= < ( 9 345 %" ! !$
0"1*%# ,(! Ω ('! Ω
! 4
"# " # " # " #

−
% ! D ( $-2 5 I -62 ( -33 0 ∠ 5 8# #N O
∴ 7 φ ( %8# #N& ( 9 + %#", ! C !$
4 ) ( D ( 2 = × -33 0 ( 64 C !$
)
) ( ( 2 = × $-2 ( 95 C !$
)
) ( > ( 2 = × -62 ( / C !$
7 7 ( ) φ ( -#= 8 × 2 = × 2 #0 ( 64 4 7 C !$

L() φ ( -#= 8 × 2 = × %8# #N& ( 9 4 C !$

0"1*%# ('! * '! % $ ,!
!@ . $ $
(!! * (' % 6
% ! /9 8 /9 ;> **%&
5 5$ 2 < ( $2 ∠ 508 <3
( $2 ∠ 5
( %< 5 I 8&
5
5 ) -62 ∠ 2
∴ D ( ( ( -6 ∠ 08 <3
5 $2 ∠ 508 <3

( %-2 @ I $6& Ω
∴ ( 9Ω !$
> $6
( ( ( 9 9 33 ; !$
-π -π × 62
99 8 / ;> **%&

> ( -π ( -π × -6 × 2 2#33 ( 3 #= Ω
%' !" # $

∴
5
D ( @ I > ( -2 @ I 3 #= ( -$ 08 ∠ -2 60 Ω
5
5 ) -22 ∠ 2°
∴ ( ( ( = 08 ∠ 5-2 60
5 -$ 08 ∠ -2 60
D
∴ 7 : 7 ( - ( %= 08&- × -2 ( 3/ 7 !$
+ 7 ( ) φ ( -22 × = 08 × -2 60 ( 3/+ 7 !$
0"1*%# + D, 1 7! ∠ )!E Ω D( 1 )! ∠ -!E Ω
5 ()! * '! % 3 4
"#3 " # 9 " #9
5
% ! D$ ( #2 ∠ 02N ( %0# 8# @ I-2& Ω
5
D- ( 02 ∠ 82N ( %$6 @ I-6 =<& Ω
∴
5 5 5
D ( D$ @ D- ( %0# 8# @ I-2& @ %$6 @ I-6 =<&
( #= 8# @ I#6 =< ( 83 88 ∠ #- <$N Ω
5
5 ) -02 ∠ 2N
%& ( (
5 83 88 ∠ #- <$N
D
( + ∠? 5 D !$
% & 7 φ ( #- <$N ( 9 3+ %" ! !$
% & 7
7 ( ) φ ( -02 × 0 # × 2 30 ( /39 54 7 !$
@ @F
•

• ;
=2 %
=2 &
• !
!

•
1
%( !" # $

• ;
'
=2
•

•
1
• !
% & %> & %> &

• %> &
• %)& %I&
"
• ! 7() φ
#
• # % φ)

• % & φ $ $

• φ =2° :
$
•
% 7() φ&

• ' ) φ

• %
-
& %
&
@ @ A
#%& #$ $ (#
)
• % & (

) ( B4
(
%) !" # $

•
)- -
7 ( )⋅ ( (

) ( B4
( B4
(
#%& !, (#
• > ( ω ( -π
ω ( ' A
( " ' 1
(
)
• % & (
>
) ( B4
> (
#%& "*" (#
$ $
• > ( (
ω -π
ω ( ' A
( " ' 1
(
• % &
)
(
>
) ( B4
> (
# #$
- -
• D ( @>
(
> (
)
• (
D
) ( 4
D (

• 7 φ (
D
(
D (
%* !" # $

• 7 ( )⋅ ⋅ φ
) ( 4
(
φ ( 7
. ## % 1# # @# . ,
• 7
- -
%)- 5 ) 5 ) & $ - -
7 ( ( %)- 5 ) 5 ) &
-) -
) ( 4
) ( )
) ( )
(
(
• 7
- -
)- 5 ) 5 )
φ (
-) ⋅ )
) ( 4
) ( )
) ( )
# #$
- -
• D ( @>
(
> (
)
• (
D
) ( 4
D (

• 7 φ (
D
(
D (
• 7 ( )⋅ ⋅ φ
) ( 4
(
φ ( 7
**" #! '# 8 (# '# "!, #" (# '#
• 4 ( )⋅
) ( 4
(
, !" # $

• 7 ( )⋅ φ
) ( 4
(
φ ( 7
• L ( )⋅ ⋅ φ
) ( 4
(
φ ( 4
1*#,"! #$ ! # #$
5 5 5 5 5
• /' D ( D$ @ D- @ D0 @ … @ D
D$ D- D0 … D (
•

• " "
" #"
!

!" # $ % " # &

• $ "
% &

' " "

$ $ "

( !
) "

*
! " # $

+ %

%
• ,-

' & ( #! $% ' ) !" # % !" #

$ $ # $ !" # % !" #
- .
+ + /
'
+ / +

0 1 2

, 3 ) .

4 5 6 .

7 % % %

8 % 3 2

9 + %

•
three"
"
" "
% ! " # $

*+ , - , . +
# $ "$ " $ $&
•
,-
R1
Y2 B2

B1 Y1
R2
(a)
eR eY eB
Y
EB
E.M.F.

120º
120º ER
0º 60º 120º 180º 240º 300º 360º
120º

EY
Angle
(b) (c)

-% & # $ "$ !" $ $ )% " ) ! /

' 0 $# "$ !" # / 1 " $ % $ #
( $21 % &
• .- . " :- :
6- 6 # - ;°
.-" :- 6- .": 6
- ;°
•
1

! $ % &
•
"
"
& ! " # $

• $ ,- " .- .
#
" '
• ( # - ; " :- :
'
• #
'
• " :- : '
# - ; .-.
• $ " :-: .- .
- ; " 6- 6 :- :
- ;
• "
" - ; ,-
• $
- ; ,-
3 ." 3 : 36 .- . " :- : 6- 6
• $ .- .

. < 3 ω
:- : 6- 6

: < 3 ω = - ;°
6 < 3 ω = 0;°
• "
- ;°
! - ;°
• " "

## $%1 #&

• " #"
! " # $

" 32 1 &

*
• $ " ! . : 6
! "
"
"
4 ,
• " "

• 1 " "
"
" # ! ,
• " "
# " "

Load-1
R1
B1
B2 Y1
Y2 Load-2

Load-3
Alternator

-% *& "$ !" 2!! # )% " %5 % 1 21 $

4 "$ " / "$ 0%$ #
• >
" "
"$ " / "$ 0%$ / $ ( 1 #&
• $ "

!
' ! " # $

R1 R2 R
R
R2
Load-1

Y1 Y2 R1
N Y B1 Y1
Load-3 Load-2
B2 Y2
Y
B1 B2 Alternator
B
B
(a) (b)
-% 4& "$ !" / "$ )%$ / $ 1 1 #
•
$
• ( ,

,
' "$ " / "$ 0%$ / 6 $ " ( 1 #&
• $ "

,0
• ?
,0
@ ∆
,0
R

R1 R2
R B1 R2
Load-3 Load-1
Y1 Y2 B2 R1
Y

Y1 Y2 Load-2
B1 B2 Y
B
Alternator B

(a) (b)
-% 7& "$ !" / "$ )%$ / 1 1 #
4 * "$ " / - 2$ 0%$ #
• $ "
,,
( ! " # $

R
R2

B1 Y
Y1 Y2
Alternator
B2

Load-1 Load-2 Load-3

N
-% & "$ !" / 2$ )%$ #
•
&
(
"
( "
,,
78 ( 6 6 8 ( 6 6
• ( "

8 1 &

" #

-% 9& % "$ !" #/ ' 2$ "% %

2 ' 1 $ 1 1
• # " -; Ω
, Ω"
) ! " # $

• ) " ,Ω
" ! "
$ "
,4
•

•
! " "

' 1 &
(

• $
"
) "

• ?
"

•
#
• (
"
• (

• $ " !
- ;°
• ,4
• $ "
! .:6 ( 1" 1A
B" B B B;

• $ !
"
* ! " # $

8 ( 6
• ( &
! - ;

! 5"
" - ;
3! !
• ( "

• $

9 . + / ( ,, 6 0 , , ,
( (
$ ( 1 / "$ " 2!! #&
•

• ) "
line e.m.f. or

• 1 " !

IR Eb – Ey
r R EBR ERY
Ib = IB
R2
f
ERY

30º
Ir Er
30º 30º
– Er f Er
R1 IY
Y f Ir = IR
Eb B1 N Y1 Ey Iy = IY 30º
EBR

B2 Ey – Eb
Y2
EYB

Ib Iy To Load
b y
IB
B
EYB
(a) (b)

-% :& $ 1 1 / "$ !" #

+, ! " # $

• . ,7 " 3" 3 " 3 $" $ " $

• " 3.:" 3:6" 36. $." $:" $6

• $ " !
φ
,7
• 3 !
. :6
• /
"
,7
. , % &
• 2 . :
•
) "
. :

.: < =
• ) "

= = =
∴ 3.: < 3 = 3
• ( " C D
. : .:1.
= = = *
= 3.: = 3 E 3 < ;
= = =
∴ 3.: < 3 = 3
= = =
• " 3.: 3 =3
=
3 ,7
• " : 6 6 ."

= = =
3:6 < 3 =3
= = =
36. < 3 =3
• 1 " 3 < 3 <3 <3 1
3.: < 3:6 < 36. < 3/ 1

*
$ % &
' ' '
(
++ ! " # $

• " 3.:"
3.: < 3/ < 3 ;

< 3 ×

< 3
• ( " 3.: "
3.: < 3/ < 3 E3 E 3 3 4;°
-
< 3 E3 E 3 ⋅3 × < 3

• " ') * +' ,-

) ',- * + ". ',-#
$ ;
(2$$ , % &
• " "

• "
$ < $ <$ <$ 1
$. < $: < $6 < $/ 1
" I) * I ,
) / * . /
) $&
• F " "
% < x %
< 3 $ φ
3/
< $/ φ . ! ,- ,

< 3/ $/ φ
• " . * + ') I) φ ,
. * + ") ',- x) / ×. . - #
F " φ

' $ ( 1 / "$ " &

• "
"
• ,8 "
+ ! " # $

• / B " By" Bb $ " $y" $b

• " BRY" BYB" BBR $R" $Y" $B
• %
,8
• $ "
" ,8
IR
R r VBR Vb – Vy VRY
Ib = IB
f
VRY

Ir 30º
Vr
VBR

30º 30º
IY – Vr f Vr
Y Ir = IR
Iy = IY f
Ib Vy 30º
N
– Vb
VYB

Vy
Vb Iy y
b
IB
B
VYB

(a) (b)
-% ;& ' 1 "$ !" / $ 1 1
. , % &
• 2 . : ( !
"
= = =
B.: < B = B
• 5 " C D .
: .1:."
= = = *
= B E B E B.: < ;
= = =
∴ B.: < B = B
• " "
= = =
B:6 < B =B
= = =
B6. < B =B
• 1 " B < B <B <B 1
B.: < B:6 < B6. < B/ 1
• ,8 " B.:"

B.: < B/ < B ;° < B x < B

*
0 (
+% ! " # $

• ( " B.: "

B.: < B/ < B EB E B ⋅B 4;°
-
< B EB E B ⋅B × < B

• " 0) * +0 ,0
) 0 * + ". 0
$ ;°
(2$$ , % &
• "
I) * I ,,
) / * . /
) $&
• "
% < × %
< B $ φ
B/
< $/ φ . ! ,0 ,,

< B / $/ φ
• " . * + 0) I ) φ ,4
. * ") 0 x) / x. . - #
:. + / ( ,, 6 0 ,,
6 ( (
6 ( 1 / "$ " 2!! #&
• ,9 "

!
r IR IB
R
Eb = EBR Ib
R2
ERY

B1
Ib Ir – Ir
f – Iy
Eb Er IY 30º
B2 R1 Y
IY f Er = ERY
30º
f
EBR

Ey 30º
Ir
EYB

Y1 Y2 Iy 30º
b
y
Iy IB Ey = EYB
– Ib
B
(a) (b) IR
-% <& 6 1 1 / "$ !" #
+& ! " # $

• "

• "
φ
,9 ! .: 6
. , % &
• $ "
"
• "
3 < 3 <3 <3 1
3.: < 3:6 < 36. < 3/ 1
" ') * ' ,7
) ',- * . ',-
(2$$ , % &
•
2 " ?
.2 61
• $ "
= = =
$. < $ = $
• ( " C D ? "

= = =
= $. = $ E $ < ;
= = =
∴ $. < $ = $ %
= = =
• " $. " $ = $
=
$ ,9 1 "
$ < $ <$ <$ 1
• " ,9 " $."

$. < $ ;° < $ x < $

• ( " $. "
-
$. < $ E$ E $ ⋅$ 4;° < $ E$ E $ ⋅$ × < $
= = =
• " $: < $ = $
∴ $: < $
= = =
$6 < $ = $
∴ $6 < $
+ ! " # $

• $ $. < $: < $6 < $/ 1

I) < I ,8
) / * + ". / #
$ ;°
) $&
• "
%< × %
< 3 $ φ
$/
< 3/ φ . ! ,7 ,8

< 3/ $/ φ
• " . * + ') I) φ ,9
. * + ") ',- × ) / ×. . - #
) " φ

#
' 6 ( 1 / "$ " &
• # ,7 " ,8 ,9 "

• " " , -;
• 1 !
"
• (
, -;

R IR
r IB

Ib
Vb = VBR
VRY
VBR

Y IY Ir –Ir
Ib f –Iy
30º
Vr
Vb
IY Vr = VRY
VYB

Vy 30º f
f
IB 30º Ir
B 30º
y Iy
b
Iy Vy = VYB –Ib

IR
(a) (b)
-% =& ' 1 "$ !" / 1 1
+' ! " # $

. , % &
• "
0) * 0 , -;
) 0 * . 0
(2$$ , % &
• " !
" $."
= = =
$. < $ = $
• 5 " C D ? "
= = =
$. = $ E $ < ;
= = =
∴ $. < $ = $
• 1 " $ < $ <$ <$ 1
• " , -; " $."

$. < $ ;° < $ × < $

• ( " $. "
-
$. < $ E$ E $ ⋅$ 4;° < $ E$ E $ ⋅$ × < $
= = =
• " $: < $ = $
∴ $: < $
= = =
$B < $ = $
∴ $6 < $
• $ $. < $: < $6 < $/ 1
" I) * +I , --
) / * + ". /
, -; "
;°
) $&
• F "
"% < %
< B $ φ
$/
< B/ φ . ! , -; , --

< B / $/ φ
. * + 0) I) φ ,-
• ) " "
. * + ") 0 x) / x. . - #
+( ! " # $

; , 0 , 6, ( . 0 ,
• "
" < × (
< B $
• " "
B/
" < × $/ < B / $/

" "
$/
" < B/ × < B / $/

) " " "

1 * + 0) I) 2 ,-
• ( " "
"G < B $ φ
• " "
3* + 0) I ) φ 2 , -0

< ( - , 66 ( (
• ( " " -H
• " "
"

• "

• " "

• 6 "
"
• F "

5 #! & 2 + 4$ 56
2 78 9
2 $
:
+) ! " # $

2% &( & "$ " )% " $( 1% &

, --
" % < B/ $/ φ
% × -;;;
B/ < < < -7 B
$/ φ × - ,× ;8
B/ -7
∴ B < < < -;; B . 3! ,0

( " $ < $/ < - , ( . 3! ,,

∴$ "
B -;;
I < < <8Ω
$ - ,
1 " φ < ;8 " , -- "

. < I φ< 8× ;8< 9 7 Ω

J < I φ<8× ;4<7;Ω
IR = 12.5 A
R

IY = 12.5 A R
Y
Z
R R X

X X
f

IB = 12.5 A R
B
(a) (b)
-% & "$ !" # )% " $ 1 1 / 5 #!
( *& "$ " )% " 6 ( 1% &
F ,- "
B < B/ < -7 B . 3! , -;
B -7
∴ $ < < < - 4, (
I 8

-% *& "$ !" # )% " 1 1 $ 5 #!

+* ! " # $

" 3! , -- "
$/ < $ < × - 4,
< 4: =
) "
% 0
" "

5 #! * & 2 2
;79 0 85 ∠ < +5°
= > "# . " # ) " #

2% & / " B/ < 0-, B

) "
B/ 0-,
% "B < < < *4< 9 .

/ " $/ < $ < *=

% " φ < ;° < = ;99 %
"% "# " #
D D > "#
" #
2% & $( 1% &
- -
2 " J2 < < <0Ω
π2 π × ,; × 794 -8 × -;=4
=
$ "I < . = ?J2 < =?0<,∠=, - KΩ
0-,
% "B < < 94B

=
= B 9 4 ∠ ;K
∴ % "$ < < < 07 9 ∠ , - K (
= ,∠=, - K
I
∴ / " $/ < $ < 7: <* ?
% " φ < , - K < ;4
∴ % "% 0 ?
, ! " # $

6 ( 1% & B < B/ < 0-, B

=
= B 0-, ∠ ;K
∴ $ < < <8 ∠, - K(
= ,∠=, - K
I
∴ / " $/ < $ < × 8 < 74 :9 ?
φ < ;4
∴ % "% 0 ?
5 #! 7 & 2 ;55 0 +2
"79 E F 78# Ω -

=
2% & I < -, E ? - < -9 - ∠ 8 44K Ω
B/ < 0;; B 0 ?
. "G < B/$/ φ< × 0;; × 4 ;4 × 8 44K B(
< 9 >. $ ?
5 #! & + 4$ 2
2 +2 ;55 0 95 C(
5 6AA

2% & "
% < B / $/ φ
∴ ;;; < × 0;; × $/ × ; 844
∴ $/ < , (
) " $ < $/ < , (
B/ 0;;
B < < < ; 90 B

B ; 90
I < < < 04 -9 Ω
$ ,
φ < ; 844" φ < ;K" φ< ;,
∴ . ". < I φ < 04 -9 × ; 844 < 7= Ω ?
+ ! " # $

2 " J2 < I φ < 04 -9 × ; , < ;9, Ω

-
1 " J2 <
π2
-
∴ ;9, <
π × ,; × 2
∴ 2 "2 < 4: ;4 µ- ?
5 #! 9&. 2

2% &/ I "
φ
" B/ ) "
B/
0% " $( 1% & B <

B B/
$ < <
I I
B/
∴ $/ < $ <
I
B/
∴ " % < B/ $/ φ< B/ × × φ
I

B/ φ
< L $
I
0% " 6 ( 1% & B < B/
B B/
$ < <
I I
B/
∴ $/ < $ < ×
I
B/
∴ " % < B/ $/ φ< B/ × × φ
I

B/ φ
< L $$
I
! $ $$ "
% < %
5 #! :& +2 ;55 0 56
+; A; > "#
" # " # " # 2
! " # $

2% & / " B/ < 0;; B

0;;
∴ % "B < < ; 90 B

2 "$ < / " $/

< 0 40 (
% " φ < ;8
∴ φ < 4 87
=
= B ; 90 ∠ ;
$ "I < < < 4 47 ∠ 4 87
= 0 40 ∠ = 4 87
$
< 47 @ A 7 Ω ...
# "
. ". < 47 Ω ...
. " J/ < 7 Ω ...
"% < B/ $/ φ< × 0;; × 0 40 × ; 8 F
< < * >0 ...
"
G < B/ $/ φ< × 0;; × 0 40 × ; 4 B(
< 7 7 >. $ ...
5 #! ;& 2 2 755 4$ 4
65 +2φ 7755 0 95 C( -

2% & $( 1% &
"
%: < B/ $/ φ

∴ -;; × -; < × --;; × 8; × φ

∴ % "
φ < =9 9 %
B/ --;;
B "B < < < 4 ,-B

2 "$ < $/ < 8; (

% "φ < =- ; 4,4- < 08 997K
% ! " # $

∴ $ "
=
= B 4 , - ∠ ;K
I < <
= 8; ∠ 08 997K
$
< 7 9 88 ∠ = 08 997K < , - = ? , 99 Ω
∴ . "
. < * Ω
2 " J2 < , 99 Ω
∴ 2 "
- -
2 < <
π M J2 π × ,; × , 99
< 4 × =B7 - $ 4 µ-
6 ( 1% & F "
) "
"
%∆ < %: < × -;; < 4== >0
5 #! < & 79 Ω
5 5+ C "# " # +2 ;55 0 95 C(
/
2% & J/ < ω/ < π / < π × ,; × ; ; < 9 0 Ω
=
∴ I < . E ?J/ < -, E ? 9 0 < -7 7- ∠ - KΩ
% 0% " $( 1 % & B/ < 0;; B
B/ 0;;
B < < < ; 90 B

=
∴ B < ; 90 ∠ ;K B
=
= B ; 90 ∠ ;K
$ < < < - ;0 ∠ = - K(
= -7 7- ∠ - K
I
∴ / " $/ < $ < 4 =7
φ < - K < ; 807
∴ " %: < B/ $/ φ< × 0;; × - ;0 × ; 807
< :9 * 0 $ : 9 * >0
%% 0% " 6 ( 1% &
B < B/ < 0;; B
=
= B 0;; ∠ ;K
∴ $ < < < ,9 ∠ = - K(
= -7 7- ∠ - K
I
∴ / " $/ < $ < × ,9 < 4< 4
& ! " # $

φ < - K < ; 807

∴ "
%∆ < B/ $/ φ< × 0;; × 9 - × ; 807
< **<9* 0 $ ** <9* >0
5 #! =& +φ "+ E F;# Ω +φ ;;5 0
95 C( /
"# )
" # G
=
2% & +% & I < E ?0 Ω" B/ < 00; B" < ,; )'
=
I < E ?0 < , ∠ , - K Ω
B/ 00;
B < < < ,0 ; B

=
= B ,0 ; ∠ ;°
$ < < < ,; 8- ∠ = , - K (
= ,∠, - K
I
$/ < $ < ,; 8- (
% "
% < B/ $/ φ< × 00; × ,; 8- × , - K
< *4*44 0 ?
F φ" "
00; B ) "
"
"
=
I < E ?0 E E ?0 < 4 E ?8 < -; ∠ , - K Ω
=
= B 00; ∠ ;K
∴ $ < < < 00 ∠ = , - K (
= -; ∠ , - K
I
∴ % "
% < BM$M φ < 00; × 00 × , - K< 9 9 =4 0 ?
= , 8 ,
•

•
! " # $

• (
! !
!
• #

• $ #
" " "

, - , + (
$ ( 1 / "$ " 2!! #&
• 3/ < 3
" 3/ < / "
3 < % "
• $/ < $
" $/ < / "
$ < % "
• % < 3/ $/ φ
3/ < / "
$/ < / "
φ < %
$ ( 1 / "$ " &
• B/ < B
B/ < / "
B < % "
• $/ < $
$/ < / "
$ < % "
• % < B / $/ φ
B/ < / "
$/ < / "
φ < %
' ! " # $

6 ( 1 / "$ " 2!! #&

• 3/ < 3
3/ < / "
3 < % "
• $/ < $
$/ < / "
$ < % "
• % < 3/ $/ φ
" 3/ < / "
$/ < / "
φ < %
6 ( 1 / "$ " &
• B/ < B
B/ < / "
B < % "
• $/ < $
$/ < / "
$ < % "
• % < B / $/ φ
B/ < / "
$/ < / "
φ < %
!! $ ) $ , 1% ) $ $ 8 1 "$ " #&
• < B / $/
B/ < / "
$/ < / "
• G < B / $/ φ
B/ < / "
$/ < / "
φ <
•

•
! " #$ %&
#'&
•

• #$&
#%&
!" #

#φ&
• (
)

• *
φ

To A.C.Supply P S Load

!"# "! $%&" "

• "

' ( ) ) (
• , # &
# &
-
# .&

! "
# $%
$ !" #

• /
Conservator
H.V. Bushing

Explosion Vent L.V. Bushing

Buchholz
Cooling Tubes Relay

Breather
Tank with Oil

Winding and
Core Assembly

(*+ ! * " ," $ ! & &% ! !" *!,!* # $ ,+!$ "! $%&" "
! ! -( &"
• -
# & 0

•
1 23 13

•
4 4
• 2# & 4 4 0
2# & "

(a) (b)
' )""! &% .& $ !-.!* !# "$ &% ! ! & $
•
# 5 & -

* # 5 &

• ( *
% !" #

• 6

(a) (b) (c) (d)

/ %% " *"&$$ $ * & $ %&" + "! $%&" " 0$
! *! 1 !" 0 (21!" * $ ,, - &" *"1* %&" - ' $ ,, -
•
# % 7&
- $
•

• " !
6

• (

L.V.
H.V.
L.V.
H.V.
H.V.
L.V.
L.V.
(a) (b)
3 "! $%&" " 4 - $
! # -" *! %&" ! - *& * " * 0 (! -4 *+ #,
•

• "
#6 / & #0 / &
& !" #

"! $%&" " ! 5

• 8

• '

6 " ! 71$+ $
•

6 & $ "6! &"

• "

• 9

6 7" ! + "
•

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6 71*++& 8 !#
• "
!" #

• :

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6 9, &$ &
•
"

• "

/ : ( ) ( ; (
• :
;
# & '
# & %
# & -
! &" #, "! $%&" "$ # &
# &
Core L.V. Winding
L.V. Winding
φ

P S

H.V. Winding H.V. Winding

(a) (b)
&" #, "! $%&" "
$ 1 $+ ! 1" $ %
;
#&

# &

# & -
# &
# & %
# & 4
' !" #

0 (+ #, "! $%&" "$ <# &

<# &
$ 1 $+ ! 1" $ %
;
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# &
6/ 0/
0/
# &

Flux (f) L.V. Winding

H.V. Winding

Core

(a) (b)
< (+ #, "! $%&" "
# & % # &

# &

& ,!" $& 0 4 &" #, ! - (+ #, "! $%&" "$

• !

!0 & ,!" $& 0 4 &" #, ! - (+ #, "! $%&" "$

(" & !"! " &" #, "! $%&" " (+ #, "! $%&" "
! = ' '

.
6/
0/

2 0

…&
( !" #

5 = ( $

3 ( $ -

> 8 :

* 7 ""# #, "! $%&" "$ 7

Magnetic Core

H.V. Winding

L.V. Winding

= 7 ""# #, "! $%&" " ,! 6 4

$ 1 $+ ! 1" $
#&

# &
4 >

3 ; > ) ) ) ( ;
• " % # .& #$&
#φ&
• #%&

• -
) !" #

• =

=! ? =
=. ? =
φ ? (
? *
• @

•
φ * ? !A#5 &
φ φ
∴ , ? ? ? 5φ A
!A#5 &

φ = φm sin ωt
φm
Flux
0 π 2π
1/(4f)

Time
? ) *#* &% % 19 + "! $%&" " *&"
• )
, ? ,
φ
? 5φ # = ?= &

• %
=
>(%
? ? ! !! #> % 2 <&
,
∴>(%
? ! !! #, &
? ! !! × 5 φ
? 5 55 φ
• ∴>(%
8! ? #" A &×=
? 5 55 φ × =!
8! ? 5 55 φ =! # !&
• % >(%
8. ? 5 55 φ =. # .&
*+ !" #

) " ! 6 ; +&-
• * # !& # .&

• %
φ ? φ ω
• = )

φ
? B=

∴"
φ
? B # = ? !&

? B #φ ω& # φ?φ ω &

? Bωφ ω
π
? ωφ ω B # 2&
.
• C (
? ωφ
? .π φ # ω ? .π &
•
>(% ? 1 <1< #( &
>(%
? 1 <1< × .π φ
? 5 55 φ
• 6 >(% =!
8! ? 5 55 φ =!
>(% =.
8. ? 5 55 φ =.
9! , %' () ! ! ' '*+ "
,$' %* &

(& 1 & 8(
8! ? 5 55 φ =! ? 5 55 × 1 1.! × 31 × 5 1
? // 3 @) $
%
8(
8. ? 5 55 φ =. ? 5 55 × 1 1.! × 31 × 3.
? / / @) $
** !" #

9! , %' () -'' .%'

$,
,,' / 0
1 ! !
213
(& 1 & 8* # !&
8! ? 5 55 φ =!
8!
∴ φ ?
5 55 =!
%
551
φ ? ? 1 11
5 55 × 31 × 211
∴(
(
- ? .
=
1 11
?
5 × !1B5
? A' ) $
6
8. ? 5 55 φ =.
? 5 55 × 1 11 × 31 × <31
B AA ) $
9! , ' %' () ,4 /
+%' * !
(& 1 & 8! ? 5 55 φ =!
8!
∴ 8( ? 5 55 φ
=!
6 5 7 ? 5 55 × φ × 31
∴ φ ? 1 1.! .
φ 1 1.! .
∴ - ? ? ? // @) $
!31 × !1B5
) ) ) ( ) ) ( ;
• !1
φ
1 2

Load
V1 E1 P S E2 V2

A & ! ! - *1"" "! &$

* !" #

& ! ! &
• 0 =! =.
8! 8.

• * # !& # .&
8! ? 5 55 φ =!
8. ? 5 55 φ =.
8! =!
∴ ? # 5&
8. =.
• = /!
/. !1 #
&
/ . ? 8.
• , /!
* 8! /! ≈ 8! 6 8* # 5&
8! /! =!
? ? # 3&
8. /. =.

• , *
*
• (
D 8* # 3&
/. 8. =.
D ? ? ? # &
/! 8! =!
" DE! /. E /! "

" D F ! /. F /! "

" D ? ! /. ? /! C

1"" ! &
•

$ ? $
/ ! "! φ! ? /. ". φ. # $?/" φ&
"! ".
φ! φ.
*$ !" #

• - *

∴ / ! "! ? / . ".
"! /.
C ? # <&
". /!
• ' * # & # <&
/. "! =.
? ? ?D # 7&
/! ". =!

< ); ) ) ) ( ;
•

# &
• %

/
!

•
31 6 .31 /, !!11A.21 /
.31 /, .21 / 31 6
• /, ;
/. ". /! "!
/, ? ? # /. ". ? /! "!& # @&
!111 !111
/! /.
"! ".
"

+ ×
/ /
+ / 6 +''' /
*% !" #

9! , / %' / -''7*'
**'' / %' () & 0
!
(& 1 &
/. =.
# &% ?
/! =!
=.
∴ /. ? /! ×
=!
/! ? ..11 / =! ? 211 =. ? .1
.1
/. ? ..11 ×
211
? / < ) $
/! "! /. ".
# & /, ? ?
!111 !111
/, × !111
∴ "! ?
/!
/, ? 31 /! ? ..11 /
31 × !111
"! ? ? <' ) ) $
..11
%
/, × !111
". ?
/.
, /. ? !5 </
31 × !111
". ?
!5 <
? '/A ? ) ) $
/! ..11
, ". ? "! × ? .. <2 ×
/. !5 <
? '/A ? ) ) $
=! 211
C ". ? "! × ? .. <2 ×
=. .1
? '/A ? ) ) $
*& !" #

9! , 3 *'''7*'' / %' () ! !
*' " 3
(& 1 & 8! ? 5 55 φ =!
∴ .111 ? 5 55 × .1 × !1B2 × 31 × =!
∴ =
=! ? /3A ) $
8! =!
?
8. =.
∴ =
8. .11
=. ? × =! ? × 531
8! .111
? /3 ) $
, 8. ? 5 55 φ =.
∴ .11 ? 5 55 × .1 × !1B2 × 31 × =.
∴ =. ? /3 ) $
9! , $$''7**' / %' () +%''
3 0
#
2 ! ! +*
=. /.
(& 1 & ?
=! /!
/. ..1
∴ % =. ? × =! ? × !311 ? 3A @) $
/! 11
, 8! ? /! ? 5 55 φ =! ? 5 55 × #- × , & × × =!
∴ 11 ? 5 55 × #! . × , & × 31 × !311
∴ 8 , ? A A 3 $2 @) $
= ) ( ; (( (
•
# &
;
#& '
# &'
&,, " &$$ $
•
# &

• *
* !" #

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. .
? "! >! G ". >. # !1&
• *
* /,
•

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•

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• 4
%
#
&
;
!
6 $ ? D - # !!&
* -
D
0 --# 1"" &$$
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.
;8 $ ?D - . . # !.&
D
•

• , % .!
D D
$
# & *

• ,

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•

%
•
#1/.& * #8.&
• -

#
& C
# !!&
•
# !!&
•

Capacitive Load

Resistive Load
Secondary Inductive Load
Terminal
Voltage,
in volts

Load Current, in amperes

%% * &% + ! 1" &% + &!- & " 1! &

•
#1/. ? 8.& #/.&

1/.B /. 8. B /.
/ ? × !11 ? x !11 # !2&
1/. 8.
"
*( !" #

• /

9! , < 3
*%' / *-' /
'4
(& 1 &
#1/. B /.&
/ ? x !11
1/.

1/. ? .31 / /. ? .21 /

17
#.31 B .21&
? x !11
.31
? =, "* ) $
? %% * *# &% ! "! $%&" "
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$ ? $ B0 # !5&
• 6 # &

η&
# " "& "

• 6
C C
8 η ? × !11 ? × !11
" C G0
/ . ". φ
? × !11 # !3&
#/. ". φG$ G$ &
$ $
• " ".
φ

# &
8 ? × !11
# &G$ G$
# /,& × $
? × !11 # ! &
# /,& × $ G $ G $
*) !" #

• " # I &
# I & ? . I' ? . $

× # /,& × $
8 # × &? . × !11
× # /,& × $ G $ G $
# !<&
" .3J 1 .3 31 J
13
• " # &
*
@ @@ J
9! , = %' / **'' 7 **' / %' ()
-'' " ' ''% '% Ω
'4

(& 1 &
31 × !111
# & ? ? ..< .< ,
..1
..1
∴ ? ..< .< × ? .. <.< ,
..11
. .
∴ ? "! >! G ". >. ? #.. <.<&. × 1 3 G #..< .<&. × 1 113
? 3! 32
? 211 G 3! 32 ? 7! 32
? 1 7!<
C ? /, x ? 31 × 1 7 ? 51
" ? C G
? 51 G 1 7!< ? 51 7!<
C
∴ 8 ? × !11
"
51
? × !11
51 7!<
? ?= , " * ) $
# &% *
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∴ ? !.@ !2 G 211 ? 5.@ !2 # " &
? 1 5.@
+ !" #

= ? .1
" ? .1 G 1 5.@ ? .1 5.@
.1
∴ 8 ? × !11
.1 5.@
? ?< ? , " * ) $
, ? 13
× # /,& × $
8 ? . × !11
× # /,& × $ G $ G $
1 3 × #31 × !12& × 1 7
? × !11
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? ?< ? , " * ) $
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C ;
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,

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-'
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I1
A A I2

I1 I2
Load
B I2 I1
V1 N1 B V2
Load
I2–I1 V1 I1–I2
N2 V2 N 1 N2

I1 C I2 I1 C I2
(a) (b)
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%
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Toroidal Sliding
Core Contact C
S
B
B
A.C.Input
Voltage

D S D
(V1)

Stopper Output V1
A V2
Voltage (V2)

E A E
(a) (b)

' ( ,+!$ 6!" !*

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