California Standards

History-Social Science
7.10 Students analyze the historical developments ofthe Scien-
tific Revolution and its lasting effect on religious, political, and
cultural institutions.

English-Language Arts
Speaking 7.2.4b Describe the points in support of the argument
and employ well-articulated evidence.
Reading 7.2.0 Students read and understand grade-level-
appropriate material.

A Defense One of Europe's greatest scientists, Galileo

Galilei, has been arrested and is being put on trial for
contradicting Church teachings. You think he's innocent,
and you've been hired to defend Galileo to the court. As
you read this chapter, you will gather information that you
ca_n use to give a short speech in the scientist's defense.

Copernicus
publishes
his theory of
CHAPTER the sun-centered
EVENTS solar system.

WORLD
EVENTS
 If YOU were there ...
Main Ideas You are a student in Germany in the early 1500s. You love to
1. The Scientific Revolution watch the changing phases of the moon and draw the star pat-
marked the birth of modern
science. terns at different times of year. You've asked your teachers many
2. The roots of the Scientific questions: Why does the moon hang in the sky? Why do the stars
Revolution can be traced to
ancient Greece, the Muslim move? But their answers don't seem convincing to you.
world, and Europe.
-,. -. How can you find the answers to your questions?
The Big Idea
Europeans drew on earlier
ideas to develop a new way of
gaining knowledge about the BUILDING BACKGROUND In the 1500s, Europe was undergoing
natural world. dramatic changes. The Renaissance was well under way. During the
Renaissance, great advances were made in art, writing, and educa-
.I
Key Terms and People tion. The stage was set for another revolution in thinking.
Scientific Revolution, p. 354
science, p. 355
theories, p. 355
Ptolemy, p. 356
The Birth of Modern Science
rationalists, p. 356 During the 1500s and 1600s, a handful of brilliant individuals
alchemy, p. 357 laid the foundations for science as we know it today. <;orne his-
torians consider the development of modern scien\..e the most
important event in the intellectual history of humankind.

A Revolution in Thinking
The series of events that led to the birth of modern science is
called the Scientific Revolution. It occurred between-about 1540
and 1700. Why would the birth of science be called a "revolu-
tion"? The answer is that science was a radical new idea. It was a
completely different way of looking at the world.
Before the Scientific Revolution, most educated people who
studied the world took guidance from the explanations given by
authorities like ancient Greek writers and Catholic Church offi-
7.10.1 Discuss the roots of
the Scientific Revolution (e.g., Greek cials. After the Scientific Revolution, educated people placed more
rationalism; Jewish, Christian, and importance on what they observed and less on what they" were
Muslim science; Renaissance human-
ism; new knowledge from global
told. They gained knowledge by observing the world around them
exploration). and coming up with logical explanations for what they saw.

354· CHAPTER 13
Understanding Science As you can see, scientific knowledge is
Science is a particular way of gaining knowl- based on observations, facts, and logical
edge . about the world. In fact, the word ideas, or theories, about them. Before the
science comes from a Latin word meaning Scientific Revolution, this method of gain-
"knowledge" or "understanding." ing knowledge was uncommon.
Science starts with observation. Sci-
Finding Main Ideas What
entists observe, or look at, the world. By
was the Scientific Revolution?
observing the world they can identify facts
about it. A famous scientist once said, "Sci-
ence is built up with facts, as a house is with Roots of the Revolution
stones. But a collection of facts is no more
a science than a pile of stones is a house." Some of the main ideas of science had
So scientists do more than identify been expressed long before the Scientific
facts. They use logic to explain the facts Revolution. In fact, some of the basic ideas
they have observed. The explanations sci- of science are ancient.
entists develop based on these facts are
called theories. Greek Thinkers
Theories are not accepted on faith. Many Greek thinkers expressed ideas that,
They must be tested to see if they are true. today, we would call scientific. The great
Scientists design experiments to test their philosopher Aristotle, for example, wrote
theories. If the experiments keep showing about astronomy, geography, and many
that the theory makes sense, the theory is other fields. But his greatest contribution ACADEMIC
kept. If the experiments do not support the to science was the idea that people should VOCABULARY
logical
theory, scientists try a new theory. In this observe the world carefully and draw reasoned, well
way, scientists learn more about the world. logical conclusions about what they see. thought out

Philosophers like Plato and

Aristotle used reason and logic
to understand the world.

Pythagoras studied
numbers and
believed that things
could be predicted
and measured.
 Scholars of
lhree Faiths
• Muslim preser-
vation and study
of ancient texts
• Jewish study of
Greek ideas and
religion
• Christian study
of Greek ideas
and religion
Greek Ideas
• Importance of observation, logic,
and rational thought
• Basic theories about astronomy,
geography, and mathematics

THE GRANGER COLLEGION, NEW YORK

The use of observation and logic, as you into Latin, which was read in Europe. This
have just read, is important in gaining sci- work preserved ancient knowledge and
entific knowledge. spread interest in science to Europe . . .
Another Greek thinker was Ptolemy Other religious scholars also played a ·
(TAHL-uh-mee), an ancient astronomer. He role in preserving Greek ideas. The Jewish
studied the skies, recorded his observations, scholar Maimonides (my-MAHN-uh-deez)
, and offered theories to explain what he saw. studied and wrote about Aristotle, trying
Ptolemy was also a geographer who made to unite his work with Jewish ideas. The
the best maps of his time. His maps were Christtan scholar Thomas Aquinas tried
based on observations of the real world. to unite the work of Aristotle with Chris-
Aristotle, Ptolemy, and other Greek tian ideas. Other Christian scholars studied
thinkers were rationalists, people who Greek ideas in Europe's universities.
looked at the world in a rational, or reason-
able and logical, way. During the Renais- Developments in Europe
sance, Europeans studied the works of The Scientific Revolution was not just
Greek rationalists. As a result, they began the result of European scholars studying
to view the world in a rational way. They ancient Greek writings. J?evelopments in
began to think like scientists. .Europe also helped bring about the Scien-
tific Revolution.
Preserving Ancient Knowledge One development that helped lead to
European scholars could study ancient the Scientific Revolution was the growth
Greek writings because of the work of oth- of humanism during the Renaissance.
ers. Muslim scholars translated Greek writ- Humanist artists and writers spent much
ings into Arabic. They studied them for of their time studying the natural world .
. centuries and added their own new ideas. This interest in the natural ·world carried
Later, the Arabic versions were translated forward into the Scientific Revolution. ·

356 CHAPTER 13
 Renaissance
Humanism
• Emphasis on
Greek and
Roman ideas
• Focus on the
importance
of education
and learning

Knowledge of Exploration
• Better understanding of the true
size and shape of the world
• Increase in knowledge
• Developme.n t of new technologies

Another development was a growing

·interest in alchemy (AL-kuh-mee). Alchemy
was a forerunner of chemistry. Alchemists
experimented with various natural sub-
stances. They were best known for trying
to change other metals into gold. Although Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People lim 7.10.1
they failed at that, alchemists succeeded 1. a. Define What is science?
in using experiments to learn more about b. Explain Why was the Scientific Revoluf.on important
in world history?
how nature worked.
c. Elaborate What might cause scientists to reject a
All of these developments-the inter- theory?
est in ancient Greek writings, the growth 2. a. Identify Who was Ptolemy?
of humanism, the experiments of alche- b. Analyze What qualities did Greek rationalists have?
mists-came together in the early 1500s to c. Elaborate Why might alchemists have thought they
bring about the Scientific Revolution. could turn other metals into gold?

Critical Thinking
READING CHECK Understanding Cause and
3. Identifying Cause and Effect
Effect How did Greek rationalism help lead to Draw a graphic organizer ,....-ca-us_e.. . ,l
the Scientific Revolution? like the one here. In the • ,___ _,
boxes to the left, identify Scientific
, - - - - - - - - - t M Revolution
four causes of the
Scientific Revolution.
SUI111ARY AND PREVIEW The Scientific
Revolution was the birth of modern
science. Greek, Muslim, and European
4. Explaining Science As part of your defense of Galileo,
thought all contributed to its beginning. • you'll probably need to explain what science is·. Look back
Next you will read about specific events through this section and take some notes that you might
of the Scientific Revolution. use to explain the basic principles of science.

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

 If YOU were there ...
Main Ideas You are an innkeeper in Spain in 1498. Many of the guests who
1. The discovery of the Ameri- stay at your inn are sailors. Today they are telling stories about a
cas led scholars to doubt
ancient Greek ideas. vast new land filled with strange peoples, plants, and animals. No
2. Advances in astronomy were one had ever thought such a land really existed before.
key events of the Scientific
Revolution. How does this news change your view of the world'!
3. Sir Isaac Newton developed
laws that explained much of
the natural world.
4. New inventions helped scien- fff''P·_,, ;' .1 --- -'"-"'·

tists study the natural world. BUILDING BACKGROUND During the Scientific Revolution
-
.-------- advances in science allowed people to discover new lands and to
build new machines. Some of these new machines allowed people
The Big Idea
During the Scientific Revolu- to study the world in ways they had never been able to before.
tion, new ideas and inventions
changed the nature of knowl-
edge. Discovery Leads to Doubt
During the Renaissance, European scholars eagerly read and
Key Terms and People studied the works of Greek rationalists. Aristotle, Ptolemy, and
Nicolaus Copernicus, p. 359 others were viewed as authorities.
Tycho Bra he, p. 360
Johannes Kepler, p. 360
Galileo Galilei, p. J61
Sir Isaac Newton, p. 362
barometer, p. 363 ·

[4;1
lim 7.10.2 Understand
the significance of the new
scientific theories {e.g., those
of Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler,
Newton) and the significance
of new inventions {e.g., the
telescope, microscope, ther-
mometer, barometer).

358 CHAPTER 13
 Then an event took place that caused Advances in Astronomy
Europeans to doubt some of what the
In 1543 an astronomer publish ed a book
Greeks had said. In 1492, Christopher
that contradicted wh at a Greek authority
Columbus sailed west across the Atlantic
had written. Many historians think the
Ocean in hopes of reaching Asia. As a guide,
publication of this book marks the begin- .
he took the map of the world that Ptolemy
ning of the Scientific Revolution.
had created. Columbus never reached Asia
because he ran into North America instead. Nicolaus Copernicus
Within a few years voyages of exploration
The book thought to have marked the
made it clear that there was an entire con-
beginning of the Scientific Revolution was
tinent that Europeans hadn't even known
written by a Polish astronomer, Nicolaus
existed.
Copernicus (kuh-PUHR-ni-kuhs). His 1543
This discovery stunned Europeans.
book was called On the Revolution of the
This continent was not on Ptolemy's map.
Celestial Spheres.
Ptolemy was wrong. Observation of the
Copernicus was familiar with Ptolemy's
real world had disproved the teachings
theories and writings. Ptolemy had writ-
of an ancient authority. Soon, European
ten that the earth was the center of the
scholars began to question the accuracy of
universe and that the sun and other plan-
other Greek authorities. More and more,
et--s orbited, or circled around, the earth.
observations the Europeans made did not
For 1,400 years, people accepted this belief
fit with what the authorities had described.
as fact.
Such observations helped lead to the
Scientific Revolution.

Identifying Cause
and Effect How did the dis-
covery of America affect the Scientific
Revolution? Nicolaus Copemicus
1473-1543
Nicolaus Copernicus realized that
sharing his revolutionary ideas
about the universe could be dan-
gerous. He feared persecution
or even death at the hands
of Church leaders. He was
also worried that the scientific
community would reject his
theories. Eventually, he was per-
suaded to publish his theories,
and the "Copernican system"
became a landmark discovery of
the Scientific Revolution.

Making Decisions If you were

Nicolaus Co pernicus would you
have published your theories?
Why or why not?
 As Copernicus studied the movements with a different idea-a different theory-
of the planets, however, what Ptolemy to explain what he observed. Copernicus
stated made less and less sense to him. If never proved his theory, but the Scientific
the planets were indeed orbiting the earth, Revolution had begun.
they would have to be moving in very
complex patterns. Bra he and Kepler
So Copernicus tried a different expla- Another important astronomer of the Sci-
nation for what he observed in the sky. entific Revolution was Tycho Brahe (TYOO-
Copernicus asked, What if the planets actu- koh BRAH-huh). Brahe, who was Danish,
ally orbited the sun? Suddenly, complex spent most of his life observing the stars.
patterns weren't necessary to make sense In the late 1500s, he charted the positions
of what Copernicus observed. Instead, of more than 750 of them.
simple circular orbits would account for What Brahe did, however, was less
the planets' movements. important than how he did it. Brahe empha-
What Copernicus had done was prac- sized the importance of careful observa-
tice science. Instead of trying to make his tion and detailed, accurate records. Careful
observations fit an old idea, he came up recording of information is necessary so that
other scientists can use what has previously
been learned. In this way, Brahe made an
important contribution to modern science.
Brahe was assisted by the German
astronomer Johannes Kepler. Later, Kepler
tried to map the orbits of the planets. But
Kepler ran into a problem. According to
his observations, the planet Mars did not
move in a circle as he expected it to.
Kepler knew that Copernicus had stat-
ed that the orbits of the planets were circu-
lar. But Kepler's observations showed that
Copernicus was mistaken. In 1609 Kepler
wrote that Mars-and all other planets-
moved in elliptical, or oval, orbits instead
of circular ones. Here was a new theory that
fit the observed facts . Kepler's work helped
Kepler demonstrated
that planets move in
elliptical orbits.

elliptical, not circular, orbits.

• Planets move faster when they are

closer to the sun.

• The human eye sees images reversed,

like a camera.

360
prove Copernicus's theory that the planets Galileo was interested in more than
orbit the sun. In fact, Kepler became one of astronomy, however. He also was inter-
the first scientists to speak out in support
of Copernicus.
Kepler continued to study the planets
for the rest of his life. His basic ideas about
the planets' movements are still accepted
l ested in such things as how falling objects
behave. Today, we use the term mechanics
the study of objects and motion.
Galilee's biggest contribution to the
development of science was the way he Astronomers still
study Kepler's
by scientists today. learned about mechanics. Instead of just
ideas, which they
observing things in nature, he set up call his laws of
Galileo Galilei experiments to test what he observed. Gal- planetary motion.
Galileo Galilei (gal-uh-LEE-oh gal-uh-LAY) ilea was the first scientist to routinely use
was one of the most important scientists of experiments to test his theories. For this,
the Scientific Revolution. He was the first he is remembered as the father of experi-
person to study the sky with a telescope. mental science.
With his telescope, Galileo discovered cra-
ters and mountains on the moon. He also Summarizing Whatwere
"tJJ:!"111'"•?"?1'-
discovered that moons orbit Jupiter. two major achievements in astronomy?
r

Primary Source

LETTER
Galileo Defends His Work
In 1613, Galileo (1564-1642) wrote a letter to the Grand Duchess Christina of Tus-
cany, the mother of the great banker Cosima de' Medici. In this letter, he defended
himself against attackers who claimed that his ideas went against church teach-
ings. Galileo opened his letter with an explanation of his discoveries.

II Some years ago, as Your Serene Highness well

knows, I discovered in the heavens many things that
Galileo points out .,t,.. had not been seen before our own age. The novelty
that many people [newness] of these things, as well as some conse-
are unhappy with quences which followed from them in contradiction
his discoveries [contrast] to the physical notions [ideas] commonly
simply because
held among academic philosophers, stirred up
they are new.
' against me no small number of professors-as if
I had placed these things in the sky with my own
Galileo defends hands in order to upset nature and overturn the
his discoveries by
sciences. They seemed to forget that the increase
pointing out that
God created the of known truths stimulates [encourages] the in-
heavens. Humans vestigation, establishment, and growth of the arts;
can only study what not their diminution [decrease] or destruction.l l
God put there.
-from A Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina
of Tuscany from Go/ilea 7675

How does Galileo justify his search for knowledge?

Galileo studied the sky and

performed experiments to learn
about motion mechanics.
 Sir Isaac Newton One of Newton's laws is called the law
of gravity. You may know that gravity1s the
The high point of the Scientific Revolu-
force that attracts objects to each other. It's
tion was marked by the publication of a
the force that makes a dropped apple fall
remarkable book. This book, published in
to the -ground and that keeps the planets
1687, was Principia Mathematica. Its author
in orbit around the sun.
was the English scientist Sir Isaac Newton.
Newton's other three laws are called the
Newton was one of the greatest and most
laws of motion. They describe how objects
influential scientists wl;lo ever lived.
move in space. You may have heard of one
Newton studied and simplified the
work of earlier scientists. In doing so, he:
of them: "For every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction."
..
• reviewed everything scientists had been Newton proposed that the universe was
learning, like a huge machine. Within this machine,
• coupled it with his own observations all objects follow the laws he identified. In
and ideas, and short, Newton explained how the physical
• identified four theories that described world worked-and he was correct. New-
how the physical world worked. ton's laws became the foundation of nearly
all scientific study until the 1900s.
Some of his theories have been proven so
Newton also invented calculus, an
many times that they are no longer called
advanced form of mathematics that sci-
theories, but laws.
entists use to solve complex problems. For
this, and for his laws of motion, Newton is
remembered as a great scientist.
'
• .,,,,.w ..•,,, .• Summarizing Why are
Newton's theories called laws?

Sir Isaac
Newton
1642-1727
Sir Isaac Newton was
interested in learning
about the nature of
light, so he conducted a
series of experiments. In
Newton's time, most peo-
ple assumed that light was
white. Newton proved, however,
that light is actually made up of all of
the colors of the rainbow. His research
on light became the basis for his inven-
• tion of the reflecting telescope-the
of telescope found in most large
observatories today.

Summarizing What did Newton

prove about the nature of light? Newton's discoveries explained how the
force of gravity pulls the moon toward the .
earth, keeping it in orbit around our planet

362 CHAPTER 13
New Inventions These instruments-the
microscope, the thermom-
During the Scientific Revolution, scientists
eter, the telescope, and the
invented new and better instruments. These
barometer-are very com-
helped them study the natural world.
mon today. In fact, you have
Around . 1590, a Dutch lens maker
probably used at least one
named Zacharias Janssen invented a simple
of them yourself. But when
microscope. The first to use a micro-
they were invented, they
scope as a scientific instrument, though,
were dramatic advances in
was the Dutch scientist Antoni van Leeu-
technology. They gave scien-
wenhoek (LAY-ven-hook) in the mid-1600s.
tists the tools they needed to
Examining a drop of pond water with his
make more accurate obser-
microscope, he saw tiny plants and ani-
vations of the world and to
mals not visible to the naked eye.
conduct experiments. They
In 1593, Galileo invented the ther-
were the tools of the Scien-
mometer. Thermometers are used to mea-
tific Revolution.
sure temperature. About 50 years later an
Italian doctor developed a more accurate I ;j I•,.HHili i' n:t Comparing
model than Galileo's. How are the microscope and the
The telescope was probably invented telescope similar?
by a Dutch lens maker in 1608. The next
year, Galileo built a much-improved tele-
scope that he used to make his important SUMMARY AND PREVIEW The work of
astronomical discoveries. Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, and
In 1643, the Italian scientist Evange- Newton was central to the Scientific
lista Torricelli invented the barometer. Revolution. In the next section, you will
A barometer is a scientific instrument that learn more about the effects of these
measures air pressure. Barometers are used scientists' accomplishments on society
to help forecast the weather. then and now.

Section 2 Assessment

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People Gm 7.10.2 Critical Thinking

1. a. Recall What event caused Europeans to doubt 5. Comparing and Contrasting Draw a diagram like
the ideas of ancient Greek authorities? the one below. Describe each individual's view of
b. Explain How did the doubting of Greek author- how the universe is organized.
ities help usher in the Scientific Revolution? · Scientist Ptolemy Copernicus Kepler
2. a. Identify Who was Galileo? View
b. Summarize How did Copernicus and Kepler
change people's view of the universe?
3. a. Identify For what laws is Isaac Newton most
famous? 6. Noting Galileo's Achievements Now that you've
b. Evaluate Why do you think Newton is consid- read about Galileo, make a list of some of his
ered the greatest figure of the Scientific Revolu- major achievements. Then look back at your defini-
tion? ton of science from Section 1. How do Galileo's
4. Define What is a barometer? achievements match the basic goals of science?

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

 If YOU were there ...
Main Ideas You are a scientist conducting an experiment about falling objects.
1. The ideas of Francis Bacon You stand at the base of a tall tower, watching as two of your
and Rene Descartes helped
to clarify the scientific method. assistants drop balls from the top. The balls are the same size,
2. Science influenced new ideas but one is made of iron and one of wood. The iron ball is much
about government.
3. Science and religion devel- heavier, so you think that it will hit the ground f1rst. But to your
oped a sometimes uneasy surprise, the two balls appear to hit the ground at the same time!
relationship.
You begin to think that all items will fall at the same speed.

The Big Idea How could you test your new theory?
The Scientific Revolution led to
the establishment of science as
a method of learning, new ideas
about government, and conflict T

with religious authorities. BUILDING BACKGROUND The great scientists of the Scientific
Revolution were pioneers. Even as they made great discoveries, sci- '
Key Terms and People entists like the one described here had to find ways to explain what
Francis Bacon, p. 364 they had learned and how it could affect society.
Rene Descartes, p. 365 =

scientific method, p. 365

hypothesis, p. 366
Bacon, Descartes, and the Scientific Method 1
The Scientific Revolution led to a dramatic change in the way
people learned about the world. The new, scientific way of gain-
ing knowledge had far-reaching effects. In fact, the Scientific
Revolution still affects us today. 1
The first effect of the Scientific Revolution was the establish- J
ment of science as the most effective way for learning about the
natural world. Two indiViduals played a leading role in gaining
this acceptance of science.
I
Francis Bacon
lim 7.10.3 Understand the sci- Francis Bacon was an English philosopher who had read the
entific method advanced by Bacon
works of the great scientists of the Scientific Revolution. He was
I
and Descartes, the influence of new
scientific rationalism on the growth extremely impressed with what he read. He noted how these
of democratic ideas, and the coex-
scientists, using observations, facts, experiments, and theories,
istence of science with traditional
religious beliefs. were revealing the truth about how nature worked.

364 CHAPTER 13
 • Scientists should observe the world and gather • Doubt everything until it can be proven with reason.
data, or information, about it. • The natural world operates like a machine and
• Scientists can conduct experiments to gather data. follows basic physical laws.
• Scientists can develop theories to explain their data • Individual existence is the one acceptable truth.
and then test them through more experiments. "I think, therefore I

The Scientific Method

The ideas of Bacon and Descartes led to the scientific method-
a method for gathering and testing ideas about the world.

Bacon argued that science should be most European scholars had been support-
pursued in a systematic fashion. He even ing for generations. They believed knowl-
tried to get the king of England to provide edge begins with faith; Descartes said it
money for scientific research. If science begins with doubt.
were pursued consistently and logically, Descartes didn't just mean that obser-
Bacon wrote, then human knowledge vations and experiments were needed for
would continually advance over the years. this proof. These things, he said, took place
In 1605, Bacon published his ideas in a in the material world, and people might be
book titled The Advancement of Learning. tricked by their senses. Instead, Descartes
emphasized that people must use clear
Rene Descartes thinking and reason to establish proof.
Another thinker who made great contribu-
tions to the establishment of science was The Scientific Method ACADEMIC
the French philosopher Rene Descartes Today scientists use a procedure called VOCABULARY
(ruh-NAY day-CART). the scientific method when doing their
a senes of steps
Descartes believed that nothing should research. The scientific method is a step-by- taken to accom-
be accepted as true if it wasn't proven to step method for performing experiments plish a task
be true. This differed from the belief that and other scientific research.

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION -365

 Science in School
If you have performed an experiment in science class,
then you've seen the scientific method at work. Here,
students are performing an experiment to learn about
falling objects.
Students and scientists still use the scientific method
because it helps them rationally solve problems. They
conduct experiments to test their hypotheses. If their
experiments don't produce the results they expect,
they change their hypotheses and start over. Only after
getting the same results time after time do scientists
consider their findings conclusive.

How does the scientific method help scientists

solve problems?

The scientific method combines Bacon's from a theory in that a hypothesis has
idea of a systematic scientific process, Des- not yet been tested.
cartes's insistence on proof and clear rea- 4. Testing the hypothesis by performing
soning, and the work of other scientists. experiments.
Using the scientific method, scientists have 5. Recording and analyzing data gathered
learned more about the universe in the few from the experiments.
hundred years since the Scientific Revolu- 6. Drawing conclusions from the data
tion than in all of the thousands of years collected.
that came before. Because of this, the basics After scientists have concluded their exper-
of the scientific method-observation and iments, they typically publish their results.
ACADEMIC experimentation-are considered the main This sharing of ideas is very important for
VOCABULARY principles of modern science. two reasons . .
principles basic There are six basic steps in the scientific
beliefs, rules, or First, publishing results lets other scien-
laws method: tists try to reproduce the experiments. By
reproducing experiments, scientists can
1. Stating the problem. The problem is
determine whether the results are the same.
often a question that begins with why.
If they are, they can be reasonably sure that
For example, Copernicus's problem
the results are accurate.
today would be stated, "Why do the
Second, publishing results spreads scien-
planets move as they do?"
tific knowledge. New scientific knowledge
2. Gathering information. This can involve
builds on previous knowledge. Sir Isaac New-
reading what other scientists have writ-
ton once wrote, "If I have seen further it is by
ten and making observations.
standing on the shoulders of Giants."
3. Forming a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a
solution that the scientist proposes to Sequencing What are the
solve the problem. A hypothesis differs steps in the scientific method?

366 CHAPTER 13
Science and Government Democratic Ideas
Some of the most important effects of the One way in which scientists thought they
Scientific Revolution had nothing to do could improve society was by changing
with science at all. When philosophers its government. Scientists' use of reason
began applying scientific thought to other and logic during the Scientific Revolution
areas of human life, they came up with helped pave the way for the beginnings of
some startling new ideas. democratic thought in Europe.
As scientists like Sir Isaac Newton stud-
The Power of Reason ied the world, they discovered laws that
By the end of the Scientific Revolution, one governed nature. In time, some scientists
thing had become clear to many European began to think that there must be laws that
thinkers: human reason, or logical thought, governed human behavior as well. Once
was a powerful tool. After all, scientists using people learned what these laws were, the
reason had made many discoveries about scientists argued, they could improve their
the universe in a relatively short time. lives and their societies.
Since reason had proven itself as a way But the idea that people's lives were
to learn some of nature's great secrets, might governed by laws had a deeper meaning
reason also be used to solve the problems as well. If all people were governed by the
facing people? Philosophers decided to same laws, then it stood to reason that
use reason when they considered society's all people must be equal. This idea of the
problems like poverty and war, or what equality of all people was a fundamental
type of government is. best. step in the development of democratic
This use of reason to consider the prob- ideas in Europe.
lems of society led philosophers to look
at the world in a new way. They thought Identifying Cause and Effect
they could use reason to determine how to How did the growth of science help lead to the
improve society. growth of democratic ideas?

These beliefs led people . 1

to call for personal free- .
dom, individual rights, M
and equality-basic
ideas of democracy. ,,

Political thinkers believed that natural laws

could also explain the behavior of people.
They wanted to use their understanding of
human behavior to improve society.

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 367

 Science and Religion to doubt key elements of the faith. Church
officials feared this would undermine the
The Roman Catholic Church was a pow-
Church's influence.
erful force in Europe during the time of
the Scientific Revolution. The birth and The Trial of Galileo
growth of science led to conflicts between The conflict between science and the
scientists and the Church. Church was illustrated by a trial. Galileo
published a book that supported the view
Reason for Conflict that the planets orbit the sun. For this,
Focus oN There were two related parts to the conflict he was put on trial by the Inquisition, a
READING
between science and the Church. The first Church court that investigated people who
What sentences
point to a was that the new science was putting forth questioned Church authority.
contrast between ideas that contradicted Church teach- Catholic officials insisted that Gali-
scientific and
ings. For example, Copernicus's idea that leo publicly reject his findings and accept
religious ideas?
the earth orbited the sun contradicted the Catholic teachings that the earth was the
Church teaching that the earth was at the center of the universe and did not move.
center of the universe. Under threat of torture, Galileo agreed. Still,
A second part of the conflict was relat- legend has it that as Galileo left his trial, he
ed to the first. When people contradicted muttered, "And yet it does move."
the Church's teachings, they weakened the Although he is remembered for )
Church. Church officials were afraid that opposing this Church teaching, Galileo
questioning even one Church teaching was a devout Catholic. He believed that
might lead to more and more questions experimentation was a search for an
about the Church. People might even start understanding of God's creation.

368 CHAPTER 13
 touches your life every day. Therefore, the
Scientific Revolution ranks as one of the
most influential events in history.

= v ?nl"tlt ••• , , , , . Analyzing Why were

science and the Catholic Church at odds during
the Scientific Revolution?

SUrlriARY AND PREVIEW The scientific

method became the standard method
for all scientific study. New philosophies
n.e painting at left shows Galileo
defending himself before Church offi- based on scientific thinking would later
cials. Still, Galileo and other scientists influence government. However, scien-
were deeply religious, like the Italian tific teachings would sometimes conflict
monk and mathematician above.
with religious teachings. In the next unit,
you will turn your attention away from
Europe and learn about the early civiliza-
tions of the Americas.

Knowledge and Belief

Many of the scientists you have been read-
ing about held views similar to Galileo's.
For the scientists of the Scientific Revo- Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People lim 7.10.3
lution, science and traditional religious 1. a. Define What is the scientific method?
b. Explain Why did Francis Bacon want the king to fund
beliefs could exist at the same time.
scientific research?
Nicolaus Copernicus served as a Church 2. a. Identify What type of government began to develop
official. Sir Isaac Newton saw a close con- using ideas from the Scientific Revolution?
nection between science and religion. For b. Draw Conclusions Why did political philosophers
example, Newton believed that all forces begin to make greater use of reason in their work?
in nature were actions directed by God. l. a. Recall Why did the Inquisition put Galileo on trial?
Bacon, too, was a religious man. He b. Summarize What caused conflict between science and
the Roman Catholic Church?
wrote that knowledge "is a rich storehouse
for the glory of the Creator." Unlike New- Critical Thinking
ton, Bacon stressed the separation of reason
and faith. He argued that religious leaders
4. Understanding Cause and Effect
Copy the diagram. Identify / b.
shouldn't try to explain scientific matters.
In turn, he said that scientific thinkers
effects of the Scientific
Revolution. Add as many
arrows and circles as you need.
0 0 ,."·
·.
'

shouldn't try to interpret religious matters.

Despite the conflicts, science developed
rapidly after the Scientific Revolution.
5. Planning Your Defense In this section, you read about
Scientists made-and continue to make- the Church's objections to Galilee's ideas. How might you
countless discoveries. Scientific knowledge argue against those objections? Look back over your notes
has changed human life dramatically and from the previous two sections to get some ideas.

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 369

Analyzing Tables
8 Study the information. Note the numbers in
each row and column. Read across rows and
Like graphs, tables present numerical data. The data down columns.
are usually listed side by side for easy reference and
comparison. A table is especially useful for organiz- 0 Use critical thinking skills to compare and
ing several different categories of data. Since the contrast numbers, identify cause-and-effect
data in each row or column are related, you can eas- relationships, and note statistical trends. Form
ily compare numbers and see relationships. hypotheses and draw conclusions.

Follow these guidelines to read and analyze a table. The table below provides information on planets in
0 Read the table's title to determine its subject. All the solar system. Interpret the table to answer the
the data presented in the table will be related in following questions.
some way to this subject. 1 . Which planets were unknown to Kepler, Galileo,
f) Identify the data. Note the headings and labels and other scientists of the 1500s and 1600s?
of the table's columns and rows. This will tell 2. What relationship does the table show between
you how the data are organized. A table may the length of a planet's year and its distance
also contain notes in parentheses. These explain from the sun?
the units in which the data should be read. 3. Why did Pluto remain undiscovered for so long?

Planets of the Solar System

Planet I When Diameter Minimum distance Distance from length of
discovered I (in miles) I from Earth (in millions Sun (in millions year (in Earth
of miles) of miles) years)
Mercury ancient times 3,024 57 36 0.24
Venus ancient times 7,504 26 67 0.62
Earth 7,909 93 1.00
Mars I ancient times 4,212 49 141 ·1.88
Jupiter I ancient times 88,534 390 482 11.86
Saturn I prehistoric times 74,400 792 885 29.46
Uranus I 1781 32,488 1,687 1,780 84.01
Neptune 1846 31,279 2,695 2,788 164.80
Pluto 1930 1,364 3,573 3,666 247.70
C· ---===---·--·------- -·

370 CHAPTER 13
 Standards Review
Use the visual summary below to help you review
the main ideas of the chapter.

The roots of the Scientists like The ideas of

Scientific Copernicus and Bacon and
Revolution Newton made Descartes helped
included Greek important create the
and Muslim discoveries about scientific method.
science, the universe.
Renaissance
humanism, and
world exploration.

Reviewing Vocabulary, Comprehension and

Terms, and People Critical Thinking
Complete each sentence by filling in the blank with the SECTION 1 (Pages 354-357) em 7.10.1
correct term from the chapter. 8. a. Recall When did the Scientific Revolution
1. In science, a logical explanation for observed occur?
facts is called a(n) _ _ _ _ . b. Analyze How did Muslim scholars contribute
2. Greek used logic and reason to to the Scientific Revolution?
explain what they observed in nature. c. Evaluate Do you agree or disagree with the
3. The first scientist to argue that the planets statement that the Scientific Revolution was the
orbited the sun was _ _ __ single most important event in the intellectual
4. put forth important theories in his history of humankind? Why?
book, Principia Mathematica. SECTION 2 (Pages 358-363) em 7.10.2
5. The is a set of steps that scientists 9. a. Describe What was Nicolaus Copernicus's
follow. theory about the planets and the sun?
6. One important invention of the Scientific Revo- b. Compare and Contrast How were Coperni-
lution was the , an instrument that cus's and Kepler's theories about the movement
measures air pressure. of the planets similar? How were they different?
7. believed that nothing should be c. Elaborate Choose one invention from the
accepted as true if it wasn't proven to be true. Scientific Revolution and explain how it affects
your life.

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

-:- -r.c- .,......,.,. ::o.-.c·.. -- ....d!a! , ··

SECTION 3 (Pages 364-369) lim 7.10.3 Reviewing Themes

10. a. Describe How did the Scientific Revolution
14. Science and Technology How do you know the
help inspire democratic ideas?
earth orbits the sun? Did you gain that knowl-
b. Analyze Why did many scientists believe sci- edge using methods similar to those used before
ence and religion could exist at the same time? or during the Scientific Revolution? Explain
c. Elaborate What did Sir Isaac Newton mean your answer.
when he wrote, "If I have seen further it is by 15. Society and Culture How did the birth of science
standing on the shoulders of Giants"? lead to the growth of democratic ideas?

Social Studies Skills Reading Skills

Understanding Tables An invention from the Scientific Understanding Comparison and Contrast Read the
Revolution-the barometer-is used to record air pres- paragraph below and answer the questions that follow.
sure during a hurricane. Scientists measure the strength
of a hurricane on a scale from 1-5, with 5 being the
Two scientists who played a vital role in the Scientific
strongest. Study the data in the table below about
Revolution were Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes
Hurricane Frances in 2004. Use the table to answer
Kepler. Copernicus, who was Polish, lived from 1473 to
the questions that follow.
1543. Kepler, who was German, lived from 1571 to 1630.
Date and Wind speed Air pressure Category Both men were astronomers. Copernicus's great contri-
Time (mph) (mb) bution was his theory that the planets all orbit the sun.
I
Kepler's great contribution was his theory that the orbits
9/1 12:00 noon 120 937 4
of the planets are elliptical, rather than circular. Both of
9/2 12:00 noon 125 939 4 these theories overturned ideas that people had believed

9/3 12:00 noon 110 957 3 for more than 1,400 years.

9/4 12:00 noon 90 960 2

16. Compare the lives of Copernicus and Kepler by
9/5 11:00 am 80 963 1 identifying three similarities they had.
17. Contrast the lives of Copernicus and Kepler by
11. What happened to the air pressure as the
identifying three differences between them.
hurricane got weaker?
12. On what days did the air pressure of the
hurricane measure 950mb or greater?

18. Giving Your Speech Prepare your speech for

defending your client. Begin with an introduc-
Using the Internet tion. Then present your main points in support
13. Activity: Researching Scientists and Their of your claim, supporting your points with
Discoveries Imagine a time when the basic reasons or evidence. Try to anticipate the other
understanding of the universe was yet to be side's points and address them in your speech.
revealed and statements like "The sun revolves End your speech with a conclusion.
around the earth" were considered true. Amaz- Write sentences describing each of your
ing discoveries were made the Scientific points. These notes will help you remember
Revolution. Enter the activity keyword. Then what you want to say in your speech. When you
create a chart of important scientists of that give your speech, be sure to make eye contact
time, their key discoveries or inventions, the with your audience, use a pleasant tone of voice,
way in which each discovery influenced society, and speak with confidence.
and how information about the discoveries has
evolved over the years.

372 CHAPTER 13
Standards Assessment

DIRECTIONS: Read each question, and write the II Sir Isaac Newton is one of the most impor-
letter of the best response. tant participants in the Scientific Revolution
because of his
D A observation that objects in the universe follow
orderly laws.
B first use of the telescope to study the solar
system and the universe.
C application of the scientific method to learn
about the organs of the human body.
D invention of the microscope and use of it to
discover the existence of bacteria.

D The two Europeans generally credited with

developing the modern scientific method
are
A Galilee Galilei and Sir Isaac Newton.
B Sir Isaac Newton and Francis Bacon.
C Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes.
D Rene Descartes and Sir Isaac Newton.
The pioneering work of which early sci-
entist produced this understanding of the
solar system? Connecting with Past Learnings
A Francis Bacon
0 In Grade 6 you learned about the inter-
B Nicolaus Copernicus est that many ancient civilizations had
C Antoni van Leeuwenhoek in astronomy. Which European scientist
D Isaac Newton would have been least interested in the
ancients' work?
D The fundamental principles of the modern A Tycho Brahe
scientific method are B Galilee Galilei
A logic and mathematical theories. C Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
B common beliefs of science and religion. D Johannes Kepler
C very detailed record keeping.
D observation and experimentation. D The event you learned about earlier in this
course that was most responsible for the
Scientific Revolution was
D The basis of the Scientific Revolution of the
1500s and 1600s is found mainly in the A the Renaissance.
A writings of early Catholic popes and monks. B the fall of Rome.
B inventions of the ancient Chinese. C the development of feudalism.
C sponsorship of scientists by powerful D the Crusades.
European kings.
D work of ancient Greeks and Muslim scholars.

"-

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 373

 A Social Studies
Assignment
Collect information and write
an informative report on a
Report
topic related to the Renais-
ou play many roles when you write a research report. As
sance or to the Reformation.
Use one of these topics, or
Y a detective, you track down information about a subject.
choose your own topic:
As a judge, you determine what information is credible. As a
• The importance of Florence reporter, you write clearly about what you have learned. In
to the Renaissance the process, you can reach a deeper understanding of history.
• Martin Luther's contribu-
tions to the Reformation 1. Prewrite
Choosing a Topic
Here are two keys to choosing a good topic for research:
Choosing a Point of
• You find the topic interesting.
View Your audience should find
• You can find several sources of information on it.
your report informative and
believable. One part of being
A good topic is broad enough that you can find information, but nar-
believable is writing your report from
row enough to cover in detail. You can narrow a topic by looking at a
the third-person point of view. That small part of it and breaking that part into even smaller parts.
means you never bring yourself or Renaissance -+ Renaissance Artists -+ Leonardo's Achievements
your own opinions into the report.
Watch for the pronouns/, me, and
Developing a Research Question
we. If you are using those words, you Starting with a question helps focus your research. For example, here
are bringing your own opinion into the
is a question on the topic "The Achievements of Leonardo da Vinci":
report. How did Leonardo's achievements reflect the ideas of the Renaissance? The
answer to your question becomes your thesis, or big idea.

Finding Historical Information

Look for answers to your research question in at least three sources of
historical information besides your textbook. For each source, write
down the kinds of information shown below. To help with taking
notes, put a circled number next to each source.

[i;] .

'
CD Encyclopedia article:
"Article Title." Name of
® Book: Author. Title.
City of Publication:
l1f.i1 Writing 7.2.3 Write research Enc:xclorzedia. Edition or ; Publisher, Year published.
reports. ;
year published.
'

@ Magazine or newspaper · @) Internet site: Author

article: "Title of Article." (if known). "Document title."
I ,I

I Publication name. I Web Site. Date of electronic

l
J
Date: page number( s ). publication. Date informa-
I tion was accessed (uri).

374 UNIT 6
Taking Notes Checking Other
As you read your sources, carefully write down facts, details, and quo- Sources Get a more complete
tations related to your research question. Take these types of notes: picture of your subject by consulting
Paraphrases The source's ideas in your own words sources with different opinions. For
Summaries The source's main points in your own words example, reading both praise and
Direct quotations The source's exact words inside quotation criticism of the Medicis will give you
marks a more balanced view of the family.
Next to each note, write the number of the source and the number of
the page that contains the information.

Organizing Your Ideas and Information

How can you organize your research information? Here are two good
ways:
• Chronological order (the order that events occurred)
• Order of importance (usually least to most important)
Use one of these orders to organize your notes in an outline. Here is a
partial outline of the main body of a paper about Leonardo da Vinci.

Big Idea: Because of his many talents and interests, Leonardo

da Vinci embodied the sprit of the Renaissance.
I. Leonardo's artistic talents
A. Painting
B. Sculpture
C. Architecture
II. Leonardo's other talents
A. Inventor
B. Engineer
C. Town planner
Ill. Leonardo's interest in learning
A. Nature
B. Technology

2. Write
Here is a framework that can help you as you write a first draft.

Body Conclusion
• Start with a quote or an interesting • Present information about at least • Summarize your main points.
historical fact. three sub-points of your big idea. • Restate your big idea in slightly
• State your report's big idea. • Write at least one paragraph for different words.
• Provide historical background each of these main (or sub-) points. • You might comment on how the
readers need to understand your • Include supporting details, facts, or information in your report relates to
big idea. examples in each paragraph. other historical events.

RENEWAL IN EUROPE 375

 t""'''

Studying a Model
Here is a model of a research report. Study it to see how one student
developed a paper. The first and last paragraphs are shown in full. The
paragraphs in the body of the paper are summarized.

He may have been the greatest painter of the Renaissance.

INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH 1 He was also its greatest sculptor and its greatest architect. In
Attention grabber
addition, he was a notable inventor, engineer, town planner,
and mapmaker. In his spare time, he filled his sketchbook

Statement of Thesis or Big Idea

I with detailed drawings of plants, animals, and machines. His
name was Leonardo da Vinci. Many experts consider him
to be the greatest genius in history. With his extraordinary
talent and wide-ranging interests, Leonardo da Vinci
embodied the spirit of the Renaissance.

Body Paragraphs In the first paragraph of the body of the research report, the student
briefly describes a painting, a sculpture, and a building designed by
Leonardo. For each example, the student cites expert opinions about
the work's merit.

In the next paragraph, the student discusses Leonardo's non-artistic

talents-his inventions and his work as an engineer and town planner.
As in the previous paragraph, the student cites expert opinions.

In the last paragraph of the body, the student gives examples of

Leonardo's interest in nature and technology. The student also discusses
Leonardo's notebooks and quotes expert opinions about the work.

CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH Artist, sculptor, architect, engineer, and observer of nature-

Summary of Main Points Leonardo displayed his genius in a wide variety of fields. A
Statement of Big Idea Renaissance person is someone who can do almost anything
General Comment about the well. Since Leonardo da Vinci was a genius at almost
Topic everything, he embodied the spirit of the Renaissance. He
was the ultimate Renaissance person.

Notice that each paragraph uses the same organizational pattern as

the entire paper. Each paragraph expresses a main idea, then provides
information to support that idea. One difference is that only the last
paragraph ends with a concluding statement.

376 UNIT 6
3. Evaluate and Revise Evaluating Sources Not
all sources of information are equal.
Evaluating and Revising Your Draft
Some are not reliable or trustworthy.
Carefully read your first draft. Ask the questions below to decide which
You have to be especially careful
parts of your first draft should be revised.
about Internet sources since anyone
can create an Internet site. For
Evaluating and Revising an Informative Report example, do not use a Web page
created by a 10-year-old to find
• Does the introduction begin with • Are all facts, details, and examples
an interesting quotation or fact? accurate? Are they clearly related information about Leonardo's art.
to the ideas they support? Look for a reliable source-an art
• Does your introduction include a
clear statement of your big idea? • Does the conclusion summarize historian or an art museum.
• Does your introduction give any the main points?
needed background information? • Does the conclusion restate the big
• Is the report clearly organized in idea in different words?
either chronological order or order • Have you included a list of at least
of importance? three sources you used?
• Does the body of your report have
at least three paragraphs, each
developing one point under your
big idea?

4. Proofread and Publish Identifying Sources

Proofreading If your teacher asks you to show your
After revising your report, read it carefully before sharing it. Look espe- sources in the body of your paper,
you can use parenthetical citations.
cially for these things.
Enclose the author's last name (or
• Proper spelling and capitalization of names for people, places,
if no author is given, the first major
things, and events.
word of the source title) followed by
• Correct punctuation marks around direct quotations.
the page number.
Publishing Example
Choose one or more of these ideas to publish your report. Between 1485 and 1490, Leonardo
• Turn your report into an informative speech and share it with da Vinci created plans for advanced
classmates. weapons and submarines
• Make a display that includes your report and helpful illustrations. (Renaissance 1).
Place it in a hallway display case or the library.
• Submit your report to an online discussion group that focuses on
the Renaissance or the Reformation. Ask for feedback.

Practice and Apply

Use the steps and strategies outlined in this workshop to research
and write a research report on the Renaissance or the Reformation.

RENEWAL IN EUROPE 377