VITAMINS

What are vitamins?

Vitamins are essential nutrients

required in small quantity from the
diet, supplements, or both, to maintain
good health and cellular functions
properly.
Classification of vitamins

Fat-soluble
➢A, D, E, K
➢Are stored
in fat cells

Are not stored, easily excreted by the kidneys

 Fat-soluble Vs water-soluble vitamins?

▪ Fat-soluble are more likely to be toxic to health

when taken in excess because they are stored
in the liver and fatty tissues.

▪ Water-soluble vitamins are not stored and they

are readily excreted in the urine.

NB: Vitamin supplements are generally safe to take,

but RDA guideline should be followed
Overview of the functions of vitamins
VITAMINS FUNCTION
B1, B2, B3, B5, B 6, B7, B9, COENZYME
B12, C, K
B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7 METABOLISM OF ENERGY
YIELDING NUTRIENTS
B 6, B 9, B12 RED BLOOD CELL
SYNTHESIS
B6, B9, B12 AMINO ACID METABOLISM
B 7, B 5, B 3 FATTY ACID SYNTHESIS
C,E ANTIOXIDANTS
B1, B6, B12 NERVE TRANSMISSION
A, D GENE EXPRESSION
Water soluble
vitamins
 Overview of water soluble vitamins

▪ soluble in water and readily excreted

▪ destroyed by heat and thus must be consumed daily

▪ Mostly function as coenzymes in metabolism of
energy-yielding nutrients

▪ 50 – 90% of B-complex vitamins are absorbed

▪ Found in the same food (i.e. single deficiency is
rare)
 Vit. B1 (Thiamin)
➢ Very important vitamin, prevents Beri-beri
▪ A coenzyme used in energy metabolism, it also supports
normal appetite and CNS functions
▪ Helps to release energy in carbohydrates metabolism for the
function of heart, brain and other organs
▪ Coenzyme form is Thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP)

➢ Deficiency
Chronic deficiency results in Beri-Beri. Characterized by ataxia
(muscle weakness and loss of coordination) loss of appetite,
pains, mental depression, and rapid heart beat (tachycardia)

▪ Wernicke’s encephalopathy x-terized by triad of

opthalmoplegia, ataxia & confusion.
 Vit. B1 (Thymin)
➢ Food sources of Thiamin:
▪ Whole grain cereals, legumes, wheat germ, yeast
▪ Green beans, milk, orange juice, organs meat, fish, peanuts, dried
beans and seeds.
NB: Thiaminase found in raw fish destroys thiamin
➢ RDA: 1.1mg/day for Females and 1.2mg/day for Males. Daily value on
food label is 1.5mg/day. Surplus is rapidly excreted in urine. Low
income and elderly people may barely meet daily needs (highly
processed and unenriched foods, sugar, fat, alcohol).

➢ Thiamin & Alcohol: Alcoholics have high risk of thiamin deficiency

because absorption and use of thiamin are greatly reduced and
excretion is increased by alcohol consumption. Poor quality diet
makes it worst.
 Vit. B2 (Riboflavin)

▪ It is important part of coenzymes (FMN & FAD) used in

metabolism of energy-giving nutrients

▪ It supports normal vision, skin health, and tissue repair

▪ Food sources: enriched grains, cereals, nuts, eggs, milk,

green leafy vegetables (broccoli,asparagus), liver, lean meat.

NB: Riboflavin is responsible for yellow colour of egg yolk

 Vit. B2 (Riboflavin)
▪ RDA: Males1.3 mg/day, Females
1.1 mg/day.

▪ Deficiency: results in Cheilosis

(swollen lips with cracks in the
corners of the mouth), Glossitis
(swollen purplish-red tongue),
seborrheic dermatitis (eczema).
 Vit. B3 (Niacin)
▪ A compound isolated from nicotinic acid that
prevents development of Pellagra.

▪ Part of coenzyme (NAD) used in energy metabolism

▪ Supports healthy skin, CNS & digestive system

▪ It is important in some synthetic pathways (esp. FA

synthesis).
 Vit. B3 (Niacin)
▪ Sources: enriched grains, diary products, fish,
asparagus, lean meat, peanuts and eggs. Tryptophan can
be converted to Niacin, and this meets up to 50% of
niacin needs

▪ RDA: Females 14 mg NE/day, Males 16mg NE/day.

Upper level is 35 mg, daily value on labels is 20 mg. High
dose helps to manage cholesterol by decreasing LDL and
increasing HDL levels.

NB: Deficiency of Niacin could be due to Tryptophan

absorption failure
Deficiency of Niacin

▪ Pellagra. characterized by 3 D’s:

Dementia, Diarrhea, Dermatitis
(worse with sun exposure)

▪ Other general symptoms include:

poor appetite, anorexia, muscle
weakness, weight loss and
indigestion

NB: Deficiency symptoms usually

manifests within 50 – 60 days
 Vit. B5 (Pantothenic acid)
▪ Part of Coenzyme A – which is important in fatty acids
metabolism

▪ It is essential in the release of energy from catabolism of

carbohydrates, protein, fat and alcohol.

▪ Sources: meat, milk, mushroom, liver, peanuts, eggs,

yeast

▪ RDA: 5mg/day, and maximum daily value is 10 mg.

▪ Deficiency: headache, fatigue, impaired muscle co-

ordination, GIT disorders
 Vit. B6 (Pyridoxine)
▪ Serves as coenzyme in enzymatic reactions involved in
energy release. Coenzyme form is pyridoxal Phosphate

▪ Helps in the synthesis of nonessential AAs via

transamination

▪ Maintains healthy brain function, red blood cells

formation, and supports the immune system by breaking
down proteins to synthesize antibodies.

▪ Helps in the synthesis of neurotransmitters, hemoglobin

and WBCs.
 Vit. B6 (Pyridoxine)
▪ Homocysteine enhances the devt of atherosclerosis.
Vit. B-6 helps in the catabolism of Homocysteine.

▪ Sources: beans, potatoes, milk, eggs, meat, fish,

bread & enriched cereals. Fruits and vegetables

▪ RDA: Females1.3 mg/day, Males1.3 mg/day

➢ Deficiency symptoms: Weakness, sleeplessness,

peripheral neuropathy, depression microcytic anemia,
skin disorders, vomiting, abdominal pain, e.t.c.
 Vit. B7 (Biotin)

▪ Biotin acts as cofactor for 5-carboxylase enzyme that

add CO2 to various compounds

▪ Sources: whole grains, cheeze, liver, nuts, eggs

▪ RDA: 30μg/day

▪ Deficiency: Scaly inflamed skin, tongue & lip

changes, impaired growth, anemia, poor appetite,
nausea, vomiting, muscle pain & weakness
 Vit. B9 (Folate)
▪ Sources: green leafy vegetables, liver, fish, eggs,
milk & fortified cereals

▪ Functions: essential for RBC formation, as

coenzyme in DNA synthesis, helps in prevention
of neural tube defects, as coenzyme in digestion
& absorption of proteins

▪ RDA: Males 400μg/day, Females 400μg/day,

pregnant women 600 μg/day. Excess can mask
Vit. B-12 deficiency.
 Vit. B9 (Folate)

Deficiency: Megaloblastic anemia – characterized

by large immature RBC that cannot carry oxygen,
poor growth, etc.

NB: symptoms are more common in pregnant

women and alcoholics
 Vit. B9 (Folate)

▪ Neural tube closes in

the first 28 days of
pregnancy

▪ It forms brain and

spinal cord

▪ By the time pregnancy

is confirmed, damage
is done.
 Vit. B12 (Cyanocobalamine)

▪ Functions: Part of Co-enzyme used in new cell

synthesis. It also helps to maintain the myelin sheath
for nerve cells
Absorption requires gastric intrinsic factor (GIF)
produced by parietal cells of the stomach.

▪ Sources: meat, fish, poultry, shellfish, eggs, cheese,

milk.
 Vit. B12 (Cyanocobalamine)

▪ RDA: Males 2.4μg/day, Females 2.4μg/day.

▪ Deficiency: is usually due to decreased absorption

ability and takes about 20 years to manifest. It results
in pernicious anemia – characterized by weakness,
nerve degeneration, tingling sensation/numbness in
the extremities (paraesthesia) and paralysis.

▪ Correction of B-12 deficiency: Application of Vit. B-

12 nasal gel, monthly injections of Vit. B-12, &
megadose of Vit. B-12 to allow for passive diffusion.
 Vit. B12 deficiency

Deficiency is detected by schilling test: to

assess whether deficiency is due to

absorption defect. i.e. if urine of a patient

contains <10% of injected radiolabelled

B12 after 24 hours

 Ascorbic acid-Vitamin C

▪ Vit. C is essential in the synthesis of collagen, the principal protein

in the tendon & vessels that strengthens blood vessels and forms
scar tissues. It is also a matrix for bone growth.

▪ Promotes immune system functions by reducing the duration of

symptoms (but not preventing the attack of colds)

▪ Enhances absorption of iron and helps in the wound healing

▪ As antioxidant, it helps to prevent development of chronic diseases

NB: Vit C is sensitive to heat and thus its’ easily lost during cooking
Ascorbic acid-Vitamin C

▪ Sources: Fresh fruits especially citrus fruits,

vegetables (cauliflower, broccoli, strawberry,
Romaine, lettuce & spinach), potatoes, green
pepper, etc.

▪ RDA: Males 75 mg/day, Females 75 mg/day.

 Vitamin C deficiency
▪ Scurvy (due to impaired collagen synthesis)

▪ Bleeding gums

▪ Inflammation of the gums (Gingivitis)

▪ Poor wound healing

▪ Erosion of tooth enamel (rebound scurvy)

Periodontal disease seen in scurvy
 Vitamins with coenzymes

methylcobalamin
adenosylcobalamin
FAT SOLUBLE
VITAMINS
 Vitamin A
▪ Vit. A comprises of retinol (from animal origin) and β-
carotene (from plants origin).

▪ Sources of Vit A.
Animal sources (exclusively obtained as retinol):liver,
kidney, fish, cod liver oil, egg yolk & diary products.
Plant sources (in form of β-carotene): green leafy
vegetables (e.g. carrots, spinach, broccoli), tomatoes,
mango, papaya, and sweet potatoes.

• Retinol, retinal and retinoic acid are regarded as isomers

of vitamin A, and retinol is the most active form of Vit. A.
▪RDA for vitamin A is as follows: Children 2000 -
3500 IU/day. Females 800μg RE/day, Males 1000 μg
RE/day.

NB: the requirement increases in growing children,

pregnant women and lactating mothers
 BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTIONS

➢ supports growth and repair of body tissues, by

preventing keratin synthesis (responsible for horny
surface).

➢Helps to maintain the stability of cell membranes,

thereby enhancing protein synthesis, proper cell
growth and differentiation.
 Role in Vision

▪ Helps to maintain good vision via the secretion of

rhodopsin, a pigment that helps retina to adjust
to dim light.

NB: Retina has 2 types of photoreceptors that are

crucial in the processes of vision; the rods and
cones. Rods are responsible for dim light vision
and cones are responsible for bright light and
color visions.
▪ Helps to maintain the integrity of white and red
blood cells

▪ Assists in immune reactions thereby promoting the

resistance to infections.

▪ β-carotene serves as antioxidant and therefore

reduces the risk of cancers initiated by free radicals.
 Vitamin A deficiency
▪ Rough and scaly skin, and dry mucus membane due
to keratinization of the epithelium in different tissues
and organs in the body.

▪ Night blindness – i.e. inability to see in dim light due to

the failure of production of rhodopsin in the retina.

▪ Xeropthalmia (dryness of conjunctiva), which leads to

ulceration of the cornea, a condition known as
keratomalacia, causing total blindness.
Vitamin A deficiency
Dry skin, poor immunity and slow growth, night
blindess, xeropthalmia (failure to produce
tears>>dry cornea>> ulceration)

Bitot's spot due to keratin deposit

 Vitamin D

▪ Considered as hormone that facilitates absorption of

Ca2+ and P in the intestines and kidneys for bone health

▪ It regulates the plasma calcium and phosphate levels

between 9 – 11 mg/dl

▪ Sources: synthesized in skin when exposed to sun light,

fish, egg yolk, fish liver oil, oyster, mushroom, sausage

▪ RDA: 5.0 μg/day for both males and females

 Chemistry

▪ Ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) is formed from ergosterol,

which is found in plants.

▪ Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) is obtained from animals.

Both sterols have similar structures except that
Ergocalciferol has additional methyl group and a double
bond.

▪ Ergocalciferol and Cholecalciferol are sources for

vitamin D and are therefore referred to as provitamins
Vitamin D deficiency

Rickets in children and

Osteomalacia in adults.

Rickets - weakening &

softening of bone from
severe Ca2+ loss. Major
clinical feature is
formation of bow legs.

BCH: Calcitriol level is

decreased and ALP is
elevated
 Vitamin E
▪ RDA: Males: 10 mg/dl α-TE, Females: 8 mg/dl α-TE/day

Absorption , transport and storage

Vitamin E is absorbed along with fatty meal in
the small intestine and bile salts are necessary
for the absorption. In the liver, it is incorporated
into lipoproteins (VLDL and LDL) for
transportation. It is stored in adipose tissue, liver
and muscle. The normal plasma level of
tocopherol is less than 1 mg/dl.
 Food sources of Vit. E
▪ Vegetable oils (e.g. Corn, cottonseed, and
peanut oil)

▪ Nuts and seeds (e.g. Almonds, hazelnuts,

sunflower seeds, walnuts, and margarine)

▪ Whole grains (e.g. whole-wheat flour, wheat

germ)

▪ Green, leafy vegetables (e.g. Spinach, lettuce),

onions, blackberries, apples, and pears.
 Biochemical Functions

▪ It prevents non-enzymatic oxidation of

various cell components (e.g. unsaturated
FAs) by free radicals such as O2 and H2O2.
Selenium helps in this function.

▪Vitamin E is essential for cell membrane

structure and integrity, hence it is regarded
as a membrane antioxidant.
 Biochemical Functions

▪ It is closely associated with reproductive

functions and thus prevents sterility by
preserving the germinal epithelium of gonads.

▪ It increases synthesis of heme by enhancing

the activity of enzymes aminolevulinic acid
(ALA) synthase and ALA dehydratase.

▪ It is required for cellular respiration through

electron transport chain (believed to stabilize
coenzyme Q).
 Biochemical Functions
▪ It is required for proper storage of creatine in
skeletal muscle.

▪ It is needed for optimal absorption of amino

acids from the intestine.

▪ It is involved in the synthesis of nucleic acids.

▪ It protects liver from being damaged by toxic

compounds such as carbon tetrachloride.
 Deficiency of Vit E

Neurological disorders (e.g.

neuropathy, alzheimer's
disease) resulting from cell
damage caused by
hemolysis of red blood cells.
 Vitamin K
▪ Helps to produce factors that promote blood clotting (-
II,VII, IX, X) and bacterial synthesis in the digestive tract

▪ Sources: intestinal bacteria, green leafy vegetables

(cabbage, cauliflower, spinach), soya bean, milk

▪ Deficiency: Inhibition of blood clotting resulting in

prolonged bleeding, increased clotting time, bleeding
gums, teeth, and nose

▪ RDA: Females 65μg/day; Males 80μg/day

Vitamin K deficiency

Ecchymosis-subcutaneous
purpura
No wonder that an apple a day keeps the
doctor away!