APPLIED PHYSICS FOR CSE STREAM JUNE/JULY 2023

QUESTION PAPER SOLUTIONS

1. (a) Derive an expression for energy density in terms of Einsteins coefficients in
Laser action.
Ans: Consider two energy levels E1 and E2 of a system of atoms with N1 and N2 are a population of
energy levels respectively.
Let U be the energy density of the incident beam of radiation of frequency γ. Let us consider the
absorption and two emission process
1) Induced absorption:

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Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by the system as a result of which the
system is elevated from a lower energy state to a higher state.
The rate of absorption is proportional to N1U

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Rate of absorption = B12N1U …………….. (1)
Where ‘B12’ is the proportionality constant called Einstein Coefficient of induced absorption.
2) Spontaneous emission:
The emission of a photon by the transition of a system from a higher energy state to a lower energy
e.
state without the aid of external energy is called spontaneous emission.
Spontaneous emission depends on N2 and is independent of energy density.
The rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2 …………….(2)
dg

Where ‘A21’ is called the proportionality constant called the Einstein coefficient of spontaneous
emission.
3) Stimulated emission:
Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by a system under the influence of a passing
photon of just the right energy due to which the system transits from a higher energy state to a
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lower energy state

The rate of stimulated emission is directly proportional to N2Uγ.
The rate of stimulated emission = B21N2U ……………. (3)
Where ‘B21’ is the proportionality constant called Einstein’s Coefficient of stimulated emission. At
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thermal equilibrium,
Rate of absorption = (Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission)
B12N1U = A21N2 + B21N2U
U (B12N1 - B21N2) = A21N2
U = (A_21 N_2)/((B_12 N_1 − B_21 N_2 ) )
i.e. U= A_21/B_21 [N_2/((B_12/B_21 N_1 − N_2 ) )]
U = A_21/B_21 [1/((B_12/B_21 N_1/N_2 ) − 1)] → (4)
By Boltzmann’s law, N2= N_1 e^(−((E_2 − E_1)/KT) ) = N1 e-h/KT
i.e., N1/N2 = eh/KT
  
 
A21  1 
Eqn. (4) becomes U    h 
 → (5)
B21  B   
12
 B e
 kT 
 1 

 21 

 
 
By Planck’s law, U 
8h 3  1 
→ (6)
  h  
c3  
 e kT   1 
 

 

m
 
Comparing equation (5) & (6)
A_21/B_21 = 8πh3/c3 & B_12/B_21 =1 i.e. B12 = B21

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The probability of induced absorption is equal to the stimulated emission.
Therefore, A12is written as A and B12, B21 written as B.
Equation (5) becomes
 
e.
 
A 1 
U   h  
B  

1 
 
 e kT 
 
 
dg

The above equation is the expression for energy density.

(b) Explain the types of Optical fibers.
Ans: Based on the refractive index profile and mode of propagation, there are three types of optical
fibers,
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1. Single mode fiber

2. Step index multimode fiber
3. Graded index multimode fiber
(i) Single mode fiber
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 Single mode fibers have a core material of uniform refractive index value.
 Cladding material also has a uniform refractive index but of lesser value than that of
core.
 Thus its refractive index profile takes a shape of a step. The diameter of the core is
about 8-10 µm and the diameter of the cladding is about 60-70 µm.
  Because of its narrow core, it can guide just a single mode as shown in above figure.

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 Single mode fibers are the extensively used ones ant they are less expensive. They need
LASERs as the source of light.
(ii) Step index multimode fiber

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e.
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 A step index multimode fiber is very much similar to the single mode fiber except that its core
is of large diameter. A typical fiber has a core diameter 50 to 200 µm and a cladding about
100 to 250µm outer diameter.
 Its refractive index profile is also similar to that of a single mode fiber but with a larger plane
region for the core.
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 Due to the large core diameter it can transmit a number of modes of wave propagation.
 The step index multimode fiber can accept either a LASER or an LED as source of light.
 It is the least expensive of all and its typical application is in data links which has lower
bandwidth requirements.
vt

(iii) Graded index multimode fiber

  It is also called GRIN.
 The refractive index of the core decreases in the radially outward direction from the axis of
the fiber and becomes equal to that of cladding at the interface but the refractive index of the
cladding remains uniform.
 Laser or LED is used as a source of light.
 It is the most expensive of all. It is used in telephone trunks between central offices.
(c) The ratio of population inversion of two energy levels is 1.059 X 10-30. Find the
wavelength of light emitted by spontaneous emission at 330K.

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e.
dg
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2. (a) Derive an expression for Numerical aperture in an optical fiber.

B
90-θ1
θ1
θ0 A
n1
n2
n0
 Consider a light ray entering into the core of an optical fiber with an angle of incidence(θ0),
such that after entering, the ray incidents on the core-cladding interface with an angle of incidence
equal to the critical angle.
Let n0, n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the surrounding medium, core and cladding
respectively.
Now, applying Snell’s law at the point of entry of the ray i.e., at A,
𝑛0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1
𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
0

Applying Snell’s law at B,

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𝑛1 sin( 90 − 𝜃1) = 𝑛2 sin 90

𝑛1 cos 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 90
𝑛

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⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
1

𝑛
From expression (1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = 𝑛1 √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1
0

Substituting for cos θ1 from (2)

𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = 𝑛1 √1 − 𝑛22
𝑛2
e.
0 1

𝑛1 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = √
𝑛0 𝑛12
dg

√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 =
𝑛0
If 𝑛0 =1 i.e., surrounding medium if it is air

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

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i.e., 𝑁. 𝐴. = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

(b) Discuss construction and working of semiconductor diode laser with energy level
diagram.
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Ans: A Semiconductor diode laser is one in which the active medium is formulated by
semiconducting materials.
Construction:
 Gallium-Arsenide Laser is a single crystal of GaAs consists of heavily doped n-type and p-
type.
 The diode is very small size with sides of the order of 1mm.
 The width of the junction varies from 1-100m.
 The top and bottom surfaces are metalized and Ohmic contacts are provided for external
connection.
  The front and rear faces are polished. The polished faces functions as the resonant cavity.
The other two faces are roughened to prevent lasing action in that direction.

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Working:
 The energy band diagram of heavily doped p-n junction is as shown. At thermal equilibrium
the Fermi level is uniform.

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 Because of very high doping on n- side, the Fermi level is pushed in to the conduction band
and electrons occupy the portions of the conduction band that lies below the Fermi level and
 on p-side, the Fermi level lies within the valence band and holes occupy the portions of the
valence band that lies above the Fermi level.

e.
A suitable forward bias is applied to overcome the potential barrier. As a result, electrons
from n-region and holes from p-region injected into the junction.
 The current begins to flow following which there will be a region in junction in which the
population inversion can be achieved.
dg

 Initially concentration of electrons in the energy levels at the bottom of the conduction band
will be less than that of energy levels at top of valence band. So that the recombination of
electrons and holes result only in spontaneous emission.
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Energy level diagram

(a) Before biasing (b) After biasing
  When the current exceeds the threshold value, population inversion is achieved in the active
region which is formulated in the junction.
 At this stage the photons emitted by spontaneous emission triggers stimulated emission,
over a large number of recombination leading to build up laser.
 Since the energy gap of GaAs is 1.4eV, the wavelength of emitted light is 8400 Ao .
(c) The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 30o, when kept in air. Find the angle
of acceptance when it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33.

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e.
dg
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3 (a) What is wave packet? Give physical significance of wave function? Define
group velocity.
Ans:
Group Velocity (Vgroup) :
When a group of two or more waves of slightly different wavelengths superimposed on each other,
the resultant pattern is in the variation in amplitude, represents the wave group called wave packet.
The velocity with which the wave packet is moving called group velocity of the waves and is given
d
by vgroup =
dk

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Individual Waves Amplitude

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b. state and explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, Give physical significance.
Show the electron cannot exists inside the nucleus.

Ans: Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

e.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle states that “It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the position
and momentum of a particle accurately. If we make an effort to measure very accurately the position of a
particle, it leads to large uncertainty in the measurement of momentum and vice versa”.
dg

If ∆ x and
P x are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum of the particle then the

uncertainty can be written as

If ∆ x and Px are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum of the particle
then the uncertainty can be written as

∆ x . Px ≥ (h/4π)
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Significance of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle asserts that it is impossible to measure simultaneously both the
position and momentum of a particle accurately. If we make an effort to measure very accurately the
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position of a particle, it leads to large uncertainty in the measurement of momentum and vice versa.
Therefore, one should think only of the probability of finding the particle at a certain position or of
the probable value for the momentum of the particle.
Non-existence of electrons in the atomic nucleus:

The energy of a particle is given by

E=1/2 𝑚𝑣^(2 )= 𝑝^2/2𝑚 (1)

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that

h
∆ x . Px ≥ → (4)
4
The diameter of the nucleus is of the order 10-14m. If an electron is to exist inside the nucleus, the
uncertainty in its position ∆ x must not exceed 10-14m.

i.e. ∆ x ≤ 10-14m

The minimum uncertainty in the momentum

h 6.63  1034
Px min ≥ ≥ ≥ 0.527 × 10-20 kg. m/s
4 x max 4  10 14

By considering minimum uncertainty in the momentum of the electron

Px min

m
i.e., ≥ 0.5 × 10-20 kg.m/s = p → (2)

Consider eqn (1)

E= 𝑝^2/(2𝑚 ) = (0.5 × 10^(−20 ) )^2/(2 × 9.1 × 10^(−31) ) = 1.531× 10^(−11) = 95.68

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MeV

Where mo= 9.11 × 10-31 kg

If an electron exists in the nucleus its energy must be greater than or equal to 95.68 MeV. It is
experimentally measured that the beta particles ejected from the nucleus during beta decay have
energies of about 3 to 4 MeV. This shows that electrons cannot exist in the nucleus.
e.
C. A particle of mass 0.5 meV/c2 has kinetic energy 100 eV. Find its de Broglie
wavelength, where C is the velocity of light.
dg
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4(a) Derive an expression for Schrodinger’s time independent equation one
dimensional form.
Ans:

Time independent Schrodinger wave equation

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’. The de-Broglie wavelength ‘λ’ is

h h
λ=  → (1) Where ‘mv’ is the momentum of the particle.
mv P
The wave equations is

m
𝜓 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) → (2)

Where ‘A’ is a constant and ‘ω’ is the angular frequency of the wave.

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Differentiating equation (2) with respect to ‘t’ twice

d 2
2
  A 2 e i ( kx t )   2 → (3)
dt
The equation of a travelling wave is
e.
d2y 1 d2y

dx 2 v 2 dt 2
dg

Where ‘y’ is the displacement and ‘v’ is the velocity.

Similarly, for the de-Broglie wave associated with the particle

d 2 1 d 2
 → (4)
dx 2 v 2 dt 2
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where ‘ψ’ is the displacement at time ‘t’.

From equations (3) & (4)

d 2 2
 2
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dx 2 v
But ω = 2πυ and v =υ λ where ‘υ’ is the frequency and ‘λ’ is the wavelength.

d 2 4 2 1 1 d 2
  2  or 2   2 → (5)
dx 2   4  dx 2

1 2 m2 v2 P2
K .E  mv   → (6)
2 2m 2m
h2
 → (7)
2m2
Using equation (5)

h2  1  d 2 h 2 d 2
K .E     2 → (8)
2m  4 2  dx2 8 m dx2
Total Energy E = K.E + P.E

h 2 d 2
E V
8 2 m dx 2

h 2 d 2
E V  

m
8 2 m dx 2

d 2 8 2 m
  E  V 
dx 2 h2

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d 2 8 2 m
 2 E  V   0
dx 2 h
This is the time independent Schrodinger wave equation for one dimensional case.
e.
(b) Obtain the expression for energy eigen values using Schrödinger’s time
independent equation.
Energy Eigen values of a particle in one dimensional, infinite potential well (potential well of infinite
dg
depth) or of a particle in a box

Y-Axis

V= V=0 V=

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Particle x=0 x X-Axis

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x=a
Consider a particle of a mass ‘m’ free to move in one dimension along a positive x -
direction between x =0 to x =a. The potential energy outside this region is infinite and
within the region is zero. The particle is in bound state. Such a configuration of potential
in space is called infinite potential well. It is also called particle in a box. The Schrödinger
equation outside the well is

d 2 8 2 m
 2 E     0 → (1) ∵V = ∞
dx 2 h
For outside, the equation holds good if ψ = 0 & |ψ|² = 0. That is particle cannot be found
outside the well and also at the walls
The Schrodinger’s equation inside the well is:

d 2 8 2 m
 2 E  0 → (2) ∵V = 0
dx 2 h

8 2 m
Let 2
E  k2 → (3)
h

d 2
2
 k 2  0
dx

m
The solution of above equation is:

ψ = C cos k x + D sin k x → (4)

at x =0→ψ=0

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0 = C cos 0 + D sin 0

∴C=0

Also x= a → ψ = 0
0 = C cos ka + D sin ka
e.
But C = 0

∴D sin ka = 0 (5)
dg

D0 (because the wave concept vanishes)

i.e., ka = nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4… (Quantum number)

n
k= → (6)
a
ue

sub equitation (5) and (6) in (4)

n
 n  D sin x → (7)
a
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This gives permitted wave functions.

The Energy Eigen value given by

Substitute equation (6) in (3)

8 2 m n 2 2
E  k 2

h2 a2
n2h2
E
8ma2
This is the expression for energy Eigen value.
For n = 0 is not acceptable inside the well because ψ n = 0. It means that the electron is
not present inside the well which is not true. Thus the lowest energy value for n = 1 is
called zero point energy value or ground state energy.

h2
i.e. Ezero-point =
8ma 2
The states for which n >1 are called exited states.

To find out the value of D, normalization of the wave function is to be done.

a
i.e.  dx  1 → (8)
2

m
n
0

using the values of ψn from equation (7)

a
n
D

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2
sin 2 xdx  1
0 a
1  cos( 2n / a ) x 
a
D2   dx  1
0    1  cos 2 
2  sin 2    
D2  a a
2n   2 
  dx   cos xdx  1
2 0 0 a 
e.
2n 
a
D2  a
 x  2n sin a x   1
2  0
D2
a  0  1
dg

2
D2
a 1
2
2
D
a
ue

Substitute D in equation (7)

the normalized wave functions of a particle in one dimensional infinite potential well is:

2 n
n  sin x → (9)
a a
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 (c) In the measurement of position and velocity of an electron moving with a speed of
6 X 10-5 m/s. calculate the highest accuracy with which its position could be
determined if the inherent error in the measurement of its velocity is 0.01% for the
speed stated.

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5(a) Explain single qubit gate and multiple qubit gate with example for each.
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i) Single qubit

A Single qubit has two computational basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩. It is in general written as
by |𝜓⟩ = α |0⟩+ β |1⟩. Such that |α| 2 + |β| 2 =1

The matrix representation of |0⟩ and |1⟩ is given by

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|0⟩ = (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |1⟩ = (0)

0 1
ii) Two qubit
A two qubit system has four computational basis states denoted has |00⟩ |01⟩ |10⟩ |11⟩. The
two qubit state is given by |𝜓⟩ = α |00⟩+ β |01⟩ + 𝛾|10⟩ + 𝛿|11⟩ + ⋯

iii) N qubit
A multi-qubit system of N qubits has 2N computational basis states. For example, a state of
3 qubits has 23 computational basis states. Thus, for N-qubit the computational basis
states are denoted has |000 … … 00⟩ |000 … . .01⟩ |10 … … .00⟩ |10 … … .01⟩ .
(b) Discuss CNOT gate and its operation on four different input states.
Ans: Controlled Not Gate or CNOT Gate
The CNOT gate is a typical multi-qubit logic gate and the circuit is as follows.

The matrix representation of CNOT gate is given by

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The Transformation could be expressed as |𝐴, 𝐵⟩ → |𝐴, 𝐵 ⊕ 𝐴⟩
Consider the operations of CNOT gate on the four inputs |00⟩, |01⟩,|10⟩ and |11⟩.
Operation of CNOT Gate for input |00⟩
Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |0⟩. Hence no change in the state
of Target qubit |0⟩.|00⟩ → |00⟩
e.
Operation of CNOT Gate for input |01⟩
Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |0⟩. Hence no change in the state
dg
of Target qubit |1⟩.|01⟩ → |01⟩
Operation of CNOT Gate for input |10⟩
Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |1⟩. Hence the state of Target
qubit flips from |0⟩ to |1⟩. |10⟩ → |11⟩
Operation of CNOT Gate for input |11⟩
ue

Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |1⟩. Hence the state of Target
qubit flips from |1⟩ to |0⟩. |11⟩ → |10⟩
The Truth Table of operation of CNOT gate is as follows.
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 𝟎 −ⅈ
(c) Given 𝑨 = ( ) prove that AT= A.
ⅈ 𝟎

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dg

6(a) Elucidate the difference between classical computing and Quantum computing.
Ans:
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Differences Between Classical and Quantum Computing

Classical computing Quantum computing
It is large scale integrated multi-purposeIt is high speed parallel computer based
computer. on quantum mechanics.
Information storage is bit based on voltage
Information storage is Quantum bit
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or charge etc. based on direction of an electron spin.

Information processing is carried out by Information processing is carried out by
logic gates e.g. NOT, AND, OR etc. Quantum logic gates.
Classical computers use binary codes i.e. Quantum computers use Qubits i.e. 0, 1
bits 0 or 1 to represent information. and both of them simultaneously to run
machines faster.
Operations are defined by Boolean Operations are defined by linear algebra
Algebra. over Hilbert Space and can be
represented by unitary matrices with
complex elements.
Circuit behavior is governed by classical Circuit behavior is governed explicitly by
physics. quantum mechanics.
(b) Discuss the working of phase gate mentioning its matrix representation and truth
table.
Ans: Phase Gate or S Gate
The phase gate turns a |0⟩ into |0⟩ and a |1⟩ into 𝑖 |1⟩ .
The Matrix representation of the S gate is given by
1 0
S=[ ]
0 𝑖
The effect of S gate on input |0⟩ is given by
1 0 1 1

m
𝑆 |0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
0 𝑖 0 0
Similarly the effect of S gate on input |1⟩ is given by
1 0 0 0
𝑆|1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = 𝑖|1⟩

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0 𝑖 1 𝑖
The transformation of state |𝜓⟩ is given by
𝑆 |𝜓⟩ = 𝑆 (𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩) = 𝛼𝑆 |0⟩ + 𝛽𝑆 |1⟩ = 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝑖𝛽 |1⟩
The symbol of S gate is given by
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩
e. 𝛼 |0⟩ + ⅈ 𝛽|1⟩
S

The Truth table for S gate is as follows

dg

Input Output
|0⟩ |0⟩
|1⟩ 𝑖|1⟩
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝑖 𝛽|1⟩
ue

(c) Fing the inner product of state I1› and I0 › and draw conclusion on the result.
We know
0
|1⟩ = [ ]
1
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|0⟩ = [1]
0
Find

< 0|1 > =?

< 0| = (1 0)
0
< 0|1 > = [1 0] [ ]
1
< 0|1 > = [1x0 + 0x1]

< 0|1 > = [0]

Hence the inner product of states are |1⟩ and |0⟩ are orthogonal.

7(a) Distinguish between Type-I and Type- II superconductors.

Ans: Types of superconductors:

There are two types of superconductors. They are type-I superconductors and type-II
superconductors.

i)Type-I superconductors:

Type-I superconductors exhibit complete Meissner effect. Below the critical field it behaves as
perfect diamagnetic. If the external magnetic field increases beyond Hc the superconducting

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specimen gets converted to normal state. The magnetic flux penetrates and resistance increase
from zero to some value. As the critical field is very low for type-I superconductors, they are not
used in construction of solenoids and superconducting magnets.

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i) Type-II superconductors

Type-II superconductors are hard superconductors. They exist in three states

i) Superconducting state

ii) Mixed state

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ii) Normal state

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They are having two critical fields Hc1 and Hc2. For the field less then Hc1, it expels the magnetic
field completely and becomes a perfect diamagnetic. Between Hc1 and Hc2 the flux starts
penetrating throughout the specimen. This state is called vortex state. Hc2 is 100 times higher than
Hc1. At Hc2 the flux penetrates completely and becomes normal conductor. Type-II superconductors
are used in the manufacturing of the superconducting magnets of high magnetic fields above 10
Tesla.

(b) Discuss the effect of temperature and impurity on electrical resistivity of

conductors and hence explain for superconductor.
Temperature dependence of resistivity of conductor:

All metals are good conductors of electricity. The electrical conductivity of metal varies with the
temperature. The electrical resistance of a metal, to the flow of current, is due to scattering of
conduction electrons by lattice vibrations. When the temperature increases the amplitude of lattice
vibrations also increases, thereby increasing the resistance. The dependence of resistance of metal
(non-superconducting state) is shown in figure. The resistance decreases with temperature and

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reaches a minimum value at T = 0K. The residual resistance at T = 0K is due to impurities in the
metal.

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By Matthiessen’s rule

ρ = ρo + ρ(T)

Where ‘ρ’ is the resistivity of the given material, ‘ρo’is the residual resistivity and ‘ρ (T)’ is the
temperature-dependent part of resistivity.
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“The total resistivity of a metal is the sum of the resistivity due to phonon scattering which is
temperature dependent and the resistivity due to scattering by impurities which is temperature
dependent”

Super Conductivity:

Super conductivity is the phenomenon observed in some metals and materials. Kammerlingh
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Onnes in 1911 observed that the electrical resistivity of pure mercury drops abruptly to zero at
about 4.2K .This state is called super conducting state. The material is called superconductor .The
temperature at which they attain superconductivity is called critical temperature T c.

Temperature dependence of resistivity of a superconductor:

One of the most interesting properties of solid at low temperature is that electrical resistivity of
metals and alloys vanish entirely below a certain temperature. This zero resistivity or infinite
conductivity is known as superconductivity. Temperature at which transition takes place is known as
transition temperature or critical temperature (Tc). Above the transition temperature, the substance
is in the normal state and below it will be in superconducting state. T c value is different for different
materials.
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“The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drop to zero
below a threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity and threshold
temperature is called “critical temperature”.

(c) In a diffraction grating experiment the laser light undergoes second order

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diffraction, if the distance between screen and grating is 20 cm, and average
distance of 2nd order spot 2,7 cm grating constant 1 X 10-5 m, calculate the
wavelength of laser light. e.
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8 (a) explain BCS theory of superconductivity.

Ans:
BCS theory superconductivity:
⮚ Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) in 1957 explained the phenomenon of superconductivity
based on the formation of cooper pairs. It is called BCS theory. It is a quantum mechanical
concept.
⮚ When a current flow in a superconductor, electrons come near a positive ion core of lattice, due
to attractive force. The ion core also gets displaced from its position, which is called lattice
distortion. The lattice vibrations are quantized in a term called Phonons.
⮚ Now an electron which comes near that place will interact with the distorted lattice. This tends to
reduce the energy of the electron. It is equivalent to interaction between the two electrons
through the lattice. This leads to the formation of cooper pairs.
⮚ “Cooper pairs are a bound pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the electrons with
opposite spin and momentum in a phonon field”.
⮚ When the electrons flow in the form of cooper pairs in materials, they do not encounter any
scattering and the resistance factor vanishes or in other words conductivity becomes infinity
which is called as superconductivity.
⮚ In superconducting state electron-phonon interaction is stronger than the coulomb force of

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attraction of electrons. Cooper pairs are not scattered by the lattice points. They travel freely
without slow down as their energy is not transferred. Due to this they do not possess any
electrical resistivity.

(b) Define Fermi energy level. Discuss various energy states by the electrons at T= 0

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K and T> 0 K on the basis of fermi factor.
Ans: Fermi energy and Fermi level:
The energy of electrons corresponding to the highest occupied energy level at absolute 0°𝐾 is
called Fermi energy and the energy level is called Fermi level.
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Fermi factor:
Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state by the electrons in a material at
thermal equilibrium.
The probability f(E) that a given energy state with energy E is occupied by the electrons at a steady
temperature T is given by

1
f (E)  ( E  EF )

e kT
1
f(E) is called the Fermi factor.
Dependence of Fermi factor with temperature and energy:
The dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and energy is as shown in the figure.
iii) Probability of occupation for E<EF at T=0K:

When T=0K and E<EF

1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝑒 −∞ +1 = 0+1 = 1

The probability of occupation of energy state is 100%

f(E)=1 for E<EF.

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f(E)=1 means the energy level is certainly occupied and E<EF applies to all energy levels below EF.
Therefore at T=0K all the energy levels below the Fermi level are occupied.
ii) Probability of occupation for E>EF at T=0K:
When T=0K and E>EF

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1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝑒 ∞ +1 = ∞ = 0

The probability of occupation of energy state is 0%

f(E)=0 for E>EF
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... At T=0K, all the energy levels above Fermi levels are unoccupied. Hence at T=0K the variation of
f(E) for different energy values, becomes a step function as shown in the above figure.
iii) The probability of occupation at ordinary temperature( for E≈EF at T>0K)
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At ordinary temperatures though the value of probability remains 1, for E<EF it starts reducing from
1 for values of E close to but lesser than EF as in the figure.
The values of f(E)becomes ½ at E=EF
This is because for E=EF
(𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
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𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒0 = 1
1 1 1
.. . 𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 ) = =
1+1 2
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 +1

The probability of occupation of energy state is 50%

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Further for E>EF the probability value falls off to zero rapidly.
Hence, the Fermi energy is the most probable or the average energy of the electrons across which
the energy transitions occur at temperature above zero degree absolute.
(c) Calculate the acceptance angle and numerical aperture of given optical fiber
having diameter of spot is 2.6 cm and distance between screen and optical fiber
3.0cm.

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9 (a) Elucidate the importance of size and scale and weight and strength in animations.

Ans: Size and Scale

The size and scale of characters often play a central role in a story’s plot.

We cannot imagine a Superman be without his height and bulging biceps? Some characters, like
the Incredible Hulk, are even named after their body types.
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We can equate large characters with weight and strength, and smaller characters with agility and
speed. As it is noticeable in real life scenarios that, larger people and animals do have a larger
capacity for strength, while smaller critters can move and maneuver faster than their large
counterparts.
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When designing characters, we can run into different situations having to do with size and scale,
such as:

1. Human or animal-based characters that are much larger than we see in our everyday experience.
Superheroes, Greek gods, monsters,

2. Human or animal-based characters that are much smaller than we are accustomed to, such as
fairies and elves.

3. Characters that need to be noticeably larger, smaller, older, heavier, lighter, or more energetic
than other characters.

4. Characters that are child versions of older characters. An example would be an animation
featuring a mother cat and her kittens. If the kittens are created and animated with the same
proportions and timing as the mother cat, they won’t look like kittens; they’ll just look like very small
adult cats.

Proportion and Scale

Creating a larger or smaller character is not just a matter of scaling everything about the character
uniformly.

Example: When we scale a cube, its volume changes much more dramatically than its surface area.
Let us say each edge of the cube is 1 unit length. The area of one side of the cube is 1 square unit,
and the volume of the cube is 1 cubed unit.

If we double the size of the cube along each dimension, its height increases by 2 times, the surface

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area increases by 4 times, and its volume increases by 8 times. While the area increases by
squares as we scale the object, the volume changes by cubes.

Wight and strength

Body weight is proportional to volume. The abilities of our muscles and bones, however increase by

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area because their abilities depend more on cross-sectional area than volume.

To increase a muscle or bone’s strength, we need to increase its cross- sectional area.

To double a muscle’s strength, for example, you would multiply its width by √2.
e.
To triple the strength, multiply the width by √3.

Since strength increases by squares and weight increases by cubes, the proportion of a character’s
weight that it can lift does not scale proportionally to its size.
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Let us take an example of a somewhat average human man. At 6 feet tall, he weighs 180 pounds
and can lift 90 pounds. He can lift half his body weight.

If we scale up the body size by a factor of 2, the weight increases by a factor of 8. Such a character
could then lift more weight. But since he weighs more than 8 times more than he did before, he
cannot lift his arms and legs as easily as a normal man. Such a giant gains strength, but loses
agility.
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(b) Discuss modeling probability of proton decay

Ans: Proton decay is a rare type of radioactive decay of nuclei containing excess protons, in which
a proton is simply ejected from the nucleus. The mechanism of the decay process is very similar to
alpha decay. Proton decay is also a quantum tunneling process.
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Modeling the Probability for Proton Decay

The probability of observing a proton decay can be estimated from the nature of particle decay and
the application of Poisson Statistics. The number of protons N can be modeled by the decay
equation

Where:

N0: is the initial quantity of the element

λ: is the radioactive decay constant

t: is time
N(t): is the quantity of the element remaining after time t.

Here 𝜆 = 1/𝑡 = 10−33/ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 is the probability that any given proton will decay in a year.

Since the decay constant λ is so small, the exponential can be represented by the first two terms of
the Exponential Series.

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Most recently the experiment on proton decay has been done by Super Kamiokande, Japan which
started observation in 1996. It is a large water Cherenkov detector which is the most sensitive
detector in the world used to examine proton decay with the huge source with 7.5×1033 protons

For one year of observation, the number of expected proton decays is then

No-N = No λ t
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Proton decay has not been detected experimentally till now probably because of fact that the event
is extremely rare. Assuming that λ = 3 observed decays per year is mean, then the Poisson
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distribution function tells us that the probability for zero observations of decay is
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This low probability for a null result suggests that the proposed lifetime of 1033 years is too short.

(c) The number of particles emitted per second by random radioactive source has a
Poisson’s distribution with λ=4. Calculate the probability of P(X=0) and P(X=1)
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10 (a) Discuss timing in Linear motion, uniform motion, show in the flow out.

Ans: Timing animation refers to the duration of an action.

In animation, timing of action consists of placing objects or characters in
e.
particular locations at specific frames to give the illusion of motion.
Line of action: Individual drawings or poses have a line of action, which
indicates the visual flow of action at that single image.
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Path of action Motion has a path of action, which indicates the path along which
the object or character moves. The path of action refers to the object’s motion in
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space.

An object moving with linear motion might speed up, slow down or move with a
constant speed and it follows a linear path.
1) Uniform motion: It is the easiest to animate because the distance the object
travels between frames is always the same.

The object moves the same distance between consecutive frames. The longer
the distance between frames, the higher the speed.

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2) Ease out / Speed up
The object is speeding up i.e it’s speed increases gradually, often from a still

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position.
The frames are located such that, initially the frames are closely spaced with
gradual increase in the spacings.
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3) Ease in/ Slowed down.

The object is slowing down, it’s speed decreases gradually often in preparation for
stopping.
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The frames are located such that, initially the frames are widely spaced with
gradual decrease in the spacings of the frames.
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4) Ease out- Ease in or Ease-Ease.

It is the combination of speed up and slowed down. That is the object initially gets
speed up initially and finally comes to still position with slowing down.
In the beginning the frames are located such that, initially the frames are closely
spaced with gradual increase in the spacings up to middle position.
From the middle position onwards, the frames are widely spaced with gradual
decrease in the spacings of the frames towards the still position.

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(b) Discuss salient features of Normal distribution using Bell curve.

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Ans: Normal Distribution:

The bell curve is a normal probability distribution of variables plotted on the graph and is like a bell
shape where the highest or top point of the curve represents the most probable event out of all the
series data.
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CHARACTERISTICS

1. The Normal Curve is Symmetrical: The normal probability curve is symmetrical around its vertical
axis called ordinate which represents the mean of distribution. The symmetry about the ordinate at
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the central point of the curve implies that the size, shape, and slope of the curve on one side of the
curve is identical to that of the other. In other words, the left and right halves of the middle central
point are mirror images, as shown in the figure given here.

2. The Normal Curve is Unimodal: Since there is only one maximum point in the curve, thus the
normal probability curve is unimodal, i.e. it has only one mode.
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3. The Normal Curve is Bilateral: The total area under the curve is 1, the 50% area of the curve lies
to the left side of the maximum central ordinate and 50% of the area lies to the right side. Hence the
curve is bilateral.

4. The Normal Curve is a mathematical model in behavioral Sciences: This curve is used as a
measurement scale. The measurement un it of this scale is ± 1σ (the unit standard deviation).
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Standard Deviations: The standard normal distribution is a normal probability

distribution that has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. The Standard Deviation

is a measure of how spread-out numbers are. As per 3 sigma rule of normal distribution,

I. 68% of values are within 1 standard deviation of the mean.

II. 95% of values are within 2 standard deviations of the mean.

III. 99.7%of values are within 3 standard deviations of the mean

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(c) A slowing object in an animation has a first frame distance 0.5 cm and first slow
in frame 0.35 m. calculate the base distance and the number of frames in sequence.
e.
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