SOMP MAINS

THEMATIC 2024 Notes

Modern History and

Freedom Stuggle
(General Studies 1)

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 Index
Topic Page
Part-A Theme – India on Eve of British Conquest, Advent of Europeans and 4-20
Consolidation
✓ Reasons For Fall of Mughal Empire
✓ Conditions in this time
✓ India on eve of British Conquest
✓ Advent of Europeans
✓ Wars – Bengal, Mysore, Marathas, Sikh
Theme – Socio Religious Movements 21-29
Theme – Revolts 30-40
✓ Tribal
✓ Peasant
✓ 1857 Revolt
✓ Changes After 1857
Theme- Pre-Gandhian Phase 41-56
✓ Pre Congress Organisations
✓ Emergence of Indian Nationalism
✓ Indian National Congress
✓ Moderates, Extremists
✓ Swadeshi movement
✓ Revolutionary Movements – Phase1, Phase 2
✓ Other Movements
Theme – Gandhian Phase 57-80
✓ Arrival of Mahatma Gandhi
✓ 3 Movements, NCM
✓ Developments between NCM-CDM
✓ CDM and related developments
✓ Congress Rule in Provinces
✓ Mission of 1940s, Quit India Movement
✓ Indian National Army
✓ Partition
Theme – Other Important Aspects British Rule 80-92
✓ Economic Policies
✓ Press
✓ Education
✓ Judiciary, Civil Services, Police,
✓ Industrial Development, Labour Movement
✓ Indian States
✓ Nationalist Foreign Policy
✓ Misc. Discussions
Theme - Miscellaneous 92-95
Part-B ✓ Important Personalities 96-109
Part-C ✓ Governor Generals 110-120
✓ Constitutional Development
Part-D ✓ Discussion of Important PYQs 121-135

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 Important Note for the students who purchased 2023 edition of the notes

✓ Follow the instructions given carefully. These instructions will help you to keep
yourself aligned with the subject, and not lose the momentum due to boredom.
✓ Additions in the notes which aren’t present in 2023 edition
o Instructions in the notes
o Some Maps and Diagrams
o The new text added has been shown in Red Font color with a different font.
o Formatting to make content more concise (those who have purchased notes
in 2023, need not worry about this aspect, as it won’t impact the things for
you much.

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 Part-A

Theme – India on Eve of British Conquest , Advent of Europeans and Consolidation

REASONS FOR FALL OF MUGHAL EMPIRE (Slightly updated)

• Aurangzeb’s Maratha Campaign

✓ Drained the resources, deteriorated the administration, undermined the
prestige
✓ Led to absence from north India for 25 yrs + neglect of the northwest
frontier.
✓ Encouraged defiance of central authority by provincial and local officials.
✓ Ruined trade and industry of the Deccan.
• Maratha and Deccani nobles incorporated after Aurangzeb’s Deccan expedition →
increased strains
• Crisis
✓ Zamindari system → Zamindari Crisis + open defiance of zamindars due to
rise of intermediaries and Ijaradars
✓ Jagir crisis → unhealthy competition among nobles in to have control over
good jagirs → treasury exhausted
• Resentment
✓ Recurrent Peasant Revolts in 17th Century
✓ Zamindars defied to transfer surplus, thus becoming local rulers
✓ Rise of Regional empires: Big zamindars and nobles → defied Mughal rule
and declared Autonomy + organized on Regional (Marathas), Religious (Sikh)
lines.
• External factors
✓ Attacks of Nadir Shah (1739) and Ahmed Shah Abdali (1761)
✓ Expansion of British.
• Other Factors
✓ Nobility
▪ Became ease-loving, fond of luxury, corrupt.
▪ Division of Mughal nobility into Irani group, Turani group, Hindustani
group
✓ Price rise
✓ Lack of scientific vigour
✓ Aurangzeb → religious policy towards Hindu rulers damaged stability of
Mughal Empire
✓ Lack of able rulers after Aurangzeb
▪ interested in luxury + didn't have strong leadership qualities.

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 LATER MUGHALS (1707-1857) (Only Important Information)

After Death of Aurangzeb

• Bahudur Shah (1707-1712)
• Jahandar Shah (1712-1713)
• Farukh Siyar (1713-1719)
✓ came to power with the help of Sayyid brothers
✓ During his reign Banda Bahadur, the Sikh chief, was captured and killed.
✓ Granted a farman to EIC in 1717 granting them duty-free trading rights for
Bengal
✓ EIC permitted to trade in Bengal, Bombay, and Madras free of customs
duty.
✓ Permitted to mint its own coins and further fortify Calcutta
✓ EIC granted right to issue passes or for the movement of such goods.
• Last Ruler → Bahudur Shah II (1837 – 1857)

Conditions in this time

✓ Try to have an understanding of this, so that you can use it indirectly as well as in
conclusion and the padding of the answer (especially significant in 15m Ques)

Polity
✓ Growth of political heterogeneity in polities of states + rise of rational and diverse
school of thoughts due to support of regional powers
✓ Allegiance shifted from Mughal power to regional states → decline of Mughal
authority

Agriculture
✓ Stagnant and technologically backward agriculture + Peasants paid revenues to
state, zamindars, jagirdars
✓ Indigenous bankers class arise to handle commercial matters (e.g.- Jagat Seth)

Trade and Industry

✓ Trade flourished
✓ Exports → Cotton textiles, raw silk, indigo, saltpetre, opium, spices, etc.
✓ Imports → Gold, musk, woollen cloth, copper, iron, lead, paper etc

Education
✓ Elementary education imparted through pathshalas + Absence of the study of
science and technology

Society
✓ Hindus were divided into many sub-castes + Muslims also divided by
considerations of caste, race, tribe
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 Art, Architecture and Culture
✓ Asaf-ud-Daula, in 1784, built Bada Imambara at Lucknow.
✓ Sawai Jai Singh built pink-city of Jaipur and five astronomical observatories (Delhi,
Jaipur, Mathura, Benares, Ujjain)
✓ Painting schools of Kangra and Rajputana came into prominence.
✓ Growth of Urdu language

India on Eve of British Conquest

Rise of Regional States - Three categories (Map Scope)

1) Successor States Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh
2) Independent States Mysore , Kerala (King Martanda Varma), and Rajput States (Raja
Sawai Singh of Amber)
3) New States Marathas, Sikhs, Jats and Afghans.

Characteristics of Regional Powers (Updated)

• Nominal supremacy of the Mughal Emperor
• Continuity of Mughal Traditions, especially land revenue system
• established law and order and viable economic and administrative structures.
• non-communal or secular.
• promoted internal and foreign trade

Hyderabad • Nizam-ul-Mulk defeated Mubaraiz Khan (1724), viceroy of Deccan

(Updated) and assumed control of deccan (1725)
• conferred upon himself title of Asaf-Jah.
• State of Hyderabad was founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724.
• Never openly declared independence from Mughal authoruty, but
in practice, acted like an independent ruler
• Nizam’s death in 1748 → end of the glory.
• Nizam’s successors faced tough challenges from the Marathas and
the European Companies (Link to 2nd Carnatic War)
Awadh • Saadat Khan had joined in a conspiracy against the Sayyid brothers,
which resulted in earning increased mansab.
• Later, driven out of the court, he was prompted to found a new
independent state. He was succeeded by Safdar Jang.
Bengal • Murshid Kuli Khan → Sarfarz Khan → Alivardi Khan → Siraj-ud-
daulah
Mysore • Initially were ruled by the Wodeyars, later Hyder Ali got power.
• Located at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats thus,
region was constant battlefield due to its prosperity.
• Tipu Sultan and Haider → constant warfare with the British (Anglo
Mysore Wars)

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 Tipu Sultan

✓ Introduced new calendar, new coins and new weighting scales

✓ Interested in French Revolution, planted a tree of Liberty in
Seringapatam, became member of Jacobin club
✓ Pioneer of rocket artillery + expanded iron-cased Mysorean rockets
+ deployed rockets against British during Anglo-Mysore Wars
✓ Attempted to introduce modern industries by importing foreign
experts and extending state support to many industries
✓ Sent ambassadors to France, Turkey, Iran and Peru to develop
foreign trade
✓ Attempted to set up trading company on European lines
✓ Agriculture :
▪ attempted to increase state income →
➢ by abolition of Jagir system
➢ by reducing hereditary possessions of poligars (feudal
chiefs)
▪ attempted to improve position of peasantry →
➢ by checking collection of illegal cesses
➢ granting remission whenever needed (Revenue
Reforms)
✓ Some British historians called Tipu a religious extremist → but not
entirely true. Despite his strong religious beliefs, he was tolerant and
supportive
▪ Example → donated money to repair temple after it was
damaged, and he regularly gave gifts to various temples.
✓ After his defeat, large territory divided into four parts- British,
Marathas and Nizams & remaining small part provided to Krishna
Wodeyar III.
Jats • Jat state of Bharatpur → founded by revolting against Aurangzeb.
• Suraj Mal → efficient system of administration and extended the
territory of the state.
• decline after the death of Suraj Mal in 1763. → then split into small
areas.
Sikhs • Guru Gobind Singh transformed Sikhs into a militant sect
• Banda Bahadur, assumed the leadership.
• Sikhs divided among 12 confederacies/misls.
• Ranjit Singh brought all misls under his control (the leader of
the Sukarchakiya misl.)
• State extended from Jhelum to Sutlej, conquered Lahore in 1799
and Amritsar in 1802.
• By 1820 → conquered neighbouring principalities +
acknowledged ruler of whole Punjab (Sutlej to the Indus)
• Treaty of Amritsar-Ranjit Singh acknowledged the British
right over the cis- Sutlej territories. But towards the end of

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 his reign, the English forced him to sign the Tripartite
Treaty in 1838 with Shah Shuja and the English Company
whereby he agreed to provide passage to the British
troops through Punjab with a view to placing Shah Shuja
on the throne of Kabul.
• modernised his army with the help of Europeans.
• Till his death → Ranjit Singh ruled as an independent ruler.
• After his death → successors could not maintain the
territorial integrity
• 1849 → British annexed it.

Marathas • The most formidable province after Mughals.

• Marathas uprooted the Mughal authority from Malwa and Gujarat
and established their rule.
• 3rd battle of Panipat – 1761 ( Marathas and Ahmed Shah Abdali;
Abdali won)
• Conflict with British (Anglo Maratha wars – discussed later)

Couldn’t emerge as an alternative to Mughals despite being powerful

• Confederacy: where power was shared among chiefs/sardars, like

▪ Bhonsles of Nagpur, Gaikwad of Baroda, Holkar of Indore or
Sindhia of Gwalior
▪ all made their fortunes as military leaders since days of Shahu;
Parts of Maratha state alienated to these military commanders
and it was difficult to control chiefs (did not like peshwa
regulating their activities)
• Uncontrolled Local administration
▪ At lower level, there was heritable watan rights (could not be
taken away by kings), like those of village headmen, mirasidars &
deshmukhs
▪ regional assemblies of Watandars exercised political power &
resolved disputes at local level, represented local loyalties as
opposed to any centralised concept of kingship
• Regional nature
▪ although Baji Rao made move towards North India, his major aim
was to establish supremacy in the Deccan
• Acceptance of Mughal Authority
▪ in 1770s Marathas acknowledged symbolic authority of Mughal
emperor
▪ in Malwa, Khandesh & parts of Gujarat, where they established
some sort of administration, it looked much like Mughal system
• Resistance from other regional powers
▪ Haidar Ali of Mysore kingdom, Nizam of Hyderabad etc.
• Administrative & financial weaknesses
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 ▪ Marathas adopted some parts of Mughal administrative system,
but they concentrated more on techniques of extracting surplus.
▪ absence of proper administrative hierarchy prevented them from
consolidating their influence at rapid pace necessary before
Afghans & British could defeat them.
• Increasing power of British in Deccan region → difficult for Marathas to
resist this efficient army.
• Technological backwardness → especially in military sphere
▪ new developments of time → artillery, small arms, flint guns and
improved firearms were not adopted
• Despotic nature of rule
▪ Marathas conquered northern states and looted them → hence
failed to win support of Rajputs, Jats & Sikhs during 3rd battle of
Panipat

Weakness of the Regional Powers (Updated)

• Regional Character → none could replace the Mughals with a political system at the
all-India level
• Decentralised political authority → chiefs, Jagirdars, and Zamindars have gained
economic and political influence
• Constant conflicts among the regional powers.
• As income from agriculture declined and the number of jagirdars multiplied
• failed to develop a system based on sound financial, administrative, and military
organisation
• backwards in science and technology

Advent of Europeans

Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese explorer arrived at Calicut in 1498.

Why advent of Europeans from 16th century?

(Will be very useful for use directly or indirectly)
1. High demand for spices and pepper in Europe.
2. Capture of Constantinople in 1453, and Syria and Egypt later by the Ottoman Turks
calling for a new route to reach India without dealing with Arabs and Turks
3. Merchants of Venice and Genoa held monopoly of trade into Europe.
4. Technological advancements: Discovery of Mariner’s compass, developments in ship
building technology, gun powder.
5. Strong kings of Spain/Portugal encouraged and supported geographical explorations.
6. Scientific agriculture methods -> Rise in productivity → Surplus → Economic growth.
7. Renaissance → Spirit of adventure.
8. Religious zeal to spread Christianity.
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European The rise – Factors Decline – Factors Other Facts
power
The 1. First in India – Early 1. 1580 → Factories -> Calicut,
Portuguese mover advantage. Portugal Cochin, Cannanore.
2. Free pass as Spanish attached to
king renounced Spain Imp : Vasco Da Gama,
interest in East. →dragged Francisco de Almeida ,
3. Domestic factors: Portugal into Alfonsode
Mughal not strong, wars with Albuquerque.
no naval power for England →
Mughals. Decline. Almeida → Blue Water
4. Portuguese naval 2. Aristocratic policy (Cartaze System)
supremacy. control over – naval trade license
5. Cartaz system: A trade. used by Portuguese to
system of license or 3. Weak political eliminate foreigners in
pass for ships sailing support. India
to a destination not 4. Emphasis on
reserved by religious
Portuguese. conversions -> Alfonso → Secured
Hostility among control of Indian ocean
locals. + Captured Goa ;
5. Rise of British Considered as founder
and Dutch. of Portuguese power in
6. Loss of naval India.
supremacy.
7. The rise of the Significance of
Marathas as Portuguese → Initiated
immediate European era +
neighbours. introduced cannon on
ship, European warfare
style, printing press,

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 tomato, chilli, potato
etc.
The Dutch 1. Occupied the 1. Dutch primary Factories →
vacuum created by interest was in Masulipatnam, Pulicat,
fall of Portuguese. spice trade. Surat, Kasimbazar etc.
2. Rise of nationalist 2. Dutch-British
feeling. agreement:
3. Development of Exchange of
Fluyt ship. Dutch EIC’s
holdings with
that of
Indonesian
holdings of
British EIC in
1667.
3. Corruption
4. Rise of British →
In Battle of
Bedara in
1759, English
defeated the
Dutch.
5. Naval setbacks.
The French 1. French EIC backed 1. Dependency on Settlements
by Govt → Higher French
resource access. government -> ▪ 1667 - Surat
2. Policy of king Lack vigour of ▪ 1669 -
makers in South private Masulipatnam
India. enterprise. ▪ Chandernagore
3. Gains from Carnatic 2. Weak ▪ Pondicherry
and Hyderabad wars organisational (nerve centre)
of succession. structure.
4. Lack of powerful 3. Continental
kingdom in South occupations in
India. Europe →War
of Spanish
Dupliex: (Updated) Succession
• In 1741, he became broke out in
the governor of Europe
French territory in therefore,
India. French had to
• Took advantage of abandon their
rivalries among local factories at
rulers to establish Surat,
French empire in Masulipatnam
India.

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 • 2nd Anglo Carnatic → Strained
War (later) resources.
• But due to Robert 4. Lack of financial
Clive, all French autonomy.
forces except those 5. Corruption.
in the Deccan were 6. War between
defeated. the Dutch and
• French finances the French
were exhausted in over
the struggle. Pondicherry
• In 1754, Dupleix was 7. Anglo-French
recalled to Paris Rivalry
The British MAIN FACTORS THAT DROVE BRITISH EMPIRE • 1613 → Factory
ESTABLISHMENT at Surat
• Quest for Dastaks for private trade • Thomas Roe,
• Anglo-French rivalry → transformed in William Hawkins
territorial expansion in India. at Jahangir’s
Court
• Gain access to strategic ports ( Carnatic and
• 1616 → Factory
Bengal etc)
at
• Growth of Company’s trade through Bombay Masulipatnam
→ concerned them about security in Deccan + • Thomas Roe
need to subjugate Marathas succeeded in
• British policy → ‘Trade with informal control if obtaining two
possible, trade with rule when necessary’ Farman
• Commerce provided will to conquer + political confirming
disunity provided opportunity. free trade
with
Factors which helped British Rise exemption
• Freedom given to British EIC -> Private from inland
enterprise. tolls and
• Simple organisation permission to
• Tactful diplomatic support. establish
✓ Eg. Thomas Roe in Mughal court. factories at
• Policy of kingmakers in Bengal. Agra,
• Financial security Ahmedabad
• Naval superiority and Broach.
• Superiority in war technology and tactics Eg. • 1632 → Golden
Mechanisation of military. Farman from
• Strategic presence. Golconda
• 1633 → EIC
established
first factory in
east India in
Balasore,
Odisha
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 • 1639 → Madras
given to British
• 1662 → Bombay
given as dowry
gift
• 1667 → Farman
by Aurangzeb
• 1700 →
Calcutta
grew from the
development
of three
villages
Sutanuti,
Gobindapur
and Kalikata
→ Fort William
made → it
became the
seat of British
power in
India till 1911.
• 1717 →
Farrukhsiyar
issued farman
(Magna Carta)
→ giving trade
concessions +
exemption from
Import-Export
duties +
permission to
issue dastaks +
Company
minted coins
to act as
currency
throughout
Mughal
Empire.

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 Image Credits - PMFIAS

Wars

✓ Either wars could be asked to you in general, or related to a specific power.

✓ Analysis on your part, as to why this happened, why British succeeded, why others
failed → is the most important.
✓ Also, equally important are the associated facts.

War Causes Impacts

First Carnatic 1. Spill out of war of Austrian 1. Battle of Adyar: French force
War (1746-48) succession in Europe in trained along Western lines
(British vs 1740. defeated Nawab of Carnatic.
French) 2. Conflict for supremacy over 2. Revealed immense superiority of
India. Western armies.
3. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapalle →
Madras restored to British +
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 French got their territories in
North America.
Second Carnatic 1. Rivalry in trade between 1. Treaty of Pondicherry -> Peace
War (1749-54) British and French. negotiations.
2. 1st CW revealed weakness of 2. Return of Dupleix: Weakened
Indian armies. French ambitions in India.
3. Dupleix devised a policy
similar to Subsidiary
Alliance in India.
Third Carnatic 1. Spill over of outbreak of the 1. The rich resources from Bengal
War (1758-63) Seven Year’s War in Europe decisively turned battle in
in 1756. favour of British.
2. Course of War in India- 2. Battle of Wandiwash, 1760 –
In 1758 → French French defeated.
captured English forts in 3. Treaty of Paris: French political
1758. English inflicted ambitions in India ended.
heavy losses on the 4. French were allowed to use
French fleet. General Indian settlements for only
Eyre Coote (English) commercial purposes and
totally routed French fortification of settlements
under Arthur de Lally were banned.
and took Bussy as 5. The victory at Wandiwash
prisoner. left the EIC with no
European rival in India.
Why the English Succeeded Against Other European Powers (Updated)

✓ Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies → English = Private ; French =

controlled and regulated by the French government.
✓ Naval Superiority
✓ Military Skill and Discipline + superiority of the commanders in British like Robert Clive.
✓ Use of Debt Market
✓ English held Calcutta, Bombay and Madras whereas the French had only Pondicherry.
Historian say, Dupleix did a cardinal blunder in finding the key to India in south India,
Clive tried to find it out in Bengal and succeeded.
✓ French subordinated their commercial interest to territorial ambition, which made the
French company short of funds.
✓ Other Factors
▪ Stable Government
▪ Lesser zeal for religion
▪ Industrial Revolution in Britain.

First Anglo- 1. Rise of Mysore: Aggressive 1. Treaty of Madras: Returned

Mysore War plans of Haider Ali alarmed areas won by each other, peace
(1767-69) British. provisions – Support each other
2. Tripartite struggle between in case of foreign attack.
British, Marathas and Nizam

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 of Hyderabad against 2. Marathas attacked Mysore in
Mysore. 1770 → No British support.
Second Anglo- 1. British failed to honour 1. Treaty of Mangalore: All
Mysore War treaty with Haider. conquests mutually restored →
(1780-84) 2. Anglo-French hostility Last occasion when an Indian
amidst American War of power dictated terms to
Independence. Company.
3. British captured Mahe, a
French settlement in
Haider’s territory.
4. Haider formed alliance with
Marathas and Nizam of
Hyderabad against British.
Third Anglo- 1. Rise of Tipu Sultan: 1. Treaty of Srirangapattinam →
Mysore War Modernizing army, internal Tipu lost half of his territories.
(1790-92) reforms (discussed already)
2. Tipu seeking French
alliance.
3. Tipu’s territorial expansion.
4. Tipu did not honour
provisions of previous treaty
on transfer of prisoners.
Fourth Anglo- 1. French fears: Napoleon 1. Tipu killed.
Mysore War landing in Egypt in 1798. 2. Wodeyar dynasty restored in
(1798-99) 2. Tipu’s Jacobian Club and Mysore → Indirectly under
tree of liberty. British.
First Anglo- 1. Death of Madhav Rao 1. Treaty of Salbai: Salsatte,
Maratha War resulted in fighting among Bassein to British, Madhav Rao II
(1775-82) the Marathas. English used as Peshwa.
this for their advantage. 2. Provided 20 year of peace.
2. Dispute for post of Peshwa 3. British exerted pressure on
(infighting among Mysore with help of Marathas.
Marathas)
3. British occupied Bassein
and Selsette.
Second Anglo- 1. Death of Nana Fadnavis -> 1. Accepted subsidiary system.
Maratha War Crisis -> Successor lacked 2. British defeated all the Maratha
(1803-06) political wisdom. forces
2. Holkars of Indore 3. Large parts of Central India
defeated Peshwas and came under British control.
the Scindias. Baji Rao II
sought British protection
and signed the Treaty
of Bassein (subsidiary
alliance)

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 3. Scindias and the
Bhonsles did not
accept this treaty and
this caused the second
Anglo- Maratha war.
4. Participants in the War:
Scindias, Bhonsles,
Holkars versus the
English
Third Anglo- 1. Infightings among 1. Suppression of Pindaris.
Maratha War Marathas. 2. Ended Maratha political
(1817-18) 2. The war began as hunt ambitions.
for pindari. 3. descendant of
3. Peshwas, Holkars and Chhatrapati Shivaji was
Bhonsles forged a placed as the ceremonial
united front against the head of the Maratha
English. Confederacy at Satara
4. Maratha confederacy was
dissolved and peshwa was
sent to Kanpur.
5. This was the last major war
fought and won by the
British. With this, the British
controlled most parts India
directly or indirectly.
Why Marathas lost?

1. Lack of stable economy.

2. Weakness in leadership.
3. Militarily not comparable to British.
4. Mutual infightings.
5. Lack of support from other states.
6. Lack of political wisdom to estimate British aspirations.

Wars in Bengal

War Facts Causes Impacts

Battle of EIC vs Siraj-ud- 1. British emerged as
Plassey, daulah 1. Misuse of trade masters of Bengal.
1757 privileges by EIC 2. Zamindari of 24
Nawab lost officials. Parganas (+grant
because of 2. Fortification in of land for
Calcutta – Threat on maintaining

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 treachery by sovereignty of army) → Revenues
Mir Jafar Nawab. to British →
3. Alleged Black hole Stronger army →
tragedy. Consolidated
4. Company wanted to position in India.
replace Nawab. 3. Plunder of wealth.
4. Began anglicisation
of India.
5. Mir Jafar made
Puppet Nawab
dependent on Clive +
resident posted +
compelled to pay
substantial money to
British +
Battle of EIC vs Mir 1. Demonstrated
Buxar, 1765 Qasim + Shuja- 1. Failure of Mir Qasim military superiority
ud-Daulah to fulfil financial of English over a
(Nawab of demands of EIC. feudal military force.
Awadh) + Shah 2. Nawab-Company 2. Treaty of Allahabad
Alam-II conflict over trade → Revenue rights of
(Mughal duty. Bengal, Bihar,
Emperor) Odisha
3. Rise of EIC as
political power.
4. Way to supremacy of
British across India.
5. Confirmed decision
of Plassey.
6. Dual Government in
Bengal 1765-72

Treaty of Allahabad

✓ Started British EIC rule in India (Along with dislodging Mir Qasim, Nawab of Bengal
till 1764, Nawab of Awadh, Shujaud- Daula)
✓ Enabled British to have political & constitutional involvement in country.
✓ treaty heralded British rule in India as Shah Alam gave Company Diwani rights (right
to collect taxes) on Mughal emperor’s behalf from wealthy territory of Bengal-
Bihar-Orissa
✓ Company directly collect revenue & pay annual tribute of Rs 26 lakh (for
maintenance of emperor’s court in Allahabad) in return

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 British became Bengal’s virtual rulers & of Bihar-Orissa by 1765→ Robert Clive first
governor of Bengal

Anglo Sikh Wars : (Slightly Updated)

1st Anglo- ✓ Cause → British wanted to protect Indian empire from Russia
Sikh War invasion from Northwest + Growing prowess of Sikhs worried
British + The Sikh forces crossed the Sutlej in December 1845 +
Sikhs took offensive position against British
✓ Result → Lahore Treaty → ended the war
2nd Anglo ✓ Cause → Murder of few East India civil service officers led to
Sikh war antagonism + rebellion by Sikh troops + Dalhousie policy of
annexation.
✓ Sikhs Lost + Punjab annexed + The famous Koh-i-Noor diamond
went into British hands.

Other Misc. Wars involving British

✓ Not very important, but slight reference can be made here and there indirectly.

Annexation of Sindh
• Napoleon planned to invade India via land route → Mission was sent to Sindh by
Lord Minto
• signed a Subsidiary Treaty in 1839
• Napier was appointed as British Resident in Sindh
• Sindh was finally annexed in 1843

Anglo Nepal War

✓ EIC annexed Gorkahpur- EIC and Nepal sharing border now.
✓ Nepal War in October 1814, finally the Nepalis were defeated and forced to sign
the Treaty of Sugauli → Nepal accepted a Brit resident + Nepal ceded
Garhwal and Kumaon; abandoned claims on Terai

First Anglo Burmese War (Updated)

• Burma occupied Arakan+ Manipur → threat to Assam+ Brahmaputra Valley →
friction along ill-defined border between Bengal and Burma
• 1824 → British attacked Burma and won
• signed Treaty of Yandabo
✓ Cede coastal provinces of Arakan and Tanasserim
✓ Abandon claims on Assam, Cachar and Jaintia
✓ British resident Stationed.

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Second Anglo Burmese War
• Why → Commercial need of Britain+ imperialist policy of Dalhousie
• war ended in English victory and annexation of Upper Burma
• Burma was governed as a separate colony)

Third Anglo-Burma War 1885

✓ New king Thibaw disliked British → disfavoured British merchants, was negotiating
commercial treaties with French, Germany etc.
✓ Dufferin invaded and annexed upper Burma (lower was already with EIC) in 1885

Afghan War
• ended with the Treaty of Gandamak

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 Theme - Socio Religious movements

Indian Renaissance → cultural movement to discover rationalism in India’s past + to

strengthen religious and philosophical traditions rationally + reform Hinduism in light of
rationalism.
[Definition → Cram it so that you can use it easily at different places]

Genesis of awakening
✓ Hinduism became → compound of magic, animism and superstition.
✓ Social conditions → Child marriages, female infanticide, lack of women education,
etc.
✓ Caste → Untouchability and oppression → went against dignity of the individual →
sapped individual initiatives.
✓ Establishment of colonial rule + attempt to disseminate colonial culture in India.
▪ In contrast to an enlightened Europe, India at British arrival was a stagnant
civilisation and static and decadent society.
✓ Impact of modern western education, rise of middle class
✓ Rising spirit of nationalism
✓ Ideological concepts like rationalism, religious universalism and humanism.

Reform movements
Movement Details
Brahmo Samaj About
• By Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• 1828 – Brahmo Sabha -> Brahmo Samaj.
• To reform and purify Hindu religion + preach monotheism
• Based on teachings of Vedas and Upanishads.

Features of Brahmo Samaj (Updated)

✓ Denounced polytheism and idolatry
✓ Discard faith in avatars (incarnations)
✓ No scripture is ultimate authority above human reason+
conscience
✓ No definite stand on karma and transmigration of soul – left
to individuals
✓ Against caste system
✓ Social reforms

Positives
• Began reformation of Hindu religion.
• Women related : Against sati, early marriage, purdah,
untouchability etc.
• Criticised caste system.
• Emphasized on rationalism and modern scientific approach.
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 • Western education.
• Condemned prevailing Hindu Prejudice against going
abroad.

Negatives
• Remained intellectual movement.
• Became all India movement under Debaendranath Tagore ->
Sectarian divisions.
• Too radical for a society with mass illiteracy and ignorance.

Contributions of RR Roy :
• Atmiya Sabha in 1814, Calcutta Unitarian Society.
• Books → Gift to Monotheists + Precepts of Jesus + compiled
a Bengali Grammar + Translated Vedas, Upanishads into
Bengali + Newspaper = Samandh Kaumudi
• Social Reform efforts: (Updated)
✓ Supported David Hare in founding Hindu College in
1817 + 1825 → estd. Vedanta College
✓ Women’s right → against polygamy; rights of widows;
Right to inherit property for women
✓ Started anti-sati struggle in 1818
✓ Enriched Bengali – compiled Bengali grammer book
and evolved a modern elegant prose style
• Internationalist → supported revolutions of Naples and
Spanish America.
• Supported Freedom of Press; pioneer of Indian journalism
(many languages)
• Other demands (Updated)
✓ Condemned zamindars and demanded fixing of max
rents
✓ demanded tax abolition on tax-free lands
✓ demanded reduction in EX duties; end spl EIC trading
rights
✓ demanded Indianisation of superior services
✓ demanded separation of judiciary from executive
✓ demanded judicial equality between Indians+
Europeans+ trial by jury

Possible Ques → RR Roy had contributed in multiple ways beyond

his contribution towards social reforms. Explain

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Ishwar Chandra • movement in support of widow remarriage
Vidyasagar • principal of Sanskrit College + opened Sanskrit College to
non-brahmins
• Introduced Western thought in Sanskrit College
• Pioneers of higher education for women in India.
• Wanted to break priestly monopoly of scriptures.

Young Bengal • By Henry Vivian Derozio.

Movement • He who will not reason is a bigot; he who cannot is a fool,
and he who does not is a slave.
(Could be a separate
Ques of 10 marks as Positives
well) • Inspired free thinking, rationalism, questioning authority +
equality and freedom + supported women’s rights and
education.
• demanded induction of Indians in higher grades of services,
protection of ryots from oppressive zamindars, better
treatment to Indian labour abroad in British colonies
• Establishment of Calcutta Public Library.
• Mother tongue as medium of instruction.

Negatives
• Storm in a tea cup.
• Failed to grasp realities of Indian society.
• Total reliance on Western rationalism and scientism.
• Failed to organise as a social movement.
Prarthana Samaj
• Founded by Atmaram Pandurang in 1867 + Leadership and
growth under Ranade.
• Preached monotheism, against idolatry.
• Promoted women education and widow re-marriage.
• Subtle approach: Change will be gradual → Larger
acceptance.

✓ (You don’t need to remember the points specifically; just

the name of the organisation, founder and common points
✓ Moreover, these types of small organisations can only be
mentioned in an indirect way)
Arya Samaj
(Could be a separate • Founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875.
Ques of 10 marks as • Motto: Go back to Vedas.
well) • One of the makers of Modern India, he wanted to bring a new
social, religious, economic and political order in India.

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 • Attack on caste system, idolatry, Brahmanical dominance
etc.
• Against casteism (agreed with Chaturvarna but by
occupation, not birth), untouchability.
• Criticized escapist Hindu belief in maya and
moksha + advocated that every individual must
work for own salvation.
• Started Shuddhi movement to re-convert people to
Hinduism.

Positives
• Spread of education – Dayanand Anglo-Vedic schools.
• Opposed Idol worship + theory of incarnation.
• Advocated Female Education + opposed child marriage and
polygamy.
• Encourage inter-caste marriages and widow re-
marriages
• Instilled feeding of equality and brotherhood -> Nationalism,
self-confidence.
• Tried to reform Hindu society and religion + emphasized on
liberation of Hindu society.

Negative
• Contributed towards glorifying Hindu Religion exclusively in
the long run.
• Issues of contention
✓ Education:
▪ College Group (Lala Lal Chand, Lala Lajpat Rai
etc) favored govt curriculum and English
education
▪ Mahatma Party → Sanskrit-Veda study of
ancient gurukuls
✓ Question of vegetarianism
Ramkrishna Mission • to bridge the gulf between paramartha (service) and
vyavahara (behaviour), and between spirituality and day-to-
day life
• He advocated spirit of liberty, equality and free thinking
• Vivekananda advocated the doctrine of service—the service
of all beings. The service of jiva (living objects) is the worship
of Siva.

Objectives :
• To bring into existence a band of monks dedicated to a life
of renunciation and practical spirituality, from among whom
teachers and workers would be sent out to spread the

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 universal message of Vedanta as illustrated in the life of
Ramakrishna
• To carry on preaching, philanthropic and charitable works,
looking upon all men, women and children, irrespective of
caste, creed or colour, as veritable manifestations of the
Divine.
Jyotibha Phule • Founded Satyashodhak Samaj (truth Seeker society) ;
leadership from lower castes.
• Pioneer of women education + opened girls school at Poona
• Gave sense of identity to depressed communities.
• Pioneer of widow remarriage movement
• Books – Gulamgiri (compared condition of lower castes in
India with Black Slaves in America)
Movements in South India
Shri Narayana Dharma • Born out of conflict between depressed and upper non-
Paripalana Movement Brahmin castes in Kerala.
(SNDP) • Started by Shri Narayana Guru Swami.
• Equality among all.
• Right to school, right to road, right to temple for all.
• Began upward mobility, re-distribution power structure in
society.
Self-Respect • Started by E V Ramaswamy Naiker in 1920s in Tamil Nadu.
Movement • Against caste system. Setup with the aim of achieving
a society where backward castes have equal
human rights
Theosophical Society • Founded by Madam H P Blavatsky and Colonel H S Olcott in
of India 1875 in USA.
• Annie Basant popularised in India.
• Revival of Eastern faiths, checking missionaries, establishing
Indian ideal of education, revivalist.
• Establishment of Benaras Central Hindu School in 1898 (By
Annie Basant).
Movements among Muslims
Wahabi Movement • By Shah Walliullah
• Revivalist movement to Western Influence
• Called for return to True Islam
• Convert Dar-ul-Harb (land of Kafirs) to Dar-ul-Islam (Land of
Islam)
• Failed to withstand military action by British in 1870s.
Ahmaddiya • Mirza Ghulam Ahmed
Movement • Bearer of Mohemmadan Renaissance + based on principles
of universal religion of all humanity + opposing Jihad + spread
western liberal education
Aligarh Movement • Started by Syed Ahmed Khan.

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 • Based on principles of western concepts of liberty and
rationality.
• Upheld rationalism against religious orthodoxy.
• Emphasis on modern education.
• Started Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh in
1975.
• Opinion → Religion should be adaptable with time or else it
would become fossilised, and that religious tenets were not
immutable
Others • Fairizi Movement, Titu Mir’s movement, Deoband Movement
Other Religions’ Movements.

Parsi Reform Movements

• Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha founded in 1859
• Newspaper - Rast goftar
• Personalities – Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhar Naoroji etc.
• Parsi religious rituals and practices were reformed and the Parsi creed redefined.
• To uplift the status of Parsi women through
▪ removal of the purdah system
▪ raising the age of marriage
▪ education.

Sikh Reform Movements

• Singh Sabhas (1870) → Khalsa College was founded at Amritsar in 1892 + promoted
Gurumukhi, Sikh learning and Punjabi literature as a whole.
• After 1920 → Akali Movement rose
▪ to improve the management of the Gurudwaras or Sikh Shrines that were
under the control of priests or Mahants who treated them as their private
property.
▪ In 1925, right of managing Gurudwaras to the Shiromani Gurudwara
Prabandhak Committee → based on gandhian ideology of non-violence and
Satyagraha.
▪ After the key transfer of golden temple toshkhana Gandhiji sent a telegram of
congratulation that the first war of India’s independence has been won.
• Nirankari Movement of Baba Dayal Das
• Namdhari Movement of Baba Ram Singh

Other Important Miscellaneous Movements

Women
(Some fodder points • 1848: JED Bethune— Benthune School
apart from other • ICVidyasagar >=35 girls’ schools in BN
points)

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 • 1910 → Sarla Devi Chaudrani convened 1st
Bharat Stree Mandal meeting in Allahabad →1st
major Indian women orgn set up by a woman.
• 1904 → Ramabai Ranade founded Ladies
Social Conference (Bharat Mahila Parishad)
• Mehribai Tata → Vital role in forming NCW of
India (a national branch of International
Council of Women)
• Widow Remarriage Movement + Widow Home
Association by DK Karve and MG Ranade
• Other details – given in PYQ solution
Caste • Jyotibha Phule
• BR Ambedkar
✓ All India Scheduled Castes Federation, Bahishkrit
Hitkarni Sabha, All India Depressed Classes
Association
✓ Mahad Satyagraha 1927 for consumption of water
from public water pond and temple movements.
✓ Fight for separate electorates for SCs.
• E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar)
• Sri Narayana Guru
Others • Gopalhari Deshmukh Lokhitawadi – If religion doesn’t
sanction social reform, then change religion
• GK Gokhale – servants of India Society to train national
missionaries for service + prepare a cadre of selfless
workers
• NM Joshi – Social Service League

Reformism Revivalism
Favor Social Reform Against
Liberal attitude towards colonial state Against Colonial state
Influenced by western enlightenment Ancient religion revival + instilling self
confidence

Positive impacts of socio-religious reforms

1. Women upliftment: Banning of Sati in 1829, Hindu Widow Remarriage Act in 1856
etc.
2. Caste upliftment: Breaking Brahmanical monopoly in religion
3. Children
a. Child Marriage Regulations – Sharda Act due to relentless efforts of social
reformers, Age of Consent Act 1861 due to efforts of BM Malabari
b. Child Labour Regulation

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 c. Education – nearly all socio-religious movements advocated for education of
Children
d. Preventing Female infanticide
4. Spread of western education and scientific temper.
5. Evaluate socio-religious practices with rationality.
a. Example →No infallibility of the Vedas (Brahmo Samaj)
6. Spirit of self-reliance and determination
a. Swami Dayanand, Swami Vivekananda, IC Vidya Sagar and R.N.Tagore →
gave a new life and a new spirit
7. Seeds for Indian nationalism and political awakening prepared by them.
8. Religious knowledge → disseminated via translation of religious texts into
vernacular languages. Ordinary people also started interpreting scriptures

Negative impacts /challenges of socio-religious movements

• Narrow social base → reformist spirit appealed only to a very small elite group .
✓ Example → In Bengal → confined to Bhadraloks (economically well off and
well settled)
• Appealed more to Intellectual Middle Class.
• Conflicts over gamut of reforms, mode of reforms, vision of organization
✓ Examples – in Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj → division
• Language of reforms: difficult to comprehend by ordinary people.
✓ Example → Raja Ram Mohan Roy
• Variation in Geographical spread.
✓ Example → in Madras → caste domination of Brahmins → reforms took
time to appear
• Reforms like Untouchability taken only in Gandhian Era concretely.
• Roots of communalism: Compartmentalised reforms, communal consciousness;
Seeds of partition: Shuddhi movement, later part of Aligarh movement etc.
• Attitude → Faith in Benevolent nature of colonial rule
• appeal to past, encouraged pseudo scientific thinking
• Alienated high caste Hindus from low caste Hindus as glorifying ancient period was
not acceptable to the low caste sections of society which had suffered under
religiously sanctioned exploitation
• Overemphasis on religious and philosophical aspects + insufficient emphasis on art,
architecture, literature, music, science and technology.
• Many reforms through legislation were ineffective. (this can be a separate
Question, that’s why concrete examples given)
✓ Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856 → did not legitimize practice + didn’t
gain social acceptance”
✓ Similarly, Vishnushatri Pandit’s fight for Widow Remarriage in Maharashtra
→ failure

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 ✓ Veerasalingam Pantulu’s Society for Social Reforms →could not mobilize
popular
✓ Thugee act, 1836 → but challenges in curbing thugee + loot in name of
religion
✓ Abolition of Slavery in 1843 → but slavery type Bonded laborers continued in
agriculture
• not everyone appreciated these liberal ideas
✓ E.g. Dharm Sabha of Radhkant Deb opposing Brahmo Samaj supported
Practice of Sati
✓ Bharat Dharm Mahamandal – by Pandit Di Dayal Sharma against College
Group of Arya Samaj.
If the reform movements had totally rejected tradition, Indian society may have
undergone a process of westernization.

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 Theme - Revolts

Tribal movements [MAP SCOPE]

• Tribal issues
✓ British government’s extended authority over land
▪ rapid changes the British introduced in the economy, administration
and land revenue system
▪ establishment of the Forest department in 1864, Forest Act (1865) and
Indian Forest Act in 1878 → established complete government
monopoly over Indian forest land
▪ Shifting Agriculture was banned from 1864
✓ exploitation by money landers, traders and land grabbers + extortions
✓ British laws and rules not sophisticated to suit tribal customs (Eg. Joint
ownership among tribals)
✓ spread of Christianity by Missionaries.
✓ new courts and legal system, prevalence of corruption at the lower levels.
• Result
✓ Disruption of old agrarian order
▪ tribals, zamindars and poligars lost their lands
▪ Eroded the joint ownership
▪ increased the socio-economic differentiation in the egalitarian
structure
✓ reduced tribals to position of agri labourers, sharecroppers
✓ influx of non tribals in the tribal areas
✓ relationship with forest transformed
✓ disrupted tribal identity.
• Revolts in eastern India (Remember 3 Main Revolts and 3-4 apart from that)

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 ✓ Sanyasi revolt: Late 18th century,
Bengal, immediate cause –
Restriction upon pilgrims visiting
holy places + holding of food
stocks by British officials ->
artificial famine ; made famous by
Bankim Chatterjee in his novel
‘Anandmath’
✓ Santhal rebellion: 1855-56,
Odisha-Bihar (Daman-i-Koh
region) Leaders – Sidhu and
Kanhu, Against – Diku
(Outsiders); cause : exploitation
by moneylenders ; wanted to
usher in Satyug (reign of Truth);
sidu and Kanhu told that God had communicated with them and told them to
take arms ; attacked mahajans, zamindars, police stations; crushed by british;
led to creation of separate Santhal Parganas.
✓ Munda rebellion: Birsa Munda ; Chotanagpur region
▪ Reason – Intrusion of Jagirdars, moneylenders → destruction of
common landholding system;
▪ 1st time Tribal women participated;
▪ Birsa claimed divine powers + wanted to estd. Munda Rule;
✓ Chaur and Ho risings: 1829s, 30s,
✓ Kol rising: 1830s
✓ Ahoms revolt: 1829s, 30s, Assam ; when British tried to incorporate Ahom
Territories;
✓ Khasi rising: 1830s, Jantia and Garo hills, under Tirat Singh.
✓ Naga Movement – to estd. Naga Raj ; Main leader → Rani Gadinileu;
✓ Pagal Panthis: 1830s-40s
▪ semi-religious sect founded by Karam Shah, his son Tipu
▪ cause of tenants against zamindars oppression.
✓ Faraiziz revolt: 1830s-50s, Dadu Mian; expel British + tenant cause.
✓ Paika rebellion: 1817, peasant militias of Gajapati rulers of Odisha, Baxi
Jagabandhu.
• Revolts in Western India (Remember any 3)
✓ Bhil rising: 1817-19, encouraged by Peshwa Baji II.
✓ Koli rising: 1820s-40s ; EIC rule brought unemployment for them.
✓ Cutch rebellion: 1810s; British interfered in internal feuds + deposed Cutch
Ruler Rao Bharamal.

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 ✓ Kolhapur and Savantvadi Revolts : Gadkaris (hereditary military class) rose in
rebellion due to unemployment.
✓ Ramosi rising: Maharashtra, 1820s, Chittur Singh.
• Revolts in South India:
✓ Revolt of Raja Vizianagaram: 1790s
✓ Revolt of Velu Thampi: 1800s, Travancore, Nair battalion.
✓ Poligars revolt: 1800s, Malabar region.
• Revolts in North India:
✓ Wahabi movement: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Islamic revivalist movement with
anti-imperial elements.
✓ Kuka revolt: 1840s, Punjab, religious purification movement; abolition of
discrimination against Sikhs; by Bhagat Jawahar Mal
• Limitations of tribal uprisings:
✓ They result mostly of local grievances. Local and isolated.
✓ Semi-feudal leadership, backward looking, traditional in outlook and offers
no societal alternative.
✓ Primitive tools and fighting methodology, no concept of organised military,
no match to British.
✓ Leaders pacified by concessions given by British.
• Significance- estd valauable traditions of local resistance to British Rule. Indian people
were to draw inspiration from these traditions in the later struggle for freedom.

Role of Some Important Tribal Personalities

(This you can include as important value addition in your answers in this theme)

•Rani Gaidinliu
▪ spiritual and political leader→ of Rongmei tribe
▪ At 13, became associated with a freedom fighter → Started Heraka
movement, based on ancestral Naga religion
▪ imprisoned for life→ released after 14 years, in 1947→ Jawaharlal Nehru
called her Daughter of the Hills & gave title Rani
▪ received Padma Bhusan in 1972.
• Ramji Gond
▪ Gond chief + ruled tribal areas (present-day Telangana)
▪ fought against British rule → caught & hanged→ inspired later actions of
Kumram Bheem
• Rani Kamalapati
▪ after her name PM Narendra Modi inaugurated revamped railway station
▪ tribal queen of Bhopal's Gond kingdom of 18th century
▪ avenged her husband's death by killing Alam Shah.
• Helen lepcha
▪ freedom fighter from Sikkim
▪ participated in non-coperation movement of 1921
▪ helped Netaji Subhash chandra bose escape house arrest
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 • Kittur/Rani Chennamma
▪ queen of Kittur (princely state in present day Karnataka)
▪ led armed resistance against British East India Company in 1824
• Rani Durgawati
▪ queen of Gonds
▪ icon due to warfare strategy and for successfully defending her kingdom
against Mughal armies ( 1550-1564 )
• Tantya Bhil
▪ Known as Indian Robin Hood by tribals
▪ waged armed struggle against British rule for 12 years
▪ used to loot treasuries of British government & distribute wealth among the
poor.

Important for Mains 2024

Alluri Sitarama Raju (born in present-day Andhra Pradesh)
✓ inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement→ persuaded people to wear khadi &
give up drinking
✓ but asserted that India could be liberated only by use of force, not non-violence
✓ revolutionary who waged armed campaign against British colonial rule
✓ contemporary of Komaram Bheem
✓ opposed British in response to 1882 Madras Forest Act (restricted free movement
of Adivasis, banned collection of minor forest produce, tribal people were forced
into labour by colonial government)
✓ led tribals in Andhra and combined their demands (tribals subjected to exploitation
by muttadars, village headmen commissioned by colonial government to extract
rent; threatened tribal's traditional podu /shifting cultivation, as the government
sought to secure forest lands) with those of Non-Cooperation Movement
✓ Rampa or Manyam Rebellion continued → in form of guerrilla war until May 1924,
when Raju was captured & executed→ Rampa Rebellion coincided with Non-
Cooperation Movement.
✓ In 2022, PM unveiled bronze statue of Alluri Sitharama Raju in Andhra Pradesh.

Komaram Bheem
✓ revolutionary leader in Hyderabad State from Gond tribe
✓ though illiterate, learned to read & write, became aware of movements by likes of
Birsa Munda→ inspired by Sitaram Raju, Birsa Munda & Ramji Gond
✓ During 1900s, expansion of mining activities & strengthening of state authority in
Gondi region, regulations were introduced and enforced which hampered
subsistence activities of the Gondis
✓ started mobilising Adivasi population; formed guerilla army protect Adivasi lands &
fought with Nizam.
✓ legacy of Bheem brought back into spotlight → featured in mainstream political
discourse with growing support & prominence of demand for new state of
Telangana.

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 Agrarian movements

• Agrarian issues
▪ Old agrarian system collapsed
▪ new land revenue systems ->
Emergence of new social classes +
excessive land revenues
▪ Land became a marketable
commodity
▪ Exploitation by Zamindars,
moneylenders and traders
▪ Absentee landlordism
▪ No investment in Agriculture
▪ Commercialisation of agriculture
▪ Evictions, absence of class consciousness
▪ Famines.
• Indigo revolt: 1859-60
▪ against forced cultivation of indigo crop
▪ under leadership of Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Biswas
▪ Refusal by peasants led to physical oppression and imprisonment ; Indigo was
forced to be grown on the best land; Planters entered into fraudulent contracts
▪ Resistance + Legal machinery + Social boycott used by farmers;
▪ Indigo Commission in 1860 -> Many factories closed, not be forced → Source
of inspiration.
▪ support of intelligentsia, press and missionaries of Bengal
▪ Din Bandhu Mitra’s Neeldarpan
▪ Hindu-Muslim unity
• Deccan revolt: 1874-75
▪ Reason → heavy taxation under Ryotwari system + vicious network with
moneylenders
▪ little actual violence except the forcible seizure of debt bonds held by their
traditional headmen (Patel).
▪ Agriculturists Relief Act, 1879.
▪ Poona Sarvjanik Sabha Supported.
• Pabna Agrarian Leagues
▪ Zamindar enhanced rent from tenants from acquiring occupancy under act X
of 1859.
▪ Forcible eviction of peasant, seizure of cattle & crops and filing litigation
against peasant.
▪ Peasant formed agrarian league to resist the demands of the zamindars.

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 ▪ 1885 Bengal tenancy act was passed, major issue were solved
▪ Supported by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R C Dutt & Indian association
under Surendranath Banerjee.
• Kisan Sabha Movement – 1919
▪ Majority cultivators subjected to high rents, arbitrary evictions (Bedakhali).
▪ The Home Rule activists organized KisanSabhas in UP ;
▪ Baba Ramchandra → Prominent Leader;
• Eka movement: 1921 in Central Provinces, Congress and Khilafat leaders provided
initial thrust, grass-root leadership not in favour of non-violence.
• Mappila Rebellion – Malabar region; Mappila peasants (Muslims) expressed their
resentment against the oppression of the landlords (Hindus); turned communal;
• Gandhiji and peasant struggles:
▪ Champaram: Bihar
▪ Enquiry Commission with Gandhi as member → Champaran Agrarian
Act freed tenants from special compulsory taxes levied by indigo
planters.
▪ Kheda satyagraha: 1918, Gujarat.
▪ Bardoli satyagraha: 1928, Gujarat
▪ against increased land revenue, known for women participation, led by
Vallabhbhai Patel
▪ Bardoli Satyagraha Patrika was published to organize movement
▪ The women of Bardoli gave Vallabhai Patel the title of “Sardar”.
• All India Kisan Sabha, AIKS: Formed in 1936 under leadership of Swami Sahajanand
Saraswati abd NG Ranga, Kisan Manifesto issued.
• Tebhaga movement
▪ Flood commission recommended Tebhaga— two-thirds’ share—to the
bargardars (sharecroppers) instead of the one-half share
▪ Main Participants –Rajhasis community and Muslim peasant ; The movement
dissipated soon-Bargardari Bill, an intensified repression, the popularization of
agitation for a separate Bengal & renewed riots in Calcutta.
• Telangana peasant struggle → extreme feudal type oppression by Jagirdars and
deshmukhs + communists organised peasants against the hated forced grain levy
imposed by the government, and forced labour extracted by landlords and officials +
people started a movement for integration under the leadership of the State
Congress.

Analysis of Peasant Movements

Peasant movements before 1857
• organized themselves + elected their own leader.
• collectively raised a huge army with primitive weapons.
• attacked courts and looted stores.

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First Phase (1857-1920s)
• sporadic growth of peasant movements due to absence of proper leadership
• Tyranny of zamindars + exorbitant rates of land revenue + periodic recurrence of
famines → aggravated the situation.
• Ryotwari areas → peasantry against policies of the British
• Zamindari areas → struggle of tenants and a chain of sub tenants.

Weaknesses of First phase

• lack of an adequate understanding of colonialism
• did not target colonialism but zamindars, money lenders who were just pawns in
the colonial rule.
• did not possess a new ideology + old societal order prevailing which lacked a
positive conception of an alternative society
• grew out of narrow regional grievances
• spontaneous without any planning.
• lacked an effective leader
• Caste, religion played significant role in the mobilisation of peasants

Second Phase (1920s-1946)

• emergence of the class conscious peasant organisations. The first
• formation of the All India kisan sabha. → reflected the aspirations and needs of the
peasantry.
• Civil disobedience Movement integrated peasants demands with national goals.
• Formation of congress ministries in 1937 → new era in peasant movement.
• Faizpur Congress Session → formulation of the Congress agrarian programme.
• Local issues integrated with the national cause of Swaraj.
✓ Swami Sahajanand’s movement for the abolition of zamindari in Bihar, no
revenue campaign in Punjab, UP → norevenue no-rent.

Post-independence Phase
• Telangana movement, Tebhaga movement, PEPSU tenant’s movement
• Naxalite or Maoist movement in the late sixties
• New farmers movements of the eighties.
• issues shifted from colonialism and feudalism to issues arising out of the Green
Revolution , struggle for land reforms.

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 Revolt of 1857

Why Indian Soldiers rushed to Delhi

• Mughals stood as a symbol of political unity of India
• Soldiers particularly had no leadership qualities to lead revolts.
• One of the biggest arsenal was inside the city walls of Delhi.
• Delhi had a secular legacy, thus, Muslim soldiers were more comfortable.
• Delhi → geographically located somewhat in the centre of Northern India, so easy to
reach.

Causes of revolt
(Don’t merely cram them, try to read them slowly so that they get integrated into your
understanding and you can reproduce it easily)

Political causes • Greedy policy of aggrandizement + broken pledges and oaths

resulted in loss of prestige
• Policy of ‘effective control’ and gradual extinction of Indian
native states with perfection of Subsidiary Alliance system.
• Culmination under Dalhousie through Doctrine of Lapse.
• Absentee sovereign-ship: India ruled from Britain.

Administrative • Indian aristocracy deprived of power and position.

causes • Military high post attainable for Indians – Subedar.
• Civil services maximum salary restricted.
• Inefficient and insufficient administrative machinery.
Corruption at lower levels.
• Complex inaccessible and inefficient judicial system.

Economic causes • Complete destruction of traditional handicraft industry.

• Commercialisation of agriculture. No investment in
agriculture
• Heavy taxation under new revenue settlement, summary
evictions, discriminatory tariffs against Indian products
Socio-religious • Rule infected with spirit of racism: Physical and political
causes injustices.
• Role of Christian machineries: Conversions.
• Lex Loci – Religious Disabilities Act, 1850: Allowed convert
Christians to inherit ancestor land.
• Social reforms: Abolition of Sati, 1829, legalizing widow
remarriage, 1856 etc.
• Taxing lands belonging to temples and mosques.

Military Causes • General Service Enlistment Act decreed that future recruits to
cross sea for providing their services.

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 • Unhappy with emoluments compared to British counter
parts.
Trigger • Refusal to use greased cartridge.

This table will be your value addition if a question on Revolt of 1857 is asked.
Leaders of revolt British Officers who Role of women in 1857
• Bahadur Shah Zafar surpassed the Revolt revolt
chosen as symbolic • Rani Lakshmi Bhai,
head. • Delhi and Lucknow - Moti Bhai (to save
• Local Leaders Sir Collin Campbell Lakshmi bhai),
✓ General • Jhansi - Sir Hugh Begum
Bakht Khan – Rose • Hazrat Mahal, →
Bareilly • Banaras - Colonel front runners
✓ Nana Saheb – Neil • Communication
Kanpur network led by
✓ Begum common women
Hazrat Mahal along with men to
– Lucknow deliver the right
✓ Kunwar Singh message
– Bihar • Bheel tribal women
✓ Rani (Sursi) → inspired
Laxmibhai - his son to arm
Jhansi etc. against British

Causes for failure of Revolt

• Localised and restricted: Bombay and Madras armies remained loyal; Nepal,
• Afghanistan remained friendly to British; Punjab was kept intact.
• British far more resourceful than rebels: British can avail military capacity from
outside; Indians got poor weaponry, poor gun, swords, spears etc.
• Telegraph – Strategic advantage.
• Revolt mainly feudal in character: Led by Rajas.
• Poorly organised: No cohesive strategic plan.
• No common ideal among rebels except anti-foreign sentiments.
• Exceptional leadership of British: Lawrence brothers, Nicholson etc.

Various perspectives on Revolt of 1857

(This can be utilised in conclusions)
• Imperialist view: British historians have treated the great uprising of 1857 as a sepoy
mutiny.
• Rightist view: Eg. V D Savarkar viewed revolt of 1857 as First War of Indian
Independence.

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 • Nationalist view: A feudal uprising though there were some nationalistic elements
in it.
• Racist view: Some English historians have described the Revolt of 1857, as a war of
races, it was a struggle between the whites and the blacks.
• Religious view: Hindu- Muslim conspiracy against British (Not much evidences).

Changes after 1857 (Very Important)

(Don’t merely cram them, try to read them slowly so that they get integrated into your
understanding and you can reproduce it easily)

In Administration • Control of Indian administration transferred from EIC to

Crown by GOI Act, 1958.
• Appointment of Secretary of State for India, assisted by
Council of 15.
• Ended dualism in control of Indian affairs.
• Indian Civil Service Act, 1861: All subjects to be admitted
without discrimination. Annual competitive exam to be held
in London.
• Cooperation of Indians in administration: Addition of native
members to legislative councils.
• Indian Councils Act, 1861: Humble beginning towards
development of representative institutions.
• Gradually, decentralisation was done due to financial
difficulties faced + pressure of nationalists ; Mayo’s
Resolution → Ripon = Father of Local Self Government +
local boards established and power of municipalities
increased → Under Dyarchy : Local Self Govt made a
transferred Subject → GoI Act 1935 → demarcation of
taxation powers b/w provincial and local finance.
• Era of territorial aggrandisement gave place to era of
economic exploitation.
Princely States • . The era of annexations and expansions ended Indian states
had served as ‘breakwaters to the storm’: To preserve them
as bulwark of Empire became a cardinal principle of British
policy. Doctrine of Lapse was abolished
• Indian states were henceforth to recognise the paramountcy
of British crown
• Exercised the right to interfere in the internal matters of the
states.
In Economy • Era of financial capitalism.
Other Policies • Muslims considered responsible for the rebellion + their
property confiscated on large scale. Policy of Divide and
Rule began
• Hostility to educated Indians
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 • Zamindars and landlords were used as counter-weights
• Reversal of policy of support to social reforms.
• Social services ignored.
• Half-hearted and inadequate labour legislations introduced.
• Restriction on freedom of press
• British assured the people that religious and social practices
would be respected and not be interfered.
• Increased racial bitterness: White man’s burden ; Policy of
Divide and Rule adopted (b/w Hindu-Muslims; Princely state-
Nationalists; Peasants-Zamindars)
Foreign policy • Keep other European powers at an Arms length.
• Reach out to natural geographical frontiers for internal
cohesion and defence.
Changes in Army To stop recurrence of mutinies + increase control over Army →
British overhauled British Indian
Army

• Proportion of Europeans to Indians was changed

• European monopoly in important geographical locations,
high positions, strategic departments (artillery etc.)
• Reorganised on the basis of balance and counterpoise
• ideology of martial and non-martial races propagated.
• Preference was given to Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans, who
had assisted British in 1857.
• Caste and communal divisions were introduced
• newspapers and journals access was denied to them.

Consequences
• Indian Army became a pure mercenary force → could fire
on anyone.
• unity of the army was lost
• Indians not in key positions → their capacity to revolt
vanished.
• Due to its separation from → hardly affected by the
nationalist sentiments

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 Theme – Pre-Gandhi Phase

Political developments before Congress

In Bengal Presidency
Bangabhasha Prakasika • Formed by associates of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
Sabha, 1836
Zamindari • Many Anglo-Indians as members.
Association/Landholders
society, 1838
Bengal British Indian • Collecting and disseminating information about
Society, 1843 actual conditions of people of British India.
British Indian Association, • Formed by merger of Bengal British Indian society
1851 and Landholders society.
• Dominated by members of landed aristocracy.
• Members usually nominated to legislative councils.
Indian League, 1875 • Founded by Sisir Kumar Ghosh.
• To promote sense of nationalism among the people
and encourage political education.
Indian Association • Led by Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan
Bose.
• To create strong public opinion on political question
and unify Indian people on common political
program.
In Bombay
Bombay Association, 1852 • Based on similar lines of British Indian Association.
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, • Formed by M G Ranade.
1879 • To serve as a bridge between government and the
people.
Bombay Presidency • Founded by Pherozeshah Mehta, K T Telang,
Association, 1885 Badruddin Tyabji and others.
In Madras Presidency
Madras Native Association, • Based on lines of British Indian Association.
1852
Madras Mahajan Sabha, • Founded by M. Virarghavachari, G. Subramaniya
1884 Iyer, Ananda Charlu and others.
• To coordinate activities of local associations and to
provide a focus for non-official intelligence sharing
through presidency.
Others
East India Association, 1866 • Founded by Dadabhai Naoroji in London.
• To influence British people to promote Indian
welfare.

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 Pre-Congress Campaigns:
• For Indianisation of govt. service (1878-79).
• Against Lytton’s Afghan adventure.
• Against Arms Act (1878).
• Against Vernacular Press Act (1878).
• For right to join volunteer corps.
• Against plantation labour and against Inland Emigration Act.
• In support of Ilbert Bill.
• Campaign in Britain to vote for pro-India party.
• Against reduction in maximum age for appearing in Indian Civil Service; the Indian
Association took up this question and organised an all-India agitationagainst it,
popularly known as the Indian Civil Service agitation

✓ Prep Tip and Ans writing Insight for Pre Congress Org Campaigns –
Remember 2-3 Orgs of each region have an idea of the demands. (You need
not cram the exact points)
✓ Understand the essence of the demands of the Congress → this will help
you understand the gamut of issue prevalent at that time.

Emergence of Indian Nationalism

• Nation building → always a process of continuous adjustments, accommodations
and contestations.
• This too was in case of India. Debates regarding
✓ Whether Indian nationalism a product of “elite nationalism” or “subaltern
Nationalism of masses”
✓ whether a mere response to modernism or indigenous development.

NEW MIDDLE CLASS AND EMERGENCE OF NATIONALISM

• Traced to → “traditional patriotism” (active sentiment of attachment to culture) +
developed long before westernization.
• Post 1857 → spread of Communication, education, print → tried to fuse together
regional, local and fragmented identities into modern nation.
• Intelligentsia like British India Association → faith in benevolent nature of British
rule (though aware of India’s growing subordination)
• India’s cultural past and traditions + ideological inspiration → helped them confront
colonial state
✓ However → this sense of pride also resulted in uncritical and obscurantist
defense of all customs of past + It united Hindus but alienated Muslims, Non-
Brahmins, and untouchables → one of the reasons of Communalism.
• 2nd half of 19th Century
✓ Educated Indians agitation against Income Tax imposition
✓ growing awareness about drain of wealth

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 ✓ Lowering age for ICS, Vernacular Press Act, Arms Act → further incited the
situation.
✓ Illbert bill → last nail in coffin.
• Organizations like → Indian Association, Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, Madras Mahajan
Sabha → estd from ashes of old organizations
✓ showed new public awareness
✓ linked Peasants cause (example→ support for Indigo riots, Deccan riots, and
✓ demanded Equality and share in administration (here they differed from
older organisation dominated by landlord)
✓ However → even new organisation had bourgeoisie image.

Cultural Nationalism in late 19th century due to some issues like

• Cow protectionism in 1893 started by Arya samaj + Cow → became symbol to
mobilize Hindu sect eliminating regional, social and linguistic barriers.
• Hindi-Urdu Controversy→ though both essentially same languages, but both
languages got associated with Hindu and Muslims + Association of leaders like
Madan Mohan Malviya → gave it political color
• Use of religious symbols → Ganapati, Shiva festival
• Issue of Christian missionary activities of reconversion of radicalized Christians.
• With Theosophical society in 1882 → cultural revivalism in Madras got strength.
• Sikh nationalism → reaction to Arya Samaj’s conversion Movement + alienation
of Sikh in employment , Education , stereotyping of Sikh identity, Official control of
Sikh places . They wanted purification of Sikhism + making Gurumukhi script and
Punjabi language dominant.

Role of British in national movement

• Unification: By civil services, unified judiciary, codified laws, Railways and

telegraph
• Rise of middle class→ Discussed already
• Press
• India past: Scholars like Max Muller aroused nationals feelings and demolished
colonial myths that Indian was inferior race and bound to servility (See Schools of
thought in the end)

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 Indian National Congress

Important features of INC:

• Objective → Development and consolidation of national unity.
• Session every year in different part of country → to break regional barriers
• Democratic conduct of sessions → No resolution will be passed if majority of
Hindus/Muslims oppose

Drawback of INC (Just Have an Idea..details not important)

• Uneven representation → till 1909 → > 70% delegates were landlords, lawyers and
traders.
• Geographic inequality → Bengal was losing leadership to Bombay
• Social composition → 90% delegates till 1909 were Hindus ( 40% among Hindus
were Brahmins)
• Conspiracy theories → Safety valve to weaken the national movement
• Pro-landlord policies → opposition to Mining bill, labor reforms in Bombay . This
gave chance to British to project itself as pro-peasants
• Silence on issues like cow-killing riots of 1893 + No social issues taken by congress
until 1907.

Moderates and Extremists

(Try to understand conceptually first by slow reading, rather than mere cramming)

Dimensions Moderates Extremists

About • Held moderate views in • Held extreme political views.
politics. • Promoted by younger generation
• Style of Congress in early days. of Congress.
Ideology • Traditional values, inspiration
• Faith in providential nature of from ancient Indian civilisation,
British Raj. culture, religion and polity.
• Rationalism and western ideas. • Hatred for foreign rule
• Only against un-British rule. • Stressed on equality and self-
respect.
• Believed in capabilities of
masses.
• No faith in British benevolence.
Reasons for rise of Extremist politics

• Realisation that the true nature of British rule was

exploitative, and that the British India government, instead of
conceding more, was taking away even what existed
• Growth of self-confidence and self-respect.
• Impact of growth of education—increase in awareness and
unemployment.
• Reaction to increasing westernisation

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 • Existence of a militant school of thought

International ✓ demolished the myth of white/European

influences and supremacy
events ✓ emergence of Japan—an Asian country—as
an industrial power Abyssinia’s (Ethiopia)
victory over Italy.
✓ Boer Wars (1899-1902) in which the British
faced reverses.
✓ Japan’s victory over Russia (1905).
✓ nationalist movements worldwide
Factionalism • Bengal → divide in Brahmo samaj,
Aurobindo VS Bipin Chandra Pal.
• Maharashtra→ Tilak VS Gokhale
• Punjab → Division in Arya samaj after
Sahajanad (moderates VS Radical revivalist)
Frustration with • new constitution for Congress ratified in
moderate 1899 after Tilak’s insistence, but never
politics implemented.
Curzonian • Indian University Act (1904)
administration • Indian Official Secrets Amendment Act
(1904)

Aim • Reform British rule. • Self-government or Swaraj.

• Self-government within
framework of imperial rule.
Demands • Democratic rights for • Immediate control of national
educated citizens. affairs by Indians.
• Larger Indian participation in • Non-interference by British.
legislative assemblies.
• Changes in economic policies.
• Demanded local self-
government like colonies of
Canada and Australia.

Methods Constitutional methods • Passive resistance.

• Petitions • Opposition of unjust rules.
• Prayers • Boycott of British goods and
• Protests institutions.
• Indigenous alternatives.
Achievements • Large people aware of evils of • New forms of struggles like
foreign domination. boycott of foreign goods, use of
• Economic critique of British popular festivals and melas.
imperialism → Exposed • National education.

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 economic fall outs – Drain of • Support to Swadeshi
wealth. enterprises.
• Constitutional reforms and • Active involvement of masses.
propaganda in legislature→ • Role of BG Tilak
✓ Expansion and
reform of council
(Indian Council
Acts, 1892)
✓ slogan 'No taxation
without
representation'
✓ used the councils
for ventilating their
grievances.
• General administrative
reforms
✓ Indianisation of
government
service
✓ Separation of
judicial from
executive functions
✓ Criticism of
oppressive
bureaucracy
✓ Criticism of an
aggressive foreign
policy
✓ Better treatment
for Indian labour
abroad
• Defence of civil right →
popularised democracy, civil
liberties and representative
institutions.

Failures • Could not convert it into an • Difference in interpretation of

effective mass movement. idea of Swaraj.
• Extremists criticized them of • Failed to appreciate the role of
being incompetent of getting moderates as an outer line of
reforms defence.
• Over-confidence on strength of
• Demands not fulfilled. masses.
• Criticised for being too • Religious symbolisms.
cautious – Politics of • Leaderless after Surat split 1907
-> Rise of revolutionary terrorism.

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 mendicancy or Period of Tea-
Party Politics
• Representing mostly interests
of educated middle class
• Bengal→divided against the
will and wish of people
• Savarkar brothers and
Chapekar brothers started
advocating extremism +
Emergence of leaders like Tilak

Conclusion Flames ignited by then facilitated

continuance of national
movement.

Ways of working in councils

• Used councils for exposing the true nature of British Government + indifferent
attitude towards Indians.
• Attacked government foreign policy
• made councils a platform for political discussions. Gokhale raised important
questions regarding the budget in the council and anti-Indian economic policies.
• raised demands regarding discrimination of Indians in civil services exam, to
increase the social spending,
• able to create a wide national awakening + used these councils to disseminate
modern ideas.

Swadeshi movement

• Began as a reaction to partition of Bengal → came into force in October 1905

✓ Motive behind partition → to weaken Bengal which was the nerve centre of
Indian nationalist activity by dividing Bengal
▪ On the basis of language – reducing Bengalis to a minority
▪ On the basis of religion → western half as Hindu majority
area and eastern half as Muslim majority area
✓ official reason → Bengal had become too big to administer(which was true to
some extent) + development of Assam
• Moderate-led anti-partition movement (1903-05)
✓ Under Surendranath Banerjea, K.K. Mitra, Prithwishchandra Ray.
✓ Methods included public meetings, petitions, memoranda, propaganda
through newspapers and pamphlets.
✓ Newspapers-Hitabadi, Sanjibani and Bengalee were published
✓ August 7, 1905 → passage of the Boycott Resolution → formal
proclamation of Swadeshi Movt was made.

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 ✓ October 16, 1905 – partition came into force
▪ Observed as a day of mourning.
▪ Bande Mataram and Amar Sonar Bangla composed by
Rabindranath Tagore) were sung.
▪ People tied rakhis on each other’s hands as a symbol of
unity of two halves of Bengal.
• movement under Extremists (1905-08)
✓ led by Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lajpat Rai, Aurobindo Ghosh.
✓ Methods
▪ boycott of foreign cloth and other goods
▪ public meetings and processions
▪ Emergence of Corps of Volunteers/Samitis: Eg. Swadesh Bandhab
Samiti of Ashwini Kumar Datta.
▪ Use of popular festivals and melas
• Tilak’s Ganapati and Shivaji festivals became a medium of
swadeshi propaganda.
• Traditional folk theatre forms performed in Bengal.
▪ Emphasis given on self-reliance: implied re-assertion of national
dignity, honour & confidence and social & economic regeneration of
villages→ included social reform and campaigns against caste
oppression, early marriage, dowry system, consumption of alcohol,
etc
▪ National Education
• Bengal National College was set up (Aurobindo Ghosh as its
Principal)
• National Council of Education → set up to organise national
education - literary, scientific, and technical.
• Bengal Institute of Technology → set up for technical
education.
▪ Swadeshi (Indigenous) Enterprises: Swadeshi textile mills, soap and
match factories, tanneries, banks, insurance companies, shops, etc.,
were setup
• V.O.Chidambaram Pillai’s venture into national shipbuilding
enterprise – Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company at
Tuticorin
• Cultural resurgence –
✓ Rabindranath Tagore wrote Amar Sonar Bangla (inspire liberation struggle of
Bangladesh→ adopted as their national anthem in 1971.)
✓ Swadeshi influence could be seen in Bengali folk music in form of Palligeet and
Jari Gan.
✓ Abanindranath Tagore broke the domination of Victorian naturalism over
Indian art and sought inspiration from rich indigenous tradition of Mughal,
Rajput and Ajanta painting.
✓ Indian society of oriental art was founded in this time + Nandalal Bose→ first
recipient of a scholarship offered by the Indian Society of Oriental Art
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 • During Swadeshi Movement, the day of partition, was declared as mourning day +
People tied rakhis + Vande Mataram became the National Song of Bengal

Achievements Failures

• Large sections of society brought • Mass mobilisation limited to

into active participation in educated class.
nationalist politics → Extent of • Use of religious symbols →
mass participation—students, Communal factor.
women, certain sections of • Peasants, Muslims not mobilised.
zamindari, labour, some lower
• Surat split, 1907.
middle and middle classes in towns
and cities participated for the first ▪ Moderates wanted to restrict
time while the Muslims generally the Boycott Movement to →
kept away Bengal + boycott of foreign
• Boycott of foreign goods -> cloth and liquor
Indigenous industries demand ▪ Extremists wanted to take
boost. the movement to → all parts
• Political direction to economic of the country + boycott of
grievances of middle class. schools, colleges, law courts,
• Movement was not limited to legislative councils,
Bengal [MAP SCOPE] government service,
✓ Poona and Bombay → Bal municipalities, etc.
Gangadhar Tilak • Swadeshi products expensive
✓ Punjab → Lala Lajpat Rai, • National education limited
Ajit Singh • Government Acts for Repression of
✓ Delhi → Syed Haider Raza Swadeshi Movement → Seditious
✓ Madras → Chidambaram Meetings Act (1907), Criminal Law
Pillai (Amendment) Act (1908), Indian
• “A leap forward” → Newspapers (Incitement to
✓ hitherto untouched sections
Offences) Act (1908), Indian Press
participated
Act (1910)
✓ major trends of later
movement emerged
✓ richness of the movement
extended to culture, science
and literature
✓ people educated in bolder
form of politics
✓ colonial hegemony
undermined

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 Why British choose to introduce Responsible self govt from late 19th century though
rule had strong paternalistic policies?
• Financial exigencies → more representation of Indians in local govt would raise
more revenue
• Weak empire theory → empire turning weak → needed local support
• Raising Nationalism
• Spread of extremism + Morley-Minto → more vocal about Indian participation.

Revolutionary Movements

Phase 1: 1900s till 1920

This can be a separate 10mark Question

Underlying factors Nature

1. Failure of moderate and extremist 1. Leading by action, following model

methods → Leaderless after Surat of Irish militants and Russian
split. nihilists.
2. Spirit of revivalism: Rising 2. No mass revolt or armed mutiny.
confidence in Indic identity. 3. No proper understanding of British
3. International factors: Victory of rule.
Ethiopia over Italy, Japan over Russia 4. Organised as secret societies. Eg.
etc. Abhinav Bharata in Bengal.
5. Spread outside India.

Important Revolutionary Acts [MAP SCOPE]

✓ Remember few examples from each region. Most likely if asked, question will
be on overall theme, where you will have to mention 2-3 examples from each
region.
BENGAL Maharashtra

1. Alipore Bomb Conspiracy (1908) 1. Ramosi Peasant Force by

▪ plot was devised to Vasudev Balwant Phadke in 1879
assassinate Douglas Kingsford 2. Chapekar Brothers (against
(British Chief Magistrate) by atrocities committed by British

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 Prafulla Chakki and Khudiram during Plague epidemic in Pune)
Bose shot W C Rand (1897), Chairman
▪ accidentally detonated bomb of Special Plague Committee
on carriage on April 30, 1908, 3. Savarkar and his brother
killing two English ladies organized Mitra Mela, a secret
2. Anushilan Samiti society, in 1899 which merged
▪ led by nationalists Aurobindo with Abhinav Bharat (after
Ghosh and his Brother Mazzinni's 'Young Italy') in 1904
Barindra Ghosh
▪ members of Samiti, mostly
young students, trained in Punjab
military drill, boxing, 1. Ajit Singh (Bhagat Singh's uncle)
swordplay and other kinds of who organized the extremist
exercise. Anjuman-i-Mohisban-i-Watan in
3. Delhi Lahore Conspiracy Case (1912) Lahore with its journal, Bharat
▪ Assassination attempted on Mata
Lord Hardinge, Viceroy of India
▪ led by Rash Bihari Bose and
Sachin Chandra Sanyal.

International level

1. Shyamji Krishnavarma had started in London in 1905 an Indian Home Rule

Society— 'India House'- to bring radical youth from India, and a journal The
Sociologist
2. Madanlal Dhingra assassinated, the India office bureaucrat Curzon • Wyllie in
1909
3. Madam Bhikaji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary who had developed contacts with
French socialists and who brought out Bande Mataram. She participated in the
Second Socialist Congress at Stuttgart, Germany and unfurled “Flag of Indian
Independence
4. Berlin Committee - Indian Independence Committee at Berlin in 1915 –
Virendranath Chattopadhayaya

Ghadar Party
• revolutionary group organised around a weekly newspaper.
• headquarters → San Francisco
• set up a 'Swadesh Sevak Home' at Vancouver and 'United India House' in Seattle.
• Lala Hardyal, a political exile from India, assumed the leadership and founded the
Hind Association in Portland.
• Finally in 1913, the Ghadr Party was established
• Party Published a weekly newspaper, the Ghadar (Rebellion), named after the revolt
of 1857. Its caption was “Angrezi Raj ka Dushman.

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Indirect gains from militant activities
• Hanging of Khudiram Bose widely published by press → fired entire Bengal
population.
• attained legitimacy in people’s mind ( as potential alternative to political
mendicancy)
• Decentralization of revolutionary activities
• Morley-Minto reforms →considered announced due to fear of rising extremism
• Annulment of partition in 1911
• Shifting of capital to Delhi → for ending the political dominance of Bengal

Phase 2: 1920s and 30s

Underlying factors Nature

1. Limitations of nationalist 1. Transformation from individual

movement Eg. Withdrawal of NCM. heroics to mass revolutions.
Sudden end of 2. Targeted working-class population.
NCM→ disillusioned 3. Close association with Communist
revolutionaries re-began their party/leaders.
activities 4. Association with Congress.
2. Advent of socialism post Russian 5. Women participation.
revolution. 6. No religious oaths.
3. Upsurge in working class trade 7. Mostly excluded Muslims.
unionism after the war
4. Influence by the extolling
articles on self-sacrifice of
revolutionaries, such as
Atmashakti, Sarathi and Bijoli.

Punjab Bengal

• HRA was formed in 1924 by Bismil, • Chittagong armoury raid to seize

JC Chatterjee and Sachin Sanyal and supply arms to the
✓ to organise an armed revolt revolutionaries to destroy telephone
to overthrow the colonial and telegraph lines by Surya Sen and
government. others.
✓ establish federal
republic of united states
of India
• Kakori robbery in 1925
✓ Government cash was looted
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 ✓ A big crackdown by
Govt → setback for HRA
• HRA to HSRA in 1928 → Inspired by
socialist events + to address the
Kakori setback;
✓ under Chandrashekhar Azad
Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev,
Bhagvaticharan Vohra etc.
• Saunders murder by Bhagat Singh,
Azad and Rajguru (Saunders →
police official responsible for
the lathi charge in Lahore and
for death of Lala Lajpat Rai
during Anti-Simon commission
protest)
• Use of pamphlets and paper to
create awareness i.e. Bhagwati
Chandra Vohra’s “Philosophy of
Bomb”
• Bomb in central legislative assembly
against public safety bill and Trade
disputes bill (to curtail) civil liberties
of citizens
✓ bombs deliberately
made harmless and
were aimed at making
the ‘deaf hear
✓ objective → get arrested
+ use the trial court as a
forum for propaganda of
their ideology

Similarities in Bengal and Punjab Differences

• Build the cadres by inspiring the • Punjab, U.P → resorted to

youth individual heroic actions while
• Demoralise the colonial bureaucracy Bengal → in groups
• Vision of socialist state + secular • Women participation → more in
character. Bengal region especially. (Will be
very useful when needed to quote
women specific examples)
✓ Example: Pritilal waddedar,
Kalpana Dutta, Sunita

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 chowdary, Shanti Ghosh and
Bina Das.
▪ Pritilata Waddedar
→ died conducting a
raid
▪ Kalpana Dutt → tried
and life sentenced
along with Surya Sen.
▪ Santi Ghosh and
Suniti Chanderi →
shot the DM
▪ Bina Das → fired
point blank at the
governor at
convocation

Surya Kumar Sen

✓ Indian revolutionary→ lead 1930 Chittagong armoury raid (attempt on 18 April
1930 to raid armoury of police & auxiliary forces from Chittagong)
✓ School teacher by profession & known as Master Da
✓ selected as president of the Indian National Congress's Chittagong branch in 1918.

Other Important Movements

Home Rule
League Factors for genesis
✓ Need for popular pressure
✓ Disillusionment with the Morley-Minto reforms
✓ Wartime misery fertile for movt.
✓ War (propaganda against each other) exposed myth of white
superiority.
✓ Tilak released in 1914; role of Annie Besant [foreigner role]

Facts
• Demand - Self Rule on the lines of British Colonies elsewhere,
formation of linguistic states and education in the vernacular
• Organize as per model of Irish Home Rule Leagues
• Committees of dedicated workers formed.
• Press used to articulate demands. [Role of Press]
• Used vernacular languages. [Fodder point anywhere]
• Popular in Gujarat, Sind, UP, Bihar.
• Created a dedicated cadre for the nationalist cause.

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 Tilak Home Rule League Annie Besant Home Rule League

✓ Started Home Rule ✓ Started the Home Rule

League in April, 1916 at League in September,
Belgaum (hence 1st to 1916 at Madras.
launch) ✓ Promoted their league
✓ Promoted their league through Common Weal
through Maratha and and New India
Kesari ✓ Areas - covered the rest
✓ Areas - Maharashtra of India (including
(excluding Bombay city), Bombay city)
Karnataka, Central
Provinces, and Berar.

Declined due to :

• lack of effective organization

• Moderates pacified by talk of reforms
• Talk of passive resistance by the Extremists kept the Moderates
away from activity from September 1918 onwards
• The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms divided the nationalist ranks.
• Tilak had to go abroad (September 1918) in connection with a
case while Annie Besant vacillated over her response to the
reforms and the techniques of passive

Significance (Updated)

✓ Shift of emphasis from elites to masses

✓ Establishment of linkages b/w towns and villages
✓ Creation of a generation of ardent nationalists.
✓ Preparing masses for Gandhian style politics
✓ Montagu statement of August 1917 released (Very Important
statement. It can come in very handy directly or indirectly)
▪ “The govt policy is of an increasing participation of
Indians in every branch of administration and gradual
development of self-governing institutions with a view
to the progressive realization of responsible govt in
India as an integral part of the British Empire.”
✓ Reunion b/w Moderates and Extremists (Lucknow Pact)

Lucknow pact, • Agreement made by the Indian National Congress and Muslim
1916 League. Adopted by the Congress at its Lucknow session, 1916.
• Congress agreed to separate electorates for Muslims in
provincial council elections.
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 • Paved the way for Hindu-Muslim cooperation in the Khilafat
movement and Mohandas Gandhi’s non-cooperation
movement from 1920.
• Seeds of partition.

Why the change in ML’s attitude?

➢ Britain’s refusal to help Turkey in Balkans
➢ Annulment of Partition of Bengal
➢ Britain’s refusal to set up university in Aligarh
➢ Younger nationalists → Rise of younger members in the
➢ League who were more anti imperialistic- Maulana Azad (his
work ‘Al Hilal’), Mohammad Ali (his work ‘Comrade’) [Role of
Muslims]

Rowlatt Act, • Aimed at curtaining civil liberties of Indians in the name of

1919 terrorist violence.
• Gave government enormous powers to suppress political
activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without
trial for 2 years.
• Suspending right to Habeas corpus.
Montague- • While Rowlatt Act was the stick, M-C Reforms 1918 was the
Chelmsford carrot. GoI Act 1919 enacted based on these (discussed later)
Reforms and
GoI Act 1919

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 Theme – Gandhian Phase

ARRIVAL OF MAHATMA GANDHI – How was it Important?

(Try to understand the context of these points, so that you can reproduce it at various
places whenever required)

• Frustrated and saddened due to moderates-extremist rift and inactivity, Gandhi

offered the youth way ahead.
• he promised a noble and ethical political program
• WW I → socio-economic difficulties for all the classes of Indian population+
discovered ugly face of Western Civilization → disillusioned educated Indians
• Ideology of Gandhi
✓ rooted in India’s civilization and pluralism + used religious idioms to mobilize
the masses (based on religious morality)
✓ Critical of ‘Modern Civilization’ → threatened legitimacy of colonial rule
✓ Idea of Satyagraha → superior moral power of the protesters capable of
changing the heart of the oppressor
• Political goal of Swaraj → not defined by him → thus could unite different
communities (“Inclusivism”)
• Gandhi was able to project a centrist position for himself. Tactically, he combined
the goal of moderates with the means of extremists.
• Gandhi’s Mass appeal → simple attire, use of Hindi, reference to Ramrajya.
• Others → Not in favor of Industrial Capitalism. + said that it was essential to evolve
an Indian alternative to western liberal political structures (Swaraj, has to be
experienced by each one for himself”
• Rowlatt agitation
✓ movement lapsed into violence
✓ Gandhi said it was a Himalayan blunder → by offering weapon of satygraha
to people who have not understood non-violence completely.
✓ Movement was first nationwide popular agitation shifting momentum of
politics from elites to masses.

The First 3 Movements

CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA (1917)

First Civil Disobedience
• Significance - Joining of peasant unrest to India's National Movement
• Rajkumar Shukla invited Gandhi to Champaran to look into the Indigo(Neel)
Planters Problem.(Indigo cultivation in India declined due to synthetic dye)
• Tinkathia System - forced them to cultivate Indigo 3/20th part of the land.
• Leaders associated-Rajendra Prasad, C.F. Andrews

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 • Finally only 25 per cent of the money taken should be compensated. (Champaran
Agrarian Act of 1917.
AHMEDABAD MILL STRIKE (1918)
First Hunger Strike
• Discontinuation of plague bonus - conflict b/w cotton mill owners and workers.
• Gandhi - fast unto death.
• Anusuya Sarabhai was a social worker who invited Gandhi to fight for workers.
• Tribunal awarded the workers a 35 per cent wage hike- demand was for 50%.

KHEDA SATYAGRAHA (1918)

First Non-cooperation

• Crops failed in Kheda district of Gujarat because of drought.

• Gandhi asked the farmers not to pay the taxes.
• Leaders: Sardar Vallabhai Patel, Narhari Parekh, Mohanlal Pandya.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (APRIL 13, 1919)

• British troops fired on a large crowd of unarmed Indians at Jallianwala Bagh in
Amritsar in Punjab.
• Reason - Gandhi called for a one-day Rowlatt Satyagraha + Satya Pal and Saifuddin
Kitchlew had been arrested + people gathered to demonstrate at Jallianwala Bagh
for their arrest
• Aftermath - Rabindranath Tagore renounced the knighthood, gave up title “Sir”+
Shankar Nair resigned from the viceroy's Executive Council as a protest against the
Jallianwala Bagh massacre + Gandhi started Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–
22)
• Hunter committee of Disorders Inquiry Committee - didn’t impose any
disciplinary actions on Dyre.

Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM)

(Try to understand the essence of the movement before cramming, so that you can
reproduce it in the right way, especially in the analytical questions)
• 1920-22
• Aim: To induce the British government of India to grant self-government, or swaraj,
to India.
• Gandhi’s first organized acts of large-scale civil disobedience.
• Trigger: Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919. (Discussed below)
✓ No government deserves respect which holds cheap the liberty of its
subjects” excerpt from young India after Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.

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 • Gandhi strengthened the movement by supporting contemporaneous Muslim
campaign against dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire after World War I.
• Nonviolent, Indians resigning their titles, boycotting government educational
institutions, courts, government service, foreign goods, and elections.
• Specific : [Map Scope]
✓ In Bengal, a movement was started against Union board taxes
✓ No tax campaign was started in Andhra Pradesh
✓ aroused popular resentment among the Moplah against their Hindu landlords
(discussed)
✓ Akali Movement (discussed)
✓ labour in tea plantations of Assam also went on strike during this movement
• 1920 Nagpur Session – NCM endorsed + congress Working Committee established +
congress membership made more accessible.

Some Successes of NCM Limitations of NCM

• Boycott of council elections • Violence: Bombay riots on eve of

successful (except in Madras) visit of prince of wales, chauri
• Foreign cloth import fell chaura
• Anti-liquor campaigns succeeded in • Rift of extremist section who
Punjab, Madras, Bihar, Odisha trusted Gandhi
• Hindu-Muslim unity (except in • Justice Party → turned Movement
Malabar) into Brahmin-Non Brahmin issue
• Anti-Untouchability Movement → • South India unaffected. Movement
brought in forefront by Gandhi succeeded only where already
• involvement of hitherto politically existing peasant agitations were in
backward sections like Rajasthan, force like which later were
Sindh, Gujarat, Awadh etc. absorbed in NCM.
• Tribal involvement → forest • use of religious rhetoric by Khilafat
satygrahas in Andhra, Bengal, leaders resulted into riots like
movement against forced labor in Moplah riots
Almora • Rise of Hindu Revivalism
• Labor unrest • Industrialist remained largely loyal
• Peasant Agitation → UP Kisan to govt
Sabha Movement, Patidar’s No
revenue campaign in Kheda, Bihar
Anti-planters agitation, Orissa anti-
feudal demonstrations
• Inspiration to generations →
examples of local leaders like C.R.
Das giving up lucrative law inspired
younger population.

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 ✓ In young India, Gandhi ji
established that “There is
no doubt that non-
coperation is an education
• Widespread participation of
Muslims.
• Edu institutions organised
under Acharya Narendra Dev,
CR Das, Subhas Bose (became
Pres, National College,
Calcutta)
✓ included Jamia Millia
(Aligarh), Kashi
Vidyapeeth, GJ
Vidyapeeth, Bihar
Vidyapeeth.
• Lawyers gave up practice
✓ Motilal, Nehru, C Rajag.,
Kitchlew, Patel, Asaf Ali,
Rajendra Prasad

Withdrawal post Chauri Chaura incident

Why Khilafat?
• spiritual leader Khalifa remove from power by British in Turkey hence Muslim
demand start.
• In early 1919, a Khilafat Committee formed by Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali and
Muhammad Ali and Hasrat Mohani)
• All India Khilafat Conference setup in Nov 1919, Gandhi was President. During this-
call for non-cooperation with the British Government in India. boycott of councils.

Drawback of integrating Khilafat Movement

• Despite its strong anti-imperialist tone, in essence it pan-Islamic, fundamentalist
movement
• failed to raise the religious political consciousness of Indian Muslims
• criticised for mixing religion with politics.
• Ulema → led to the radicalisation of the movement and the sidelining of
moderate leaders
• religious fervour → outbreak of Moplah riots in
• rise in militant Hindu radicalism in response to the movement.
• set a precedent for future mobilisation of the Muslim masses by invoking religious
symbols and imagery
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 Developments between NCM and CDM

Swarajists vs No-changers

Swarajists (Pro-Changers) No-changers

• Supported Council entry as another • Participation in elections will defy
alternative to national movement. philosophy of non-cooperation.
• Election campaigning and winning • Shift focus and weaken resolve
will boost morale of masses. against government.
• Prevent undesirable elements from • Confuse leaders and masses.
taking these posts. • Breed political corruption in
• Ultimate aim Swaraj. movement.
Works
Achievements • Carried out laborious, quiet,
• Build a common political front with undemonstrative, grass-roots
liberals. constructive work.
• Exposed true character of reformed • Promotion of khadi, national
councils and Montford Reforms education, Hindu-Muslim unity.
• Defeated passage of Public Safety
Bill (1928).
• Demands for budgetary grants
under different heads repeatedly
voted out.
• Vithalbhai Patel elected Speaker

Weakening
• By 1924 → Swarajist position
weakened due to communal riots
• split among Swarajists themselves
on communal and Responsivist-
Non-responsivist lines
• death of C.R. Das in 1925 weakened
it further.
• The Responsivists → Lala Lajpat Rai,
Madan Mohan Malaviya and N.C
Kelkar advocated cooperation with
the Government and holding of
office + accused the Non-
responsivists like Motilal Nehru of
being anti-Hindu and a beef-eater
• In 1930 → Swarajists finally walked
out as a result of the Lahore
Congress resolution on purna swaraj

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 Emergence of New Forces during 1920s (Updated)

• Spread of Marxism and socialist ideas

✓ These young nationalists were critical of both Swarajists awa no-changers
✓ advocated purna swaraj;
✓ influenced by international issues;
✓ need → to combine nationalism+ anti-imperialism
✓ CPI formed in 1920 in Tashkent by MN Roy etc.
✓ 1925 → formalized foundation of CPI in Kanpur
• Activism of Indian youth
• Peasants’ agitations
• Growth of trade unionism
✓ AITUC founded in 1920 → Lala Lajpat Rai was 1st president
• Caste movements (Remember some examples)
✓ Justic Party (Madras)
✓ Self-respect movt (1925) under Periyar EV Ramaswamy Naicker (Madras)
✓ Satyashodhak activists in Satara (MH)
✓ Bhaskar Rao Jhadav (MH)
✓ Mahars under Ambedkar (MH)
✓ Radicals Ezhavas under K Aiyappan and C Kesavan in KR
✓ Yadavs in BR for improvement in social status
• Revolutionary terrorism with a tilt towards socialism (discussed)

Simon Commission, 1927

• Statutory Commission to review Constitution, as provided under GoI Act, 1919.
• Objective – Constitutional Progress
• Did not include any Indians → Country wide protests from all political parties.
• Opposed by INC, Hindu Mahasabha, ML
• Recommendations – abolition of diarchy + rejected parliamentary responsibility at
centre + advocated for separate communal electorates + gradual Indianisation of
Army.

Nehru Report
• Response to Lord Birkenhead challenge + Committee under Motilal Nehru (Others –
Tej Bahadur Sapru, Subhash Bose, Mangal Singh etc)
• Recommendations
✓ Dominion status as immediate step.
✓ Federation of British India and Indian States.
✓ Joint electorates with seats reserved for minorities.
✓ 19 fundamental rights – equal rights for women, right to form unions, UAF.
✓ Bicameral legislature.
✓ Universal adult franchise.
✓ Linguistic provinces.
✓ Protection to cultural and religious interests of muslims
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 ✓ Complete dissociation of state from religion.
• Report rejected by JL Nehru, SC Bose → setup Independence for India League.
• At Calcutta Session, 1928 → Nehru Report approved + 1 yr period given to Govt to
accept the goal. If Govt doesn’t accept → Complete Independence would be
demanded+ CDM would be launched to attain goal.

Delhi proposals and Jinnah’s 14 points (Not Important)

Muslim League put forward four demands
• Joint electorates in place of separate electorate with seats reserved for Muslims.
• Central Legislative assembly shall have one-third representation for Muslims.
• Representation of Muslims in proportion to their population in Muslim majority
areas, that is in Punjab and Bengal.
• Demand for formation of 3 new Muslim majority provinces – Sindh, Baluchistan and
North West Frontier Province.
These proposals were accepted by Congress in Madras session, 1927.
Jinnah proposed 14 points in 1929
1. Federal constitution with residual powers with the provinces.
2. Provincial autonomy.
3. No constitutional amendment without the agreement of the states.
4. All legislatures and elected bodies to have adequate Muslim representation without
reducing Muslim majority in a province to minority or equality.
5. Adequate Muslim representation of Muslims in the services and in self-governing
bodies.
6. 1/3rd representation of Muslims in the Central Legislature.
7. 1/3rd Muslim members in the central and state cabinets.
8. Separate electorates.
9. No bill to be passed in any legislature if 3/4th of a minority community considers it
against its interests.
10. Any reorganisation of territories not to affect the Muslim majority in Bengal, Punjab
and the NWFP.
11. Separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency.
12. Constitutional reforms in the NWFP and Baluchistan.
13. Full religion freedom for all communities.
14. Protection of the religious, cultural, educational and language rights of Muslims.

Chronology

✓ Irwin’s Declaration/ Deepavali Declaration → restated goal of dominion status, but

no timeframe given + promise of RTC after Simon Commission Report.
✓ Delhi Manifesto by Congress → 1929 + purpose of RTC should be to advance
towards dominion status + Congress should be in majority at RTC → Rejected by
Irwin → Lahore Session.

Lahore session, 1929

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 • Jawaharlal Nehru elected as President of INC.
• Formally proclaimed the goal as full independence or purna swaraj.
• Decided to boycott Round Table Conference.
• CWC to start preparations to launch CDM.
• Newly adopted tri-colour flag hoisted + slogans of Inquilab Zindabad.
• 26 January, 1930 to be celebrated as 1st Independence Day.

Chronology

• 11 demands of Gandhiji → as ultimatum to Govt (Prohibit liquor + Change rupee

sterling ratio + reduce Land revenue + Abolition of Salt Tax + Reduce Military
expenditure + abolish CID etc) → Govt. gave no response → Finally CDM.

Background to Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM)

• Crisis of Unity in congress after NCM due to rising factionalism of No and Pro-
changers.
• Hindu-Muslim unity was in shambles
• Communalization of politics was on peak with defeat of Motilal Nehru by Madan
Mohan Malviya
• Untouchables were struggling with leadership between M.C. Rajah and Ambedkar.

Reasons for discontent in masses and launch of Mass Movement:

• Great Depression of 1930 → hit Indian export based , Credit crunch forced peasants
to sale the land.
• Discontent within Industrialist→ organized themselves under FICCI + realised the
need to cooperate with it was felt
• Labor Activism→ Increasing Communist influence on working class led their united
organization. Congress projected itself as pro-workers.
• Simon Commission → an opportunity for dormant national movement.
• Nehru Report, → converged all parties for self-rule.
• Reemergence of Gandhi- after Bardoli Satygraha out of Political inconsistency and
depression gave British ultimatum to accept his demands. + INC wanted full details
of Dominion status be discussed.

Civil Disobedience Movement

• 1930-34
• Commenced with the famous Dandi march from Sabarmati Ashram
• Causes: 1. Simon Commission 2. Failure of Demand for Dominion Status. 3. Protests
against the arrest of social revolutionaries.

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 • Why salt chosen -> Symbolic of people’s defiance of the government policies +
integrative element irrespective of class and religion + salt tax affected all + telling
people about being loyal ( true to the salt)
• Developments [MAP SCOPE]
✓ Salt Satyagraha was led by C Rajagopalachari in Tamil Nadu, K Kelappan in
Malabar, and Sarojini Naidu and Manilal Gandhi in Dharasana Salt Works
(Gujarat).
✓ Andhra Pradesh – Sibirams organised
✓ Peshawar region of the North West Frontier Province, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan
raised the Khudai Khidmatgars, also known as the Red Shirts, a group of
nonviolent revolutionaries.
✓ Picketing of liquor stores, stores selling foreign cloth was led by women, young
mothers, widowed and unmarried girls.
✓ In Bihar, an anti-chowkidari tax campaign.
✓ In Gujarat, there was a no-tax movement against the payment of land
revenue.
✓ Manipur and Nagaland → Rani Gadinileu raised the banner against British.
✓ Pusad movement→ jungle satyagraha offered by RSS founder Keshav Baliram
Hedgewar→ led agitation at Pusad in July 1930→ part of Civil Disobedience
Movement

• Violence
✓ Movement immediately became violent especially after Chittagong Armory
raid.
✓ Violence erupted especially after Gandhi’s arrest. Thus, movement was
definite advance of radicalism over NCM.
• Ways of Mobilization – vanarsenas , manjarisenas, prabhatpheris, secret patrikas,
magic lantern shows.
• Who Participated ?
✓ Large Scale participation – women, students, merchants, tribals, peasants,
Business class (financed and supported boycott)
✓ Low Participation → Muslims, Intelligentsia
• Fallout of Movement
✓ Repressive measures → arrest of leaders weakened movement
✓ Middle class was unenthusiastic +more attracted towards revolutionary
terrorism
✓ Working class support non-existent due to to radical propensities
• Importance
✓ Generated widespread acceptability of Congress and mobilized its political
support. This can be seen in Massive electoral victory of Congress in 1937
elections

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Chronology
CDM Phase 1 → Irwin suggests RTC → Gandhi Irwin Pact (Delhi Pact) in Feb 1931 ;

Delhi Pact

• placed Congress on equal footing with Congress ;

• Agreement –
✓ By Viceroy → immediate release of prisoners + remission of fines + return of
land not yet confiscated + right to make salt
✓ By INC → Suspend CDM + participate in next RTC.
• Not agreed on – public enquiry into police excess + commuting Bhagat Singh’s death
sentence to life sentence.
• Importance of Delhi Pact
✓ considered as a strategic break as mass movements are necessarily short-
lived.
✓ Government could have crushed the movement any time
✓ lands of peasants were returned
✓ National confidence increased as INC came on equal footing with British
• Controversy
✓ death sentences of Bhagat Singh and his comrades
✓ criticised due to vacillating nature of Indian bourgeoisie and Gandhiji
succumbing to bourgeois pressure.
✓ pact did not immediately restore confiscated land

Karachi Session – March 1931

• Presided by Sardar Patel + Congress admired bravery of Bhagat singh, Sukhdev,

Rajguru + endorsed Delhi Pact
• 1st time when Congress spelt out what Swaraj would mean for the masses (economic
, political freedom to end the exploitation → relate it to vision of Bhagat Singh)
• Resolution adopted on Fundamental rights, National Economic Programme →
reflecting the then dominant leftwing ting of national movement

Fundamental rights National economic programme

• substantial reduction in rent
• guaranteed free speech, free press, • relief of agricultural indebtedness
free assembly and freedom of and control of usury.
association. • better conditions for workers ,
• equality before law irrespective of protection of women workers, right
caste, creed or sex. to organise and form unions to
• neutrality of state wrt. all religions workers
• Nationalisation of key industries
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 • elections on basis of universal adult
franchise.
• free and compulsory education.
• protecting culture, language and
script of the minorities

RTCs
• RTC1 → Nov 1930 -> INC – No ; ML – Yes ; Ambedkar – Yes ; Imp Developments ->
Responsible Govt at provinces (should be there)
• RTC2 → Dec 1931 → Gandhiji – yes ; Sarojini Naidu represented women ; Gandhi
claimed that Congress alone represent India + No separate electorate for minorities.
• RTC3 → Dec 1932 → INC –No ; BR Ambedkar – Yes ; Decisions taken reflected in GoI
Act 1935.

CDM Phase 2 → resumed after failure of RTC ; Jan 4 1932 -> Gandhiji arrested; Civil Martial
Law imposed + congress orgs. At all levels banned + Press gagged etc.
Communal Award → announced by British PM Ramsay Mcdonald + Separate electorates
established for minority religions, depressed classes. Gandhiji → saw this as an attack on
Indian unity and nationalism → Result : Poona Pact;
Poona Pact → No Separate Electorates ; but seats reserved for depressed classes increased
in provincial leg (71 to 147) and 18% of total in Central legislature; Poona Pact accepted by
Govt as an amendment to Communal Award.
After CDM → Constructive work in villages by Gandhiji for mobilization + revival of
constitutional methods and participation in elections in 1934. Unlike previous splits, Congress
avoided split; Congress Ministries formed in Bombay, Madras, Central Provinces, Orrisa,
United Provinces etc.

Major strategies that evolved Post Civil Disobedience Movement (Updated)

Gandhiji ✓ Emphasized constructive work in villages

▪ especially revival of village crafts.
✓ ‘Constructive work’
▪ Would lead to the consolidation of people’s power
▪ Help in mobilization of people in the next phase of mass
struggle.
Revival of ✓ participation in elections to Central Legislative Assembly to be held
Constitutional in 1934.
Methods ✓ Dr. M.A. Ansari, Asaf Ali, Satyamurthy, Bhulabhai Desai and B.C.
Roy
✓ Previous No Changers → Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, or
Rajagopalachari.
Left ✓ Critical of both & instead favoured the continuation of mass
movement

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 ✓ Nehru → attacked the notion of winning freedom through stages.
Real power could’t be won gradually ‘bit by bit’ or by ‘two annas
and four annas.’
▪ ‘Thus, instead of S-T-S’ (Struggle-Truce-Struggle) he
proposed strategy of S-V (‘V’-victory)

Congress Rule in Provinces

Congress Ministries were formed in Bombay, Madras, Central Provinces, Orissa, United
Provinces, and Bihar and later in the NWFP and Assam also

Civil Liberty • Emergency related laws repealed.

• Restrictions press,books, newspapers,illegal
organisations removed

Agrarian Reforms • laws relating to land reforms, debt relief, arrears of rent
passed

Social Welfare Reforms • Measures for welfare of Harijans taken-temple entry,

education, etc.
• Encouraged khadi and indigenous enterprises.
• National planning committee set up under SC Bose in
1938.
Labour • Efforts made to improve workers ‘condition + secure
wage increase for them.
Failures • Arrests for seditious speeches + Use of CID against
communist and leftist.
• occupancy tenants while sub-tenants did not gain much.
• Agricultural labourers did not benefit
• Ministries took recourse to section 144 and arrested the
leaders.

Counter :
Congress ministries failed in Agrarian Reforms (to abolish
Zamindari) because of constraints like-less powers, less financial
resources.

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Consequences • weakened the myth that Indians were not fit to rule.
• Perception → things to come if independence was won.
• Indian self-government was necessary for radical social
transformation → confirmed
• Movement could use state power to further its ends
without being co-opted
• able to control communal riots
• helped to neutralise many erstwhile hostile elements
like landlords, etc.

Chronology:
✓ WW2 → British declared for Indian support for WWII without consulting Indians ;
Congress didn’t like , but offered cooperation if : Constituent Assembly after war +
immediate responsible govt ; Rejected by Linlithgow
✓ CWC meeting at Wardha : to adopt official position
▪ Gandhiji → dislike for fascism + therefore unconditional support + didn’t
want to embarrass British during war
▪ Bose → War imperial on both sides, thus no one be supported + Ideal time
to launch CDM + take advantage and snatch freedom.
▪ JL Nehru → Justice on side of Britain + But Britain and France were imperial
powers ; thus → no Indian participation , but also no advantage to be taken.
✓ JL Nehru’s Stand adopted; CWC → India couldn’t be party to a war for freedom
when it was denied to her + Britain should end imperialism in its colonies + Govt
should declare war aims.
✓ Govt response → negative + instead tried to woo Muslims, Princes against INC +
Hidden agenda : to provoke Congress into confrontation with the Congress +
Defence of India India Ordinance enforced for curbing civil liberties.
✓ Pak Resolution, March 1940 → Muslim League resolution for “grouping of
geographically contiguous areas where Muslims are in majority (North- West, East)
into independent states + Constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign and
adequate safeguards to Muslims where they are in minority”.

Mission in 1940s

August Offer, • To get support of Indians during WW2.

1940

Provisions
• Establishment of advisory council.
• Dominion status as objective for India.
• Constituent assembly mainly of Indian representatives to be
formed after war.

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 • Number of Indians in Viceroy’s Executive Council to be
increased.
• No future Constitution without the consent of minorities.

➢ Congress Impacts
rejected: ✓ Right of Indians to frame
Dominion status constitution recognised for 1st
concept dead as a time.
door nail. ✓ Viceroy’s Advisory Council
➢ ML → happy with expanded.
veto assurance. ✓ National Defence Council setup
with purely advisory functions.
✓ Gap between Indians and British
widened → QIM.

Individual
Satyagraha Aim Contribution
• to show that patience • built a base for the
didn’t mean weakness initiation of QIM later.
• express people’s feeling • expression of Indian
that they weren’t antipathy towards the
interested in the war + no British double standards.
distinction b/w Nazism • Linlithgow increased
and British colonialism Indian members in war
• to give another advisory council.
opportunity to the • India’s stand clear to
government to accept international leaders. +
Congress demands put pressure on → cripps
peacefully. mission.

Demand of satyagrahi →
freedom of speech against war
through anti-war declaration +
march to Delhi (Delhi Chalo
movement)

Vinoba Bhave (1st) → J Nehru

(2nd) → Brahma Datt (3rd)

Cripps Mission, Why sent ?

1942
• Japanese invasion at Indian door, so to seek Indian support
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 • USA, USSR pressurizing British to seek Indian support
• Congress has promised support if substantial power was
transferred

Proposals
• Constituent assembly of all Indians after end of war.
• Members partly elected through provincial assemblies and
partly nominated by princes
• Dominion status.
• Permission to opt out of commonwealth + free to join any Intl
body, including UN.
• India Union.
• Defence → with British + Governor General powers intact.
• If any province not willing to join → Provision for separate
Union and constitution.

Importance Why failed?

• Making of Congress rejected
constitution solely • No complete independence.
to be in Indian • Nominated representatives.
hands (not • No immediate transfer of powers.
mainly) • Governor General to continue
• Concrete plan with vast powers.
provided for • Right of province to secede
constituent (blueprint for India’s partition)
assembly.
Muslim League rejected
• Idea of single India Union.
• No right to self-determination for
Muslims.

Also, Cripps efforts were consistently

torpedoed.

Gandhiji called Cripps Mission as : ‘Post Dated Cheque’

QIM • Explained below

C
Rajagopalachari Provisions Jinnah did not accept
Formula • League to endorse • Wanted only Muslims to
demand for vote in plebiscite.
independence. • Opposed common
Centre.

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 • Commission to demarcate
Muslim majority districts
→ Plebiscite.
• Mutual agreement
safeguarding essential
matters such as defence,
communication,
commerce etc

Desai Liaquat • Congress and League to nominate equal number of members in

Pact Central legislature.
• 20% seats reserved for minorities.
Wavell Plan Elections in England necessitated sincere effort on reaching a solution.
(Shimla
conference- Main proposals: Response
1945)
• With the exception of • Congress objected → as it
governor general and reduced the congress as
commander in chief all pure caste Hindu Party.
other members in the • Muslim league wanted all
executive council are to Muslim members to be
be Indians. league nominees.
• Caste Hindus and
Muslims were to have
equal representation.
• The reconstructed council
was to function as an
interim government.
• Governor- General was to
exercise his veto on the
advice of ministers.

Cabinet • Negotiate peaceful transfer of power to India.

Mission, 1946 • India to become independent as single union.
• Demand of Full Fledged Pakistan rejected.
• 3 group division of states ; Subcontinent to be divided into 3
major groups of provinces : sections A, B, C
• 3 Tier executive and legislature at province, section and union
level.
• Common centre for defence, communication, external affairs.
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 • Constituent assembly to be elected indirectly.
• Princely states → no longer under paramountcy of British + free
to enter into agreement with successor govt or British Govt.
• Congress accepted plan partially.

Mountbatten
Plan, 1947 Provisions Why Congress Agreed?
• Independence for Princely
• Clause for dominion states ruled out
status for India and • Independence for Bengal,
Pakistan as two separate Accession of Hyderabad
dominions. to Pak ruled out.
• Punjab, Bengal • Immediate freedom
Legislative assembly →August 15, 1947.
would meet in 2 groups, • Pak would be as small as
Hindus , Muslims ; If possible
simple majority of either
group voted for partition, Why ML agreed?
provinces would be • Pak would be formed.
partitioned.
• Sindh → decide own fate Why Congress accepted
• NWFP, Sylhet → dominion status ?
Referendum would • Ensure peaceful + Quick
decide fate power transfer
• importance for Congress
to assume authority to
check explosive situation
• continuity in bureaucracy.

For Britain
• gave a chance to keep
India in the
commonwealth
(considering future
market potential)
• quick transfer gave the
British escape from the
communal situation.

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 Quit India Movement

• Context: Failure of Cripps Mission, need to force British to quit India.

• Reasons for launch of movement:
▪ Failure of Cripps Mission in 1942 made it clear that British is unwilling to offer
an honorable settlement.
▪ Economic hardship:
✓ Industrialist, rich peasants → profit increased, but excessive Profit tax,
forceful collection of War fund etc.
✓ Common people: scarcity of essentials (especially rice) due to decline
of Burmese import, Stringent British procurement norms, divergence
to military
▪ Anticipation of an imminent British collapse. Eg. Allied reverses in South-East
Asia
▪ Destruction of myth of British invincibility → British collapsed in Malay and
Burma
▪ British Policies
✓ “Denial policy” → British start destruction of all means of
communication
✓ Atrocities on Indian Civilian population
▪ External influence
✓ Axis propaganda
✓ Subhash Bose’s Azad Hind radio → possibility of weakened British
leaving India
✓ CSP, Forward Block, Kisan Sabha, AITUC prepared militancy within
masses
▪ Congress’s policies
✓ passage of “Quit India Resolution”
✓ Do or Die slogan fired imaginations
✓ Call for Individual course of Action if leaders arrested.
• Course of the movement:
▪ 14 July 1942: Quit India Resolution. Gandhi’s call for ‘Do or Die’.
▪ Next day: All Congress leaders including Gandhi arrested and jailed.
▪ Outburst of violent popular demonstrations. Hartals, strikes and processions.
People disrupted railway lines, burnt down police stations, destroyed
telegraph lines etc.
▪ Parallel government in places like Satara, Ballia, Tamluk (Midnapore) etc.
✓ Ballia under Chittu Pandey
✓ Tamluk (Midnapore) under Jatiya Sarkar for 2 years
✓ Satara named Prati Sarkar under YB Chavan, Nana Patil

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 • Village libraries and Nyayadan Mandals were
organized
• prohibition campaigns carried on
• ‘Gandhi marriages’ were organised.
▪ Violent suppression by British: Mass arrests, firings, lathi charges.
▪ In 7 weeks: Mass phase of struggle ceased.
▪ New leadership underground: Achyut Patwardhan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Ram
Manohar Lohia, Sucheta Kripalini, Jayaprakash Narayan etc.

Gandhiji’s general instructions (Updated)

✓ Govt Servants → Don’t resign but declare allegiance to Congress

✓ Soldiers → Don’t leave army but don’t fire on compatriots
✓ Students → If confident, leave studies
✓ Peasants → Pay rent only if zamindar is anti-govt
✓ Princes → Support masses+ accept sovereignty of your people
✓ People of Princely states → Support only anti-govt princes

• Participation in the movement:

▪ Women, especially college and school girls plated critical role. Eg. Aruna Asaf
Ali, Sucheta Kripalini, Usha Mehta etc.
▪ Role of workers: Sacrifices by enduring long strikes.
▪ Peasants: Huge participation from well-off areas such as Midnapur, Satara etc.
▪ Smaller zamindars participated, especially in UP and Bihar. Big Zamindars took
neutral stance and refused to assist British. Eg. Raja of Darbhanga.
▪ Muslim participation not high yet played crucial role. Total absence of any
communal clashes.
• 3 Phases in QIM: (Scope of a small diagram)
▪ Urban revolt: strikes, picketing. Very short phase
▪ Countryside revolt → major peasant rebellions, destruction of communication
channels forming “national Govt” → attracted ruthless suppression
▪ Revolutionary activities → to sabotage war effort by propaganda activities
✓ Aruna Asaf Ali group mobilized volunteers
✓ Jayaprakash Narayan’s guerilla warfare from Nepal border
✓ Sucheta Kripalani’s emphasizing constructive programmes.
• Reasons for failure:
▪ Repression by British
✓ Gandhiji started a fast to condemn violence + directed
against the violence of the State.
• The fast achieved following

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 ▪ Public morale was raised
▪ Anti-British feeling heightened.
▪ An opportunity was provided for political
activity.
▪ Government’s high-handedness exposed.
▪ People left leaderless: People cannot stand for long against mighty strength of
British.
▪ Lack of support from Muslim League and Communists.
▪ According to Jayaprakash Naraian, the movement failed due to lack of
coordination among Congress people agitating in different parts of the
country.
▪ No clear-cut programme of action.
▪ No or less participation from upper middle class. Lost faith in Gandhian
methods.
• Conclusion: Failed to gain immediate agenda but remain a crucial step towards
independence in larger scheme of developments in 1940s.

Role played by under-ground movements

• Organising the disruption of physical transport infrastructure and tele-
communications.
• Attacks on government and police officials and police informers.
• Underground networks kept up popular morale
• collected and distributed money and material (bombs, arms, and dynamite)
• Broadcasting messages over clandestine radio stations.
✓ Example, Usha Mehta organised congress Radio, a secret station.
• Parallel governments established in the underground Networks
• Students acted as couriers, Villagers helped by refusing information to police
• Prominent members → Achyut Patwardhan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Ram Manohar Lohia.

Royal Indian Navy Revolt, 1946

• Incident: On 18 February, 1946, 1100 naval Ratings of HMIS Talwar went on a strike
to protest against racial discrimination faced by Indian Ratings in salaries, bad food
quality, abuse by superior officers etc.
✓ Hoisted flags of Congress, Muslim League and Communist Party. Other
ratings joined.
• Leaderless revolt: Only Communist Party supported. Congress and Muslim League
condemned.
✓ Gandhi condemned. Aruna Asaf Ali supported revolt.
• Watershed moment in history of colonial rule in India
✓ Seeds of nationalism penetrated to ever military forces.

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 ✓ Liberating effect on morale of people: Showed people that days of colonial
regime in India are numbered.
✓ No more armed forces loyalty to sustain colonial regime.
• Result: Cabinet Mission arrived to negotiate terms for peaceful transfer of power.

Precarious position of British in 1940s can be explained by

• British’s network of Indian allies in their various services was a fast-weakening: Eg.
Mutiny in Royal Indian Navy (RIN), INA trials etc.
• Strains of World War II: Erosion in power and prestige of British.
o International pressure from US for liberates India.
• Rising prospect of transferred power: August Offer to Cabinet Mission the drift
towards independence is steadily visible in every move.
• Communal conflicts which eroded efficiency and morale.
• Daily administration was breaking down.

Complexities associated with power transfer negotiations in 1940s

• From British side – Not willing to leave: Partial offers like dominion status in August
offer and Cripps Mission.
• From Indian side: Political issues: Question of incorporating Princely states under
Indian Union, addressing Muslim League’s demand for self-determination of
Muslims.
• External factors: 2nd World war, post world war pressure on Britain to de-colonise
India.
• Deterioration imperial economic and military might: As seen in case of INA trials,
Royal naval mutiny uprisings and continuing war-crisis.
• Issues of partition: Haphazard announcement on June 3, 1947, boundary
commission unprepared, no local consultation, humanitarian crisis, Kashmir
question.

Why British left India in 1947? Different views

• The International view: British weakened both economically and by strength found
it hard to contain a very populous India.
▪ Another mass struggle was something British anticipated which they
couldn't hold due to weakened situation.
• Imperialistic view: British promised India its freedom during second world war and
granted it to keep their word.
▪ Moreover, India was no more a region of interest due to continuous famines
and droughts.

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 • The Marxist/leftist view: Anti-imperialistic, the protests in Britain and the
international opinion if US was turning out to be hostile to the British which forced
them out of India.
• Nationalist view: The continuous struggle and turning down if offers from British to
grant dominion status along with the crucial role of Gandhi and Nehru led
Independence movement is what granted India its freedom.
• Right wing view: Subsets the imperialist view of British that they left out of their
will and not by force.
• Religious view: The rising riots between Hindus and Muslims, which were
continuous, was hard for British to contain as they lacked enough forces to deal the
situation.

Indian National Army – INA

• The idea of INA was first conceived in Malay by Mohan Singh, an Indian officer in
British army.
• Japanese help -> Indian Prisoners of Wars were handed over to Mohan Singh who
tried to recruit them in INA.
• In March 1942, Rash Behari Bose announce formation of Indian Independence
League.
• But by December 1942, differences arose between INA and Japanese as Japanese
wanted to take only a token INA force of 2,000 men to India while INA wanted
20,000 men. Mohan Singh was arrested
• in July 1943 Bose arrive in Singapore Rash Behari handed over leadership of INA and
IIL to Bose
• Bose set up 2 HQ’s of Fauz at Singapore and at Rangoon. he set up the Provision
Government of Free India or Azad Hind Sarkar, (Singapore) declare himself as PM.
• Bose is first person to call Gandhiji as the Father of the Nation
• His slogan-Tom Mujhe Khoon do Main Tumhe Azadi dunga in Malaysia
• 5 fighting brigades - AZAD, GANDHI and NEHRU. Subash Brigade and Rani Jhansi
brigade.
• They invaded India but never succeeded in the mission.

Post War
• trial of INA POWs by british
• Congress support INA and established INA Defence Committee to defend those
officers of INA.
• celebrations of INA Day (November 12, 1945) and INA week (November 5-11)

Congress Strategy towards INA trials

• JLN wrested the initiative when he raised the demand for leniency towards INA
convicts - Shah Nawaz Khan, GS Dhillon, PK Sehgal.
• Congress leaders never raised the question of law or anything.

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 • They asked leniency on the grounds of maintaining good relations between India
and British.
• Thus, the entire issue became an issue of friendly relations between 2 nations and
British had to yield.
• It became an issue of India's sovereignty as to how can British try Indians.
• Congress leaders ran their election campaign on this issue, organized meetings in
support of INA men, fought their cases and collected funds for them.

Significance of INA trials

• INA trials generated unprecedented level of intensity.
• The famous upsurges of Calcutta in November 1945 and February 1946 are
examples.
• In these upsurges, generally a group defied the authority, then other people in the
city joined in their support and soon all country began to express their support and
solidarity.
• INA campaigned wide level of solidarity.
• This solidarity could be seen at grass root level, between Hindus and Muslims, all
classes of society.
• Initially these men were labeled as misguided patriots but later on they became the
symbols of most heroic patriotism. Entire country united behind them.
• INA meetings arose the sympathy of loyalist sections, bureaucracy and military as
well. Military men openly collected funds for INA convicts.

Partition
Why congress • Accepting inevitable + final act of process
accepted • Immediate transfer of power
Partition • Independence for princely states ruled out
• To prevent communal violence
Why • Partitions are often brutal
partitioning • Religious frenzy
caused violence • complete collapse of institutions of governance + British
officials unwilling to take decisions.
• Ambiguous boundary
• No satisfaction regarding Territorial claims

Role of Achievements
Mountbatten in • transfer of power in a limited time.
post • personal dialogue with reluctant princes → to sign the
independent instrument of Accession + princes would face issues in
consolidation maintaining law and order if they choose to remain
independent.

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 Criticism
• appointed Radcliffe, a person not so well about India
• advising Nehru on Kashmir issue to UN
• hastening the independence process unduly and recklessly
• idea of immediate transfer of power on the basis of grant of
dominion status was given by VP Menon

Theme - Other Important Aspects of British Rule

Economic policies

• Pre-text – Pre-colonial India: Stable economy with self-sufficient agriculture,

flourishing trade and rich handicraft industries.
• Different phases of economic colonialism (Possibility of a diagram)
✓ Commercial phase – East India Company as a trading corporation (1600-
1757): Consistently increased market for Indian goods in Britain as well as
other countries.
✓ Mercantilism (1757-1813): British attempted to accumulate the largest
possible share of wealth by maximizing their exports and by limiting their
imports via one-side tariffs and using political power.
▪ Removed other competitive buyers: Eg. Monopolised sale of
handicrafts and cotton in Bengal.
✓ Industrial capitalism (1813-1858): Aftermath of industrial revolution in Britain.
Colonies exported raw materials and imported finished products from
England.
▪ End of monopoly: Eg. Charter Act of 1813 -> Flooded Indian markets
with machine products -> Complete ruin of artisans and handicraft
industry.
▪ Underlying cause for aggressive expansion: Eg. Dalhousie’s policies.
✓ Financial capitalism (1858-1947): Increasing foreign investment in India to
augment its increasing economic exploits.
▪ Eg. Private investment in Railways with assured dividends.
• Drain of wealth: Theory given by Dada Bhai Naoroji in his book, ‘Poverty and Un-
British Rule in India’.
✓ Drain of wealth refers to the unidirectional flow of a part of wealth from India
in various forms which did not contribute to its social, economic, political
development.
✓ Components of drain of wealth:
▪ Direct component: Profits earned through trade.

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 ▪ Indirect components: Salaries and pensions of civil and military
officials, expenses towards loans taken by Indian government from
abroad, Home charges etc.
▪ Home Charges consisted of → Funds to support the Indian offices in
London + Funds used to pay salaries and pensions of British personnel
engaged in India + Interest on debts and other capital investments like
railways.
✓ Amount of drain: R.C. Dutt observed that one-half of the net revenues of India
flows annually out of India.
▪ £20 millions a year in the early years of the present 20th century.
✓ Imperial view: Drain represented payments for services of capital and
personnel, this expenditure was to encourage economic development in India
in the way it had happened in the West.
▪ In return for the interest paid to British capital, India got railways,
irrigation works, plantation industries etc.
▪ In return for the Home Charges India got the services of efficient
officers security against external aggression etc.
✓ Conclusion: Laid foundations of economic nationalism in India.
• Effects of British rule on different sectors
✓ De-industrialisation of Indian Economy
▪ Cheap goods from Britain → No market for handicrafts → No
investment -> Loss of livelihood → Overcrowding in agriculture
▪ Charter Act 1813 allowed one-way trade for the British citizens. Loss of
traditional livelihood not accompanied by industrialisation in India.
✓ Impoverishment of peasantry
▪ High revenue rates → Harsh methods of collection →
Commercialisation of agriculture Eg. Indigo, plantation farming etc. →
No investment
▪ led to ruralisation of India
▪ High rents, summary evictions, transferability of land caused great
insecurity among tenants
▪ Government did not invest in improvement of land
✓ Rise of new landlordism
▪ By 1815, half land of Bengal passed into new hands
▪ Increase in subinfeudation, absentee landlordism, etc.
✓ Development of modern industries
▪ 2nd half of 19th century → Cotton/Textile mills in Bombay. But most
foreign owned.
▪ Indian owned industries suffered from credit problems, no tariff
protection , unequal competition.

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 ▪ Industrial development → lopsided pattern -- Core and heavy
industries neglected.
▪ Some regions favoured more than others → causing regional
disparities.
✓ Rise of upper middle class → New class of traders, money lenders and
bankers.
✓ Famine and poverty
✓ Development of means of transport and communication -> Railways,
Telegraph.
✓ Impact of national movement → Eg. Economic nationalism witnessed during
Swadeshi movement, Non-cooperation movement etc.

• Political significance of Economic critic:

✓ Corroding moral authority of colonial rule → challenged paternalistic
imperialism
✓ Created anger among public (But couldn’t utilize that anger due to intrinsic
faith in colonial rule)
Limitations:
• This critique was only meant for few educated people who wanted to make their
contribution to the national movement.
• Most of the population of country was illiterate
• Most of the write was in English, again an issue.
• Masses remained aloof of the idea.

Conclusion : Dynamic critique was one of the earliest instances of politically active
intelligencia touching an issue concerning the masses and hence mark an inflection point in
the national moment.

Land Revenue Policies

• Context
▪ Treaty of Allahabad of 1765 gave Company Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and
Odisha
▪ Colonial characteristics of British rule required a mechanism to secure
maximum profit.
▪ Introduction of scientific and rational methods.

Revenue System Features Outcome

Permanent Settlement • Zamindars • No fixed income as

System recognised as expected as

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Introduced by Lord owners of land with Zamindars failed to
Cornwallis in 1793 in Bengal hereditary and deposit revenue.
region. transferable rights • Many Zamindars lost
• 10/11th of revenue land. Zamindars led
collected to be paid revolts.
to the Company. • Agriculture and
• Sunset law. peasantry suffered.
• Zamindars • Poverty and famine.
empowered to • Absentee
remove peasants. landlordism.

Ryotwari Settlement • Revenue assessed • Burden of

and collected at exploitation shifted
Introduced by Thomas
individual level. directly to ordinary
Munro in 1820 in Madras
• Survey and peasants.
presidency, later in Bombay.
measurement for • Over-assessment: In
assessment of land effect, land revenue
revenue. reached 80% of total
• Quality of land taken produce.
into account. • Land lost market
• Land revenue fixed at value.
1/3rd to 2/3rd of • Agriculture
total produce. production suffered.
• Peasants given • Rise in rural
choice to refuse. indebtedness.

Mahalwari system • Whole village taken • Destruction of

as a unit. agriculture. (Similar)
Introduced by Mckenzie in
• Village headman to • Land passed into
Ganga valley, Central India
collect revenue. hands of
and NWFP in 1819.
• 2/3rd is the demand moneylenders.
of land revenue.
• Settlement for 30
years.

Press

Contribution and Significance Challenges Faced by Press (Updated)

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 • Press was an important institution • Constant repression of press by
for exposing, critiquing government Regulations and Legislations of
acts and policies; making people British Raj such as
aware about ongoing political ✓ Censorship of Press Act
activities and movement in the 1799, Vernacular Press Act
country and outside; thus 1878, Licensing Regulation,
presenting an important front Indian Press Act 1910 etc.
against British Raj. resulted in a number of
• Important agent in furthering the newspapers being struck
freedom struggle down e.g. Samvad Kaumudi,
• The press ensured that the freedom The Bengal Gazette.
struggle did not merely remain • Even Indian journalist faced
limited to elite only and performed repression e.g. SN Banerjee was
her role well by informing the imprisoned.
masses of policies and critique of
• Initially, the press was dominated
the empire.
by intelligentsia with sympathetic
• It aroused sympathy and anger in views on British Empire and hence
the masses and primed them for only a partial critique of her fault.
further movement.
• The lowest denominator was unable
• Government acts and policies were to access or read newspaper and
put to critical scrutiny. hence deprived of awareness. It was
• Later press coverage such as Web only after the arrival of Gandhi that
Miller’s Report on Dandi March also the likes of workers and farmers
resulted in gaining international were integrated in the movement
attention.
• Newspaper like Rast Gofar also
tackle social issues, which became
instrumental in later mass VP Act, 1878
movement. ✓ District Magistrate empowered to
• Vernacular press helped in rise of for search and seizure (of deposits)
swadeshi ideas and Language. of any vernacular press if found
publishing anything against
• Their impact was not limited to
government or promoting antipathy
libraries only, they reached remote
between persons of different
villages where ‘local libraries’
religions, caste, race through
became centre of dissemination of
published material.
news, information and led to
✓ If reoccurred, confiscation of press.
political education and thus
✓ Magistrate’s action was final+ no
political participation.
appeal could be made in a court of
• They acted as an institution of law
opposition to the government.

Newspaper (Incitement of Offences) Act,

1908
✓ Aimed against extremists

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 ✓ magistrates could confiscate press
property (BG Tilak send to Burma)

Indian Press Act 1910

✓ Revived the worst features of VPA

During WW1:
✓ Defence of India Rules
✓ Based on Sapru committee
recommendation, Press Act 1908,
1910 repealed

Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act 1931

✓ sweeping powers to provincial govts
to suppress CDM propaganda
Specific examples
• Din Bandhu Mitra published Neel darpan → to stop cultivating the Indigo crop for
the white traders.
• Tilak kesari → made anti-partition movement of Bengal a national issue, spoken
up about the Plague epidemic and inaction of the British
• Gandhiji’s Young India, Harijan → to fight various social ills.
• Subash Chandra Bose and CR Das → Forward and Advance
• Jawaharlal Nehru founded the National Herald.
• Yugantar → by Barindra Kumar Ghosh
• Ghadar party → Lala Hardayal → journal Ghadar.
• Shyamaji Krishna Verma →Indian Sociologist from London to publish political
activities reports
• Reforms in social sphere, like discrimination, women’s rights and religious
reforms. Example → Darpan, Satyarth Prakash

Prominent Newspapers:
• Bengalee – Surendranath Banarjee
• Voice of India – Dadabhai Naoroji
• Hindu, Swadeshmitram – G subramaniyam Aiyar
• Indian Mirror – NN Sen
• Kesari, Maharatta – BG Tilak

Education policies
• Pretext: Indigenous education system before advent of British – Chain of Pathshalas,
Tols, Maktabs and Madrasas. Education predominantly religious.
• Early British initiatives:
▪ Calcutta Madrassa set up in 1781 by Warren Hastings.
▪ Asiatic Society of Bengal set up in 1784 by Sir William Jones.
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 ▪ Sanskrit College at Banaras in 1791.
▪ Fort William College at Calcutta in 1800 – Transferred to Britain.
• Charter Act, 1813: Encourage learned natives of India, promotion of modern sciences,
Rs 1 lakh annually for promotion of modern education in India, allowed missionaries.
Christian missionaries propounded 'white man's burden' theory + considered it their
divine duty to educate and liberate masses from orthodoxy
• Orientalists’ vs Anglicists: Orientalists wated to promote education in India through
classical languages like Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic whereas Anglicists wanted to
promote Western Education, with English as a medium of instruction.
• Macaulay’s Minutes, 1835: Western learning was superior, and be taught through the
medium of English, Persian abolished as court language, Downward filtration theory.
• Wood’s Dispatch, 1854:
▪ Education for all: Government’s responsibility accepted.
▪ Medium of instruction: Indian local languages at school level, English language
for higher studies.
▪ Department of public instruction.
▪ Establishment of universities – Calcutta, Madras, Bombay.
▪ Hierarchy of graded schools: Primary -> Middle -> High Schools -> Colleges ->
Universities.
▪ Female education, education should be secular, stress on Muslim education.
▪ Linked government services and educational qualification.
• Raleigh Commission and Indian Universities Act, 1904: Curzon, aimed to curb
increasing nationalism at universities.
• Wardha Scheme of Education, 1937: Proposed by Gandhi, learning through activity.
▪ 7 years basic education, free and compulsory to children in age group of 7-14
years, medium of instruction in mother tongue, centered on mutual and
productive work, evolving idea citizen with moral values.
• Sargent Plan, 1944: Academic and vocational.
• Limitations of British Education policies:
▪ Imperial objective: To get a supply of Indians in their offices, at junior positions,
aim not to educate Indians
▪ introduction of modern education aimed at creating a class of 'Indians in blood
and color but English in taste, opinions, moral and intellect'.
▪ Led to decline of traditional education system.
▪ Emphasis on English
▪ Hope that by Education → British will get a market.
▪ Expectation that English Education would reconcile Indians to British Rule.
▪ Education of women neglected, as govt did not find utility + to not arouse
orthodox elements

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 ▪ scientific and technical education neglected → by 1857, one only Engg. College
at Roorkee and 3 medical colleges.
▪ Traditional learning system declined.
▪ Mass Education neglected → creating wide linguistic and cultural gulf.
▪ Paid Education → became a monopoly of upper and richer classes
▪ More on theory, vocational education did not develop.

Development of judiciary in British India

Reforms under Warren ▪ District Diwani Adalats under a collector were

Hastings (1772-85) established in districts to try civil disputes where Hindu
law applicable for Hindus and the Muslim law for
Muslims.
▪ District Fauzdari Adalats were set up to try criminal
disputes and were placed under an Indian officer
assisted by qazis and muftis.
▪ Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a Supreme Court was
established at Calcutta which was competent to try all
British subjects within Calcutta and the subordinate
factories, including Indians and Europeans.

Reforms under ▪ District Fauzdari Courts abolished

Cornwallis (1786-93) ▪ Instead, circuit courts established at Calcutta, Dacca,
Murshidabad etc.
Separation of revenue
▪ Circuit courts had European judges
and justice
✓ were to act as courts of appeal for both civil and
administration and
criminal cases.
establishment of the
▪ District Diwani Adalat designated as the District, City or
sovereignty of law.
the Zila Court + placed under district judge.
▪ Collector now responsible only for revenue (no
magisterial functions)
▪ A gradation of civil courts was established for both
Hindu and Muslim laws.

Reforms under William ▪ 4 Circuit Courts abolished + their functions transferred to

Bentinck (1828- 1833) collectors
▪ Option to use Persian or a vernacular language at lower
courts, while in the Supreme Court, the English language
replaced Persian.

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Judicial Administration ▪ The Indian High Courts Act of 1861 was passed which led
Under the Crown to the establishment of high courts at Calcutta, Bombay,
and Madras in 1862
✓ Replaced the Sadar Diwani and Sadar Nizamat
Adalats as the courts of appeal.
▪ The Government of India Act of 1935
✓ Established the Federal Court
✓ Appeals from the Federal Court would lie at the
Privy Council in London.

Positive Impact ▪ Rule of Law

▪ Codified Laws replaced religious and personal laws
▪ Equality of Law (on paper though)
▪ Govt servants made answerable to civil courts

Negative Impact ▪ Laws became harder to comprehend and understand by

common people.
▪ Justice → distant ( indigenous people did not
understand complex procedures)
▪ System → became expensive + A new class of lawyers
emerged
▪ Pendency of cases → delayed justice
▪ Mixture of Judicial prudence + civilizational inferiority of
indigenous people → Equality before law suffered
(differential treatment to Europeans)

Development of Civil Services (Updated)

• Initially → introduced by East India Company, in order to maintain commercial

affairs of company ; Later → to handle administrative matters.
• Warren Hastings separated Administrative and Commercial Functions.
• Cornwallis → raised the civil servants’ salary, strict enforcement of rules against
private trade, debarring civil servants from taking presents, bribes etc. + Enforcing
promotions through seniority.
• Wellesley → Fort William College for training of new recruits.
• Charter Act 1833 civil service opened to Indians but was never really implemented.
• Till 1853 → EIC appointed covenanted civil servants by nominations. This
nomination system was abolished in 1861 + decided that the induction would be
through competitive examinations of all British subjects, without distinction of race.
• Indian Civil Services Act 1861
✓ Reserved certain offices for covenanted civil servants but exam in UK in
English

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 ✓ based on classical learnings in Greek and Latin
✓ 1863: Satyendra Nath Tagore= 1st Indian to qualify for ICS
• William Bentick introduced the subordinate civil service in India.
• Statutory Civil Service introduced by Lytton in 1878-9
✓ 1/6th covenanted pots to be filled by Indians of high families. Through
nominations by local governments
✓ system FAILED and was ABOLISHED.
• Congress Demands and Aitchison Committee
✓ INC demanded → increase age limit for recruitment; hold exam in India as
well.
✓ Aitchison committee on Public Service (1886) recommended:
▪ Dropping the terms ‘covenanted’ and ‘uncovenanted’
▪ Classifying civil service into Imperial Indian Civil Service (held in UK)
and Provincial Civil Service (in India) and Sub-ordinate Civil Service (in
India).
✓ 1893: House of Commons supported simultaneous exams—but never
implemented
• GoI Act 1919 → provided for simultaneous examination
• Lee Commission, 1924 → Establish Public Service Commission (as per GoI 1919)
• GoI Act 1935 → recommended the establishment of a Federal Public Service
Commission and Provincial Public Service Commission under their spheres

Evolution of Police System of India

• During Mughal rule faujdars helped in maintaining law and order

• Dual rule in Bengal and Orissa, zamindar were in charge of law and order.
• 1771 Warren Hasting restored the institution of faujdars and in 1775 faujdars thane
were established.
• 1791 Cornwallis organised policesystem, by modernizing old Indian system thane
(circles), daroga (dist).
• Indian police act of 1861, presented guideline for police set-up in the provinces.

Industrial Development

Examples of Indian successes in Industrialism

Jute Mills • Birla and Swarupchand Hukumchand set up their own mills in
1922.
• By 1940s → started overtaking some European companies too.
Cotton Industry • WW I disruption → encouraged Indian communities (Gujaratis,
Parsis etc. ) → they started exporting cotton to China
• By 1930s → Indian industry established monopoly over
domestic market + challenged Lancashire internationally.

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 Iron and Steel • development of TISCO → broke Birmingham steel industry
Industry monopoly
• In Intermediate level markets → local businesses thrived + also
expanded to Burma, Middle east (took benefit of British
Railway and Telegraph)
Conclusion • limited to domestic market + depressed due to poverty in India
• situation would have been way better by active govt
intervention → which was not obviously not to happen.

Labour Movements

Labour movement, trade unionism → very slow and late growth in India compared to
industrialized nations (due to slow pace of industrialization)

Stages of labour movement in India

Pre-1900 Phase • workers organised agitations but unorganised based on

immediate economic grievances.
• Philanthropists like Sorabjee Shapoorji, NM Lokhanday came
forward to improve workers conditions.
• Earlier nationalists → also indifferent to labour cause
(believed labour legislations would affect competitive edge
of Indian-owned industries) + To avoid division in the
national movement on the basis of classes

1901-1930 Phase • During Swadeshi upsurge (1903-1908)→labour movements

became more organised but with its decline → subsided
• 1920 → AITUC created to defend the rights of worker class
against the British and Indian enterprises
• Trade union act, 1926 -- Recognised trade unions as legal
associations
• Trade disputes act, 1929 -- Ban on strikes in public utility
services + Forbade trade union activity.
• 1930's → consolidation of various left ideologies led to a
strong communist influence . But → government offensive
→ movement suffered a huge setback.

During 1931-1947 • communist did not align with mainstream national

movement, so workers did not participate in the national
movements between 1931 and 1936
• 1937-1938 Grant of provincial autonomy, formation of
ministries , civil liberties → rise in trade union organisations

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 • communist abandoned earlier stand + joined mainstream
nationalist politics
• post-WW-Il political upsurge → tremendous resurgence in
working class activity → peaceful meetings and
demonstrations developed into violent clashes.

Indian States

Struggle for equality ✓ East India Company asserted the political identity over
(1740 -1765) India ending French hold

Policy of Ring Fence ✓ Used by Warren Hastings.

(1765 -1813 ✓ Reflected in wars with Marathas and with Mysore for
creating buffer zone to defend company's frontiers
Policy of Subordinate ✓ Theory of paramountcy.
Isolation (1813-1857): ✓ Indian states surrendered sovereignty and external
Administration
✓ had control of only internal administration of
their states. (Similar to Subsidiary alliance)

Policy of Subordinate ✓ Policy of annexation Ended

union (1857-1935) ✓ Act of 1858 transferred powers into the hands of the
crown

Policy of Equal ✓ princely states were to be brought into a direct

Federation (1935 to constitutional relationship with British India
1947):
Integration and ✓ Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kashmir
Merger

Nationalist foreign policy

1880 to WW1 • feelings of Anti-imperialism

• expansionist expeditions opposed by the nationalists (Ex -
Afghan war, Annexation of Burma)
• solidarity with other colonies like Ireland, Egypt, Turkey,
Ethiopia
• support to fight against racial discrimination in South Africa.
WW1 • nationalists supported the British Indian Government
1920s and 1930s • condemned the dispatch of Indian Army to suppress the
(Socialists) Chinese nationalist army
• Dadabhai Naoroji attended the Hague session of
International Socialist Congress
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 • Nehru attended the Congress of Oppressed Nationalists at
Brussels
• Nehru visited the Soviet Union in 1927 + was very impressed
by the achievements
After 1936 (Anti- • lend support to the struggle against fascism
Fascism) • Japanese attack on China was condemned
• opposed the partition of Palestine.

Theme-Miscellaneous

Topic – Dalit Movement

Dalit Movement
Common features of Dalit Movement:
• Adoption of high caste symbols like sacred thread, entering temples- Vaikkom
(1924-25), Guruvayur
• Demand of Social rights from high caste Hindus → Mahad tank satyagraha (1927)
• imbibed spirit of protest + social solidarity in Dalits for social equality → SNDP
among Ezhavas
• Seeking secular or political solution to social disability - Example → Ambedkar’s
advocacy for education, demand for reservation, demand of Separate electorate

Why rift between Dalits and Congress

• Colonial strategy of divide and rule
• Congress’s opposition to separate electorates
• Early Congress averse to take up social issues due to Brahman domination
• Issues of Gandhi’s approach → differences with Ambedkar, overemphasis on social
aspect of untouchability, neglecting political and economic aspect. (Ambedkar
wanted economic and political solution for Untouchability)

Factors which undermined Caste Rigidities

✓ Forces unleashed by colonial administration
✓ Social reform movements
✓ National movement
✓ Gandhi’s campaign against untouchability
✓ Stirrings among lower castes due to better education and Employment
✓ Free India’s Constitution

Pan-India Dalit Movement:

• All India Depressed Classes Association formed in 1926 + M.C. Rajah President
• All India Depressed Class Congress founded by Ambedkar in 1930 who resigned
from AIDCA
• Ambedkar’s gave demand for separate electorate to Simon commission and RTC
• Resolution for separate electorate- opposed by Gandhi in 2nd RTC.
• Poona pact

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 • Congress est. All India Depressed Classes League under Jagjivan Ram to politically
mobilise Dalits.
• Ambedkar founded Independent Labor Party to mobilize poor and Dalits
• Ambedkar started All India SC Federation in 1942 → suffered defeat in 1946
elections.

Topic - BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA- IMPACT OF VARIOUS SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS IN

BRITAIN
Could be used direcly or indirectly (especially in 15m Ques)

Orientalism • viewed India as ‘Rich culture with degeneration

• duty → correct present degeneration in Indian culture.
• Implemented in actual policies during Warren Hastings
• he saw need to ‘legitimize’ colonial rule in Indian idiom.
• started Reverse Acculturation → Teaching European rulers
Indian customs for assimilating them . Example→ estd of Fort
Williams college.
• made morally binding on Indians to accept colonial rule through
rhetoric of “love”
• Side effect → generated desire for gaining past glory- through
colonial rule
Anglicist • Cornwallis and Wellesley discarded abanded orientalism +
accepted Anglicist policies → reflected rising Conservatism in
England
• Anglicist Cornwallis → Permanent Settlement in Bengal → to
instill rule of law , private property
• Orientalist Thomas Munro → Ryotwari system in Madras →
based on Indian values of Village life (Munro → believed Part of
India should be Indirectly governed but insisted Central
sovereign rule by knowledgeable and sympathetic men

Evangelicalism • advocated permanent British rule to change the very “nature of

Hindustan
• propagated by Christian missionaries
• driving force behind Charter Act of 1813 (allowed Missionaries
to enter India without restrictions)

Liberalism and • Thomas Macaulay was proponent

Utilitarianism • Said British administrators’ task → civilize rather than conquer
• emancipation of India through Active governance.
• effective government promulgating good legislations

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 • Example → Law Commission under Macaulay to draw IPC (
logically and coherently formulated code.)

Paternalistic • Post 1857 → Liberal ideology received setback → cited inability

authority of Indians to modernize.
• Policy of racial segregation, superiority started. Example →
Ilbert Bill.
• Conservative Brand of Liberalism → Indians are beyond
reforms + no interference in traditional structure of Indian
society

Topic 3– Colonial Cities

• growth of new regional powers → increasing importance of regional capitals such as

Lucknow, Hyderabad
• commercial centres like Surat, Masulipatnam and Dhaka declined and port cities like
Madras, Calcutta and Bombay emerged as new economic capitals + centres of
administrative and political power
• introduction of railways in 1853 → Railway towns Bareilly developed.
• separate quarters for Europeans and Indians (White Town and Black Town)
• After 1857 revolt → felt towns need to be better defended + white people had to
live in more secure and segregated enclaves.
• new urban spaces called Civil lines were set up + Cantonments developed as safe
enclaves
• Hill stations became strategic places for placing troops, guarding frontiers, for
resting soldiers could be sent for rest and recovery from illnesses, approximated the
cold climates of Europe, viceroys moved to hill stations during summers, setting up
of tea and coffee plantations, railways made hill stations more accessible

Topic-4 - Communalism

• Hardly any communalism in India till last quarter of 19th century. Hindu-Muslim
unity was visible in the 1857 mutiny.
• Communalism → product of British policies, unmindful writing and unintended
consequences of freedom movement.

Reasons
• Communalism → by products of colonial underdevelopment and economic
stagnation → intense competition for government jobs. Limited Private jobs
→demanding reservations → took communal colour.
• policy of divide and rule → British officially nurtured communalism. Examples →
Morley-Minto (provided for separate electorates for Muslims.
• Communalism in history writing
• Side-effects of socio-religious movements. Ex: Wahabi movement among Muslims,
Shudhi movement among Hindus.
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 • Extremists actions polarised the communities. Ex: Tilak's Ganapati festival, Shivaji
festival and Durga Puja.
• Communal reaction by Hindu Mahasabha, RSS, etc.
• Lucknow Pact → Congress acceptance of separate electorates
• British also took little action against communal movements. The policy was of non-
action.
• Montague-Chelmsford Act 1919: Extended the provision of
• separate electorates.
• Nehru report 1928: Reservations for religious minorities with
• joint electorates.
• 1937 Provincial elections → Congress did not form a coalition with Muslim league →
left ML with a feeling that they will be left as a minority T

Small Miscellaneous Important Topics

Macaulay
✓ first Law Commission established during colonial rule in India→ by East India
Company→ under Charter Act 1833→ presided by Lord Macaulay
✓ Institution of law member→ created in Supreme Council with Lord Macaulay→
first incumbent→ 1834
✓ Indian Penal Code in 1835→ drew by Lord Macaulay→ on Benthamite model
✓ Macaulay’s Minute on Education
✓ Macaulay’s ambition→ to transform Indian brown sahib, i.e. European in taste
& intellect, Indian by blood and colour→ optimism broken by rude shock of 1857

Fatima Sheikh→ Indian educator & social reformer, colleague of social reformers Jyotirao
Phule and Savitribai Phule → India’s first Muslim woman teacher→ started educating
Bahujan children in Phule's school

Savitribai Phule→ born in backward Mali community in Maharashtra; married at age of

nine to Jyotiba Phule→ first female teacher first woman educationist, first poet and
foremost emancipator of women→ opened a girls’ school at Poona→ took charge of Satya
Shodhak Samaj after her husband’s death→ published two books of poems Kavya Phule
and Bavan Kashi Subodh Ratnakar

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 Part-B – Important Personalities

Mahatma Gandhi

Experience in South Africa

Moderate Phase of • Relied on sending petitions

Struggle (1894-1906) • To unite different sections of Indians
✓ set up Natal Indian Congress
✓ started a paper ‘Indian opinion’.
• In this period, Gandhiji supported British government in
Boer War
Phase of Passive • method of passive resistance or civil disobedience
Resistance or • Satyagraha against Registration Certificates (1906)
Satyagraha (1906- ▪ new legislation in South Africa made it
1914) compulsory for Indians to carry at all times
certificates of registration
▪ Gandhiji formed the Passive Resistance
Association
• Campaign against Restrictions on Indian Migration
• founded the ‘Tolstoy Farm’
▪ meant to house families of Satyagrahis and to
give them a way to sustain themselves.
• Campaign against Poll Tax
▪ poll tax of three pounds was imposed on all ex-
indentured Indians.
Lessons learnt by Gandhi ji in South Africa

✓ Led millions of poor and less aware people → became aware about their capacity
for sacrifice, bearing hardship, morale during repression.
▪ built up his faith in capacity of Indian masses
✓ Led multiregional and multi religious movement
▪ made him aware about diversity in India.
✓ Leadership involves facing ire not only of enemy but also of one’s follower.
✓ Helped him in evolving his own form of politics and leadership
✓ moved from moderate phase to Satyagraha phase in South Africa.
✓ by putting in use the Satyagraha he learned its strength and limit.

In India:
• Returned in 1915, founded Ashram in Ahmedabad.
• Champaran: Against Tinkatia system (3/20 indigo cultivation).
• Ahmedabad Mills Strike, Kheda agitation.
• Khilafat movement, Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22), Chauri Chaura
incident.
• Civil disobedience movement, Poona Pact.
• Individual Satyagraha
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 • Quit India movement
• Towards partition.

Ideology:
• Satyagraha: A way to fight and resist evil. Not injure the enemy but appeal by reason
or gentle argument and sacrifice of self for truth and justice. Universal.
• Principles: Non-violence, truth, not stealing, self-restrain, nonpossession,
fearlessness, equal respect for all religions etc.
• Village led development
• Equality: Overlooking gender, caste, religion etc. Eg. Called untouchables Harijans,
newspaper Harijan.
• Gandhian economics: Sarvodaya economic model – Upliftment and welfare of all.
• On education: Education is an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man –
body, mind and spirit.

How Gandhi defined Indian freedom movement?

• The unifying factor: Eg. Swarajists vs No changers, Hindu-Muslim unity (Khilafat
movement).
• Mobilising masses: Transforming Indian freedom struggle from an intellectual
movement to mass movement. Eg. NCM
• Ethical/Moral guidance: Path of ahimsa and non-violence.
• Women empowerment: Women in forefront of Dandi March.
• Upliftment of untouchables: Harijan movement.

Relevance of Gandhian ideas in present context:

• In politics: Submission to truth in context of current criminalisation of politics.
• Women empowerment: In fight against inhumane practices like child marriage
• Environment protection: The Earth has enough resources for our need but not for
our greed.
• Personal sphere: End vs Means debate.
• International relations: Eg. War is not a morally legitimate means of achieving
anything permanent. – Link with Afghanistan crisis.
• Development strategy: Development that instil values of equality, liberty and
dignity in the people.
• Education: Link with NEP 2020.
• Economic view: Believed that centralisation is root cause of exploitation – Link
with rising economic inequality in India.

Criticisms against Gandhi:

• Jawaharlal Nehru: Against Gandhi’s ideas of mixing religion and politics.
• B R Ambedkar: On limitations of Gandhian views on caste.
• V D Savarkar: Against Gandhi’s ideas on pluralism, against Khilafat cause.
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 • Practicality of ahimsa: Ahimsa falls apart in diplomacy Eg. Tibet occupation by China.
• Economic ideas regressive: Eg. Against industrialisation.

India before Gandhi

• Nationalism was intellectual movement: Eg. During early phase of INC, moderates
didn’t had confidence in masses whereas extremists over-estimated readiness of
masses.
• Congress yet to evolve as a party of masses.
• Differential movement:
o Worst case – Surat split of 1907.
o Hindu-Muslim divide.
• Revolutionary terrorism: 1910s witnessed first phase of revolutionary terrorism in
India.
• Social backwardness: Untouchability, caste system etc.

Gandhi’s role in transforming India to an independent nation

• A guiding force: All nationalist happenings between 1919-1947, someway or other
revolved around Gandhi.
• New forms of struggle: Satyagraha and non-violence against imperialist might.
• Brought masses forefront: Masses the integral strength behind all Gandhian
movements.
• A unifying force: Hindu-Muslim unity in Non-cooperation movement, maintaining
unity among Swarajists and no-changers.
• Wider perspective of independence: Not limited to political independence but from
poverty and all social evils.
• Gender empowerment: Women into nationalist movement. Eg. Participation in
Civil dis-obedience movement.
• Spiritual leader: Emphasized on spiritualizing politics and all walks of life.
• Self-reliance: Emphasised on glory of self-sufficient village republics.
• Against exploitative economic systems: Trusteeship model.

Conclusion

• Despite supporting or opposing Gandhian ideas, Gandhi played an instrumental role

in transitioning India from this to an independent nation.

Gandhi vs Jawaharlal Nehru

Differences:
Gandhiji JL Nehru
Religion and politics During Khilafat movement, Against mixing religion and
Gandhi wanted to utilise politics
opportunity to advance
Hindu-Muslim unity

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 On secularism: Gandhi ideal secular, rational and
wanted to spiritualise scientific person
politics

Submission to non-violence Called off Non-Cooperation In favour of prolonging the

Movement after Chauri movement.
Chaura incident

Approach to freedom In support of ‘No Changers’, Critical of both ‘No

struggle later supported ‘Swarajists’ Changers’ and ‘Swarajists’.
also.
Struggle – Win
Struggle – Truce – Struggle
strategy.

On idea of freedom Wanted dominion status Wanted nothing less than

Purna Swaraj
On religion Seeker of ultimate truth, Solution to problems in
fond of Bhagwat Gita, law of science, not religion, atheist
karma in views
Idea of trusteeship owner should act as a repudiated this theory,
trustee of favoured state ownership
consumers/workers
Idea of state critical of modern state: He votary of a strong state
regarded it as soul-less based on rule of law and
machine running on idea of constitutionalism.
inhuman scientific rules.

Economy Village led development, Followed democratic

opposed industrialisation socialism with strong
emphasis on cooperative
movement, massive
industrialisation, scientific
and technological
advancement etc.

Education Education means overall Jawaharlal Nehru: Promote

development – Body, mind rationalism, empiricism and
and spirit. Handicrafts. positivism

Similarities between Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru

• Towards freedom: Anti-Simon Commission protest, civil disobedience movement,
council entry etc.
• Humanism: Gandhi deep humanist, while Nehru worshipped mankind.

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 • Socialism: Village socialism of Gandhi and Fabian socialism of Nehru
• Foreign policy:
• Gandhian ideas: Vasudhaiva kudumbakam, universal brotherhood, Non-
interference, peaceful growth.
• Nehru: Engauge based on national interest, architect of foreign policy of
independent India.

Mahatma Gandhi vs B R Ambedkar

Differences

Gandhiji BR Ambedkar
Independence Political independence, non- Concerned about real
violent means freedom for masses,
especially for untouchables
and downtrodden.
Upliftment of untouchables Named Harijans, All India Untouchables have to work
Anti-Untouchability League, for their own salvation.
Harijan Sevak Sangh Depressed Classes Institute,
Samaj Samta Sangh.

Varnashram and Caste Supported varnashrama Against varnashrama

System system, supported Shastras system, condemned
Shastras
Villages Glorified villages, village led Village as a sink of localism,
development a den of ignorance, narrow
mindedness and
communalism. Called for
complete urbanisation

Similarities between Gandhi and Ambedkar: Humanism, upliftment of untouchables,

hygiene practices etc.

Gandhi vs followers of violent methods for freedom

Differences

• Methods to freedom:
✓ Gandhi denounced political method of violence, called Bhagat Singh, brave
misguided patriots.
✓ Followers of violent methods for freedom: Destruction is not only essential
but indispensable for construction.
• Idea of freedom:

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 ✓ Gandhi: Advocated dominion status.
✓ Followers of violent methods for freedom: Complete independence.
• Inspirations:
✓ Gandhi: Inspired by religious ideas, spirituality etc.
✓ Followers of violent methods for freedom: Inspired by Russian revolution,
socialism ideas etc. promoted militant nationalism.
• Idea of state: Followers of violent methods for freedom – Economic independence
final goal after political independence.

Similarities between Gandhi and followers of violent methods for freedom:

• On caste and untouchability
• On freedom and liberation
• On humanism and universal brotherhood.

Gandhi vs Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel

Similarities :
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, true disciple of Gandhi
• Staunch supporter of Purna Swaraj idea.
• Believed in Satyagraha.
• No changer: Opposed Council entry.
• Equality: Worked against untouchability, alcoholism, caste discrimination and
empowerment of women.
• Democracy: Laid foundations.

Differences

• Relevance of non-violence in statecraft: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel’s role in

integration of India (Bismark of India), supported military intervention whereven
necessary. Eg. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel condemned non-violence strategy if nation is
attacked.
• Direct approach of Patel: In criticising government as well as industrialist class. Eg.
Gandhi critical of Patel’s tone of speeches against Government.

Gandhi vs British
• He wasn’t never against the evil doer but against the evil
• against the might of britishers, but not taking the advantage of their plight
• during World War 1 and Boer wars → he supported Britishers
• Also advocated conditional support during WW2
• (Regarding Gandhi’s anti British stance → we’ve discussed adequately in Part-A)

Jawaharlal Nehru

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 • President of historic 1929 Congress session in Lahore: Complete independence as
India’s political goal.
• Ideology
▪ Politically leftist, liberal and promoted idealistic fabian socialism.
▪ Against dominion status demands in Nehru report, Gandhi.
▪ Strong opponent of fascism.
▪ Ideally secular – Opposed Gandhi’s mixing of religion and politics.
▪ Believed in strong state with international engagements.
• Contributions
▪ Participation in NCM, CDM, Individual satyagraha and QIM.
▪ President of All India States People’s Conferences.
▪ Passed Objective Resolution.
▪ As 1st PM of India: Five-year plans, domestic and international policies, Non-
Alignment Movement, Institutions of excellence – IITs, space program etc.

S C Bose

• Represented nationalist radical wing of INC.

• Influenced by Swami Vivekananda’s teachings, cleared coveted Indian Civil Service
Examination, C R Das as political guru.
• Congress President in 1938, re-elected in 1939, resigned due to differences with
Gandhi.
• Formed Forward Bloc, took over leadership of Indian National Army (discussed)
• Ideology:
o Political: Nationalism, socialism, leftist.
o Completed independence even by violent means. Against Gandhian ways.
Collaboration with Axis powers to militarily overthrow British.

Sardar Patel
Popularly known as Iron man of India
Contributions
• Integration of country→ convinced princely states to join union of India. His vision
and statesmanship → made India united without any bloodshed.
• Kashmir: Swift action in Kashmir forcing back the Pakistani forces
• Modern all India service → established modern all India
• services , called patron saint of India’s civil servants
• crucial role in constituent assembly for supporting the fundamental rights to
minorities.

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 • helped in establishing Kheda milk cooperative
• promoted liberalised industrial policy resolution of → focusing on economic self-
reliance.
• foresaw the dangers of Chinese occupation of Tibet.

Criticism
• sometimes criticised for promoting the capitalist class
• Maulana Azad criticised Patel for inciting partition
• did not desist from using force or police action for integration of states into India.

Patel vs Nehru

SV Patel JL Nehru
used both coercive and conciliatory for did not like satisfying measures like Privy
integration of princely states. purses
Wrt Foreign policy ✓ idealist.
✓ He was a pragmatist. ✓ Said - no fundamental conflict
✓ recognized Chinese expansionist between two nations
tendencies + advised Nehru to
proceed with caution
Attitude towards civil services ✓ pessimistic attitude towards civil
✓ Optimistic service
Although he was also ✓ up held the secular fabric of India
secular, but sometimes associated with post independence
some communal
groups

B R Ambedkar

• Associations: Samata Sainik Dal, Independent labour Party, Scheduled Castes

Federation.
• Ideology:
▪ Political ideology: Equalism, right wing approach.
▪ Annihilation of caste: Opposed shastras, Manusmriti. Against Gandhian
approach to caste. Regarded Shudras as Aryans.
▪ Economic views: Strong proponent of industrialisation and modernisation,
regarded Gandhi’s village-led development model as backward.
▪ Supported state socialism.
• Poona pact, 1932: Replaced separate electorate for depressed classes with
reservation of seats.
• Founded Independent Labour Party. Won 15 seats in Central Legislative Assemble
elections in 1937.

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 • Contributions in framing of Constitution: Chairman of drafting committee, father of
Indian Constitution.
• Strong supporter of Uniform Civil Code.

BAL GANGADHAR TILAK

• Also called Lokmanya

• extremist leader of National Movement from Bombay
• Gandhi called him “Maker of Modern India”.
• Valentine Chirol called him “Father of Indian Unrest”.
• He was the first and strongest advocate of Swaraj.
• Co-founded New English School for secondary Education in 1880. In 1884 because
of success of school found Deccan Education Society in 1884, which in turn
established Fergusson College, where he taught Mathematics.
• In 1890 he joined INC. In 1897 following assassination of Commissioner Rand, he
was charged with incitement to murder and put on 18 months prison.
• During partition of Bengal in 1906, he played a major role in Swadeshi movement.
• In 1909 he was again charged with sedition (Jinnah fought his case) and sentenced 6
years on Mandalay (where he wrote Gita Rahasya).
• In WW 1 he supported British and promised to find new recruits. He also supported
Minto-Morley Reforms in 1909.
• From 1916-18 he also founded All India Home Rule League.
• He opposed age of consent bill which increased marriage age by 12 for girls (though
he signed circulars which supported 16 years as age of marriage). Rukhmabai,
married at 11 refused go to her husband, and later went to receive Doctor of
Medicine. Tilak was critical of her decision.
• He had conflict with Shahu (ruler of Kolhapur) over castes and role of Brahmins in
society.
• With Kesari (in Marathi) and Mahratta (in English) he is called “Great Awakener of
India”.
• In 1894 he started Ganesh Jayanti and 1895, Shiv Jayanti.
• He also wrote “The Arctic Home in Vedas” = where he proclaimed Aryans bought
Vedas from Arctic.

Swami Vivekanand

• Born as Narendranath Dutta, was an Indian mystic and bringing Hinduism as the
major religion of the World.
• He was interested in Hindu scriptures including Vedas, Gita, Mahabharata and
Ramayan.

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 • He also translated some important work like Herbert Spencer’s “Eduction” in
Bengali.
• Influences = In 1880 he joined Keshab Chandra Sen’s “Nava Vidhan”
• Later he also joined Sadharan Brahmo Samaj. He also joined Sen’s “Band of Hope”
which tried to discourage youth from drinking and smoking.
• In 1881 he met Ramakrishna which was turning point in his life. He also advised
Swami to pray in Kali Temple which changed his perspective on meditation.
• He first established Ramakrishna Math at Baranagar.
• In 1889, he compiled a Bengali song anthology named Sangeet Kalpataru.
• In 1893 from China to Japan he visited US, where he participated in “Parliament of
Religions” which had profound impact on minds of western audience.
• In UK he met Margaret Elizabeth Noble (Irish lady) who became Sister Nivedita. He
also met Max Muller there.
• During this time he wrote “Raja Yoga”. In San Jose, California he established Shanti
Asrama. In 1895, Vivekananda founded periodical “Brahmavadin” to teach Vedanta.
• In 1897, he came back and established Ram Krishna Mission with HQ at Belur.

Rabindranth Tagore

• In 1913, for Gitanjali he became first non European and first lyricist to win Nobel
Literature.
• In 1910’s he established an Ashram called “Santiniketan” (earlier called Institute of
Rural Reconstruction) where he later established school called “Vishwa Bharti” =
where free thinking, spiritualism and physical exercise was encouraged and rote
learning was discouraged.
• In 1915, he was honoured Knighthood by King George V, which he returned in 1919
after Jaliahwala Massacre.
• In Politics, he opposed imperialism and supported Indian freedom movement. But
he was critical for Gandhi, like he rebuked “The cult of Charkha” in same named
Essay.
• Some politically charged slogans like “Chitto Jetha Bhayshunyo” (Where the Mind is
Without Fear) and “Ekla Chalo Re” (If they answer not to your call, walk alone).

Sri Aurobindo

• Was Indian Philosopher and nationalist.

• He later joined Baroda Civil Services.
• In 1906 he was made principal of National College in Calcutta + he was advocate of
Non Cooperation and passive resistance. In 1906 INC session he formed 4 fold
objectives “Swaraj, Swadesh, Boycott and National Education”.
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 • In 1908 he was arrested in Alipore Bomb case (In which Khudiram Bose and Prafulla
Chaki, threw bomb at Britishers). In Alipore jail he got spiritual awakening.
• From 1910-1950 he lived in Pondicherry. He started monthly philosophical
magazine “Arya”.
• Books = The life Divine, The Synthesis of Yoga, The secrets of Veda, Hymns to the
Mystic Fire, The Renaissance in India, War and Self Determination, The Ideal of
Human Unity and The Future Poetry.
• But his greatest literary achievement is epic spiritual poem = “Savitri”. He was
nominated 2 times for Nobel, 1943 (For literature) and 1950 (for Peace).
• He influenced Subhash Chandra Bose to completely dwell into INA.
• Integral Yoga = like human, world is also evolving and in future as new species will
come into being so will the new world. So Samadhi not just meant liberation from
world but descent into divine.
• Supermind = it is an intermediary power between unmanifested Brahman and
manifested world.

EV Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar)

• Was a social activist and started Self Respect Movement.

• Born in Madras Presidency.
• In 1904 he visited Kashi, the inhuman treatment there of him due to being “non
Brahmin” had a profound view in his social view and philosophy.
• He was in Congress from 1919 to 1925 and took part in Non Cooperation Movement
and Temperance Movement (Anti Alcohol).
• In Vaikom Satyagraha (In Kerala) in 1924-25 which was to open temples and road to
Dalits, he was the chief participant.
• Self-Respect Movement = was dedicated to goal of giving non-Brahmins a sense of
pride based on their Dravidian past.
• From 1929-32 he travelled, Ceylon, Malaya, Egypt, Greece, UK and Russia where the
commune system inspired him a lot.
• While he advocated Marxism he did not advocate for abolishing private Ownership.
• In 1937, when C.Rajagopalachari became CM of Madras, he introduced Hindi as a
compulsory subject, against which Periyar took agitation.
• He was President of Justice Party from 1938 to 1944 which later became Dravida
Kazhagam.
• He was an advocate of rationalism and Women’s right.

MN Roy

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 • A Indian Communist revolutionary.
• In July 1905, partition of Bengal took place in which he protested.
• He tried to rope in help of Germany, where plan was to attack Andaman, but it did
not materialize, and he had to go to Japan and from their Korea to hide from secret
police.
• From there he moved to USA. In 1919 he founded Socialist party in Mexico (which
later became Communist Party of Mexico = first communist party outside Russia).
• In 1920 Lenin personally invited him to 2nd Communist International. In 1920 he
founded Communist Party of India in Tashkent.
• He had journal “The Vanguard”.
• Books = India in Transition, The future of Indian Politics (1926) & Revolution and
Counter Revolution in China (1930).
• In 1936, he joined INC session in Faizpur where he proposed to radicalize congress
and capture the power with Constituent assembly.
• In last part of his life he became “Radical Humanist” = i.e. concern of human at core
on ideology. (New Human = free and progressive human)
• In WW 2 he condemned rising totalitarian regimes in Germany and Japan. And
supported England and France. In 1940 he created Radical Democratic Party.

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar

• Indian Nationalist and political ideologue of Hindutva.

• He found a secret society called “Abhinav Bharat”
• Wrote book = The Indian War of Independence
• Against Morely Minto Reforms of 1909, he tried to organize an armed revolt and to
avoid arrest he moved to Bhikaji Cama’s home in Paris. He case of arrest in
Marseilles was bought to Permanent Court of Arbitration.
• When he came back in 1910 he was put in Yervada Jail and then transferred to
Cellular Jail (in Andaman) for 50 years.
• In 1921 he was moved to Rajnagiri where he wrote “Essentials of Hindutva”.
• During Quit India, he was leader of Hindu Mahasabha and he wrote a letter titled
“Stick to your posts” in which he asked Indians not to join Quit India because of
Congress’s compromise with muslim league.
• He worked against caste discrimination and untouchability and also wrote “My
Transportation for Life”, his memoirs of revolutionary times.

Jayaprakash Narayan

• AKA Lok Nayak was an Indian Independence activist, theorist, socialist and political
leader.
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 • Against Indira Gandhi he gave call for “Total Revolution”.
• During Non Cooperation Movement he left British school and joined Bihar
Vidyapeeth founded by Rajendra Prasad.
• Joined INC on invitation of Nehru and Gandhi became his mentor.
• In 1942 he was jailed for Civil Disobedience in Nasik Jail. After his release –
Congress Socialist Party was formed with Acharya Narendra Dev as President and
Narayan as General Secretary.
• During Quit India was escaped from Hazaribagh Jail. He was also chairman of
Anugrah Smarak Nidhi.
• From 1947-53 he was President of All India Railwaymen’s Federation.

Ram Manohar Lohia

• Was an activist in Indian Independence Movement and a socialist political leader.

He worked with Congress Radio in 1942 Quit India Movement.
• His PhD thesis was in “Salt Taxation in India” in which he focused on Gandhi’s socio-
economic theory.
• He was founder of Congress Socialist Party and editor of Congress Socialist. He was
also selected by Nehru was Secretary of Foreign Department of All India Congress
Committee.
• In 1940 he was arrested and jailed for anti-war speeches.
• He also gave the idea of Sapta Kranti.

Deendayal Upadhyay

• Was an Indian politician and proponent of Hindutva Ideology.

• He started monthly – “Rashtra Dharma”.
• He was full time RSS Pracharak in 1940s and started weekly “Panchjanya” and daily
“Swadesh”. In 1951 when SP Mookerjee founded Bhartiya Jana Sangh, he was
Secretary of it.
• Integral Humanism = an indigenous economic model with human being at central
stage (which differed it from Socialism and Capitalism).

Shyama Prasad Mukherjee

✓ Indian politician, barrister and academician

✓ criticised provisions of Liaquat-Nehru Pact severly
✓ resigned from Nehru cabinet in protest→ believed that refugee problem could only
be solved through transfer of population and acquisition of certain territories from
Pakistan to rehabilitate people who came into India
✓ Industries Minister under Nehru Govt.

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 ✓ broke away to set up Bharatiya Jana Sangh (a proto-BJP) in 1951

Lala Lajpat Rai

✓ known as Punjab Kesari→ leader of college faction of Arya Samaj→ worked for social
& educational
✓ became extremist leader in early 20th century→ played important role in Anti-
Partition movement for which he was deported to Burma by British in 1907
✓ After releasing, visited USA, founded Indian Home Rule League there in 1914
✓ presided special Calcutta session of Congress, 1920→ believed‘safety valve’ theory
✓ edited newspaper, Punjabee→ authored book, Unhappy India→ severely wounded
and died of injuries while leading protest procession against Simon Commission
✓ Trade union movement was led by All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) founded
in 1920. Lala Lajpat Rai was its first president
✓ Arsenal and railway workers strike in Rawalpindi led by Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh
✓ Famous saying
▪ The blows, which fell on me today, are the last nails driven into the coffin of
British Imperialism”.

Contribution of foreigners in Indian freedom movement

• Annie Besant: Representative of theosophical society, founded Central Hindu
school, All India Home Rule League, 1st women president in 1917.
• Medeleine Slade – Miraben: Associated with Gandhi, participated in QIM.
• Nellie Sengupta: President of INC in 1933.
• Sister Nivedita: Started nationalist institutions and schools throughout the
country.
• Ghadr movement – America.
• INA and Japan relations during second world war.

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 Part-C

Governor Generals

Cornwallis (1786-93)

Cornwallis code: Judicial reforms based on equity and Western conception of

justice.

• Based on separation of power: Separate revenue

administration from justice administration Eg. Divested
District Collector of judicial duties.
• Gradation of civil courts: Eg. Diwani courts to try all civil
cases and revenue cases.
• Structure: District Courts -> Provincial Courts of Appeal (4
nos).
• Sovereignty of law: European subjects amenable to
jurisdiction of local civil courts, Government servants
answerable before civil courts for actions in official
capacity.
• Criminal administration: More powers to District Judge.

Police reforms To supplement and implement judicial reforms

• Regulation of 1791 defined powers of the Police

Superintendent.
• Raised salaries and rewards: Incentive to act honestly.
• Zamindars deprived of all police powers.

Revenue reforms • Reorganized Revenue Department, Permanent Settlement

of Bengal, 1793. [PSS to be dealt in land policies]

Commercial reforms • To check corruption: Forbade acceptance of bribes or

presents, officers to declare property under oath,
dismissed some officials, raised salaries.

Europeanisation of • Every native of Hindustan is corrupt.

administrative
machinery • Racial discrimination: Held low opinions on Indian
character, ability and integrity, Salary rises never
applicable to Indians.

Conclusion: Cornwallis built a superstructure on fragile administrative foundations of

the time in India. Inspired values like duty, modesty, perseverance, willingness to
accept advices etc. Implanted British principles and institutions in Indian administration.
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 Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)

Came with a mission To make company the supreme power in India, add its
territories and reduce all Indian states to a position of
dependence on Company

Subsidiary Alliance Company undertook to defend territories of Indian ally

System and for that purpose, stationed a force in territory of state;
Indian ally may choose to not pay but surrender territory. Eg.
Treaty with Nizam, 1800.

Terms and conditions:

• Indian state to surrender external relations.
• British resident at state headquarters.
• State not to employ Europeans in service without
consultation of Company.
• Company to protect state from all external threats.
• Company not to interfere in internal affairs.

Advantages to the Company:

• Trojan-horse-tactics in empire building: Eliminated
capacity of Indian states to form any future alliance at a
threatening level to the Company.
• Enable Company to maintain large standing army at
expense of Indian princess.
• Troops in capitals – Control of strategic and key positions.
• Theatres of actual wars away from company territories.
• Counteract against French aspirations in India.
• Direct British influence over affairs of Indian state.
• Facilitated territorial expansion of Company.

Disadvantage to Indian states:

• Disarmament.
• Lost independence: Surrender of foreign relations.
• British interference in day-to-day administration.
• Possibility of any political rebellion cut-off. Eg. Inter-states
contacts cut off.
• Financial bankruptcy of states.

Subsidised States:
✓ Hyderabad (1798; 1800)
✓ Mysore (1799)
✓ Tanjore (October 1799)
✓ Awadh (November 1801)
✓ Peshwa (1801)
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 ✓ Bhonsle (1803)
✓ Sindhia
✓ Jodhpur
✓ Jaipur
✓ Bharatpur (1818)
Wellesley and the Tackled threat of Napoleonic ambitions in India
French menace
Outright wars Fourth Anglo-Mysore war (Tipu defeated), Second Maratha war.
Territorial expansion Assumption of territories of previously subordinated rulers like
Tanjore (1799), Surat (1800) and Carnatic (1801).

Conclusion: Wellesley converted British empire in India to British empire of India.

Company became sole protectorate

Lord Dalhousie (1848-56)

Imperialist Conquest, Consolidation, Development.

ruthlessness at best
Dalhousie’s Annexation through conquests:
annexations
• 2nd Sikh war and annexation of Punjab, 1849.
• Annexation of lower Burma, 1852.
• Some states of Sikkim including Darjeeling annexed in
1850.

Annexation through peace:

• Doctrine of Lapse: Right of adoption of ruler substituted
by Paramount power’s right to lapse.
• States annexed: Satar (1848), Jaitpur & Sambhatpur
(1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853),
Nagpur (1854).
• Annexation of Oudh on pretext of misrule.

Administrative • Non-Regulation System – Appointed Commissioner over

reforms newly acquired territory made directly responsible to
Governor General.

Military reforms • Shifting Army and GOI headquarters to Shimla started,

proposed reduction of Indian element in army
Educational reforms • Wood’s dispatch, 1854:
▪ Foundations of modern education. Teaching both
English and vernacular, but English best at higher
levels.

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 ▪ Anglo-vernacular schools, Government colleges in
towns, London model Universities in provinces,
Engineering college at Roorkee.
▪ Infiltration theory abandoned.

Infra/Economic/Com • Railways - Strategic railway lines for trade and defence of

mercial India. Railway lines built with private capital with
Government guarantee.
• Electric telegraph, postal reforms, Public Works
Department established.
• Ports like Karachi, Bombay, Calcutta etc. thrown open for
free trade and investment.

Failures • Responsibility for Revolt of 1857 - Failed to foresee the

storm – Strategic failure.
• Policy of aggressive annexations threatened stability.
• Ruthless and injudicious treatment of Rani of Jhansi,
Nana Sahib, Tantia Tope etc. channelized discontent.

Conclusion: Laid foundations of modern India – Modernizer.

Lord Canning (1856-62)

• Establishment of three universities at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857.

• Revolt of 1857.
• GOI Act, 1858: Transfer of control from EIC to Crown.
• White Mutiny by European troops in 1859.
• Indian Council Act of 1861. Portfolio system.

Lord Lytton

• Royal titles Act, 1876: Investing Queen Victoria with title of Kaiser-i-Hind -> Grand
Darbar at Delhi (1877), during famine.
• Vernacular Press Act, 1878: Empowered magistrate to call up on printer and publisher
of any vernacular newspaper to enter into bond undertaking not to publish anything
likely to excite feeling of disaffection against Government.
• Arms Act, 1878: Made it criminal offence to keep or traffic arms without license ->
Only for Indians -> Racial discrimination.
• Statutory Civil Service: Proposed closing gate for Indians and start a new native service.
• Financial reforms: Provincial government given control of expenditure upon all
ordinary provincial services including land revenue, excise, stamps, law and justice etc.

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• Famine of 1876-78: 5 million people died -> Famine Commission under Richard
Strachey in 1878 -> Famine fund.

Lord Rippon

• Repeal of Vernacular Press Act in 1882.

• First Factory Act, 1881 -> To improve condition of labourers -> Child labour
prohibited below 7 years.
• Financial decentralisation in 1882: Furthered financial powers/responsibilities of
provinces.
• Resolution on local self-government, 1882: Local boards established throughout
the country.
• Resolution on land revenue policy -> Ryots given assurances and security.
• Educational reforms: Hunter Education Commission in 1882.
• Ilbert Bill controversy, 1883-84: Remove racial discrimination in judicial services ->
Rippon resigned as the Bill was not passed by British Parliament.

Lord Curzon (1899-1904)

Background Famine of 1896-97, revenues declining, renascent political

climate with Indians questioning British rule.

Administrative • Police reforms: Police Commission under Andrew Frazer

reforms in 1902, led to increase in salaries, increase in strength of
Police, training schools etc.
• Educational reforms: University Commission, 1902, led
to Indian Universities Act, 1904, to increase official
control over universities by limiting the number of
fellows and increasing nominated element over elected
fellows. Veto against order passed by Senate.
• Economic reforms: Famine Commission under Sir
Anthony MacDonnell, payment by ‘task work’ for abled.
Commission under Sir Colin Scott Moncreiff to
investigate into whole question of irrigation, expansion
of railways.
• Judicial reforms: Number of Judges increased, salary
increased, Indian Code of Civil Procedure revised.
• Army reforms: Northern and Southern commands,
training college.
• Calcutta Corporation Act, 1899: Reduce strength of
elected members.

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 • Ancient Monuments Act, 1904: To repair, restore and
protect historical monuments
Partition of Bengal, • Official explanation: A mere re-adjustment of
1905 boundaries for administrative efficiency, Bengal too large
to manage with 80 million population.
• Ulterior motives: By dividing Bengali speaking areas,
government intends to weaken nationalist movement.
• Linguistic division: Reducing Bengalis to a minority in
Bengal itself.
• Religious division: Pitting Muslim communalists against
nationalists.
• Response: Anti-partition movement -> Swadeshi
movement.
Foreign policy of • Tibet policy: Younghusband Mission – Checking Russian
Curzon influence in Tibet.
• Curzon-Kitchener controversy: Military reforms,
differenced with Commander-in-Chief.

Conclusion: Greatest imperialist, all acts towards making British position in India
impregnable, commitment to efficiency even at cost of humaneness, great administrator.

Lord Irwin (1926-31)

• Visit of Simon Commission in 1928.

• Nehru report/Nehru Constitution in 1928.
• Butler Commission on relationship between states and paramount power in 1927.
• Lahore Conspiracy Case: Murder of Saunders, assistant superintendent of Police
of Lahore.
• Purna Swaraj resolution of Congress in 1929 in Lahore Session.
• Dandi March by Gandhi to launch Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Deepavali Declaration, 1929: British government was to facilitate India attaining
dominion status in the future, no mention of timeline.
• Boycott of 1st Round Table Conference by Congress in 1930 -> Gandhi Irwin pact
in 1931 and suspension of Civil Disobedience Movement.

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 Lord Mountbatten (1947-48)

Background Mountbatten was appointed Viceroy to India to speed up the

process of transfer of power by the then British prime minister
Clement Atlee.

Dickie Bird Plan: • Lord Mountbatten, India's last Viceroy, released a plan on the
country's independence from the British on June 3, 1947.

June 3 • India would be splitting into two nations after its

announcement independence – India and Pakistan.
• The plan included the principles of partition and gave
autonomy and sovereignty to both India and Pakistan.
• Princely states, such as Jammu and Kashmir, were given a
choice to either remain independent or join India or Pakistan.
• Both the Congress and the Muslim League accepted the plan.

The Indian • Received the royal assent on 18 July 1947.

Independence Act • Appointed Boundary Commissions under Sir Cyril Redcliffe.
of 1947 passed

Criticisms • Killed any hopes of a federated India: With power sharing

and autonomy to Muslim majority provinces.
• Mismanaged aftermaths of partition: By bringing forward
the date by 10months, to August 1947.
• Haphazard drawing of boundaries: Commission to complete
work in 5 weeks, report not shared with Indian leaders until
two days after partition.
• Left the fate of Kashmir undecided.

Constitutional Development

Act Reasons Provisions

Regulating Act • EIC had acquired • designated Governor of Bengal
of 1773 Political and as Governor-General of Bengal
territory Power • Created Executive Council of 4
• Corruption in Bengal members
due to Dual govt + • made Bombay and Madras
abuses of private presidencies subordinate to
trade (earlier→independent)
• Economic Crisis in • Supreme Court established 1774)
EIC • Prohibited servants from
engaging in
• any private trade
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 • Required Court of Directors
(governing
• body of the Company) to report
on revenue, civil,
• military affairs in India.
Pitts India Act Remove the weakness of • distinguished commercial and
1784 the Regulating Act of 1773 political functions of EIC.
• CoD → to manage the
commercial affairs
• new body → Board of Control
(BoC) → manage political affairs
➔ system of double
government.
• BoC → direct
• all civil and military Operations
• Importance → Company’s
territories in India called‘British
possessions in India.

Charter Act of • abolished trade monopoly of EIC in India (except tea and trade
1813 with China)
• asserted the sovereignty of Crown over EIC territories in India.
• Allowed Christian missionaries to come to India
• Provided for spread of western education

Charter Act of • Governor-General of Bengal → Governor- General of India

1833 • Government → authority over the entire territorial area
• deprived Bombay and Madras of legislative powers
• tea trade and trade with China also abolished
• wanted to introduce open competition for selection of civil
servants (though not implemented)
Charter Act of • separation of executive and legislative functions (additional
1853 member appoint in council for legislative work) → Indian
(Central) Legislative Council → functioned as a mini-Parliament
• introduced an open competition system of selection and
recruitment of civil servants.
Charter Act of • known as Act for the Good Government of India
1858 • Brought an end to the Company’s rule in India
• CoD and BoD abolished + powers transferred to the Secretary
of State for India and India Council
• declared Secretary of State for India as a corporate body
• 15 member Council Of India → aid and advise to Secretary Of
State
• known as ‘Manga Carta of the people of India

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 • changed the designation of the Governor-General of India to
that of Viceroy of India
Indian Councils • Began decentralisation- > restoring legislative powers of
Act of 1861 Bombay and Madras presidency
• GG empowered to issue ordinances in case of emergency
• introduced the portfolio system ( today’s cabinet system of
distributing portfolios to ministers)
• beginning of the representative institutions by associating
Indians with the law-making process.
• establishment of new legislative councils

Indian Councils • increased the number of additional (non-official) members in

Act of 1892 Central and provincial legislative councils, but maintained
official majority
• gave power of discussing the budget and addressing questions
to the executive
India Council Why?
Act, 1909 • Tremendous rise in national consciousness
(Morley-Minto • Economic critique of colonial rule
Reforms) • Role of Curzon’s reactionary policies
• Rise of extremists and the revolutionaries
• Rise of liberal party to power in Britain

Provisions
• considerably increased size of the legislative councils (Central
and provincial)
• Non official majority was being introduced in the provinces for
the first time,however at the Central Legislature official
majority was being maintained.
• members allowed to ask supplementary questions, move
resolutions etc.
• Indians for the first time in Viceroy's executive council
(satyendra prasad sinha as Law Member)
• Separate electorates on basis of religion (for Muslims)
• → Act ‘legalised communalism’ and Lord Minto came to be
known as the Father of Communal Electorate.
GoI Act, 1919 • increasing association of Indians → 3/8 members of the GG’s
(Montague- executive council, 3 would be Indians
Chelmsford • At Center Bicameral Legislature established
Reforms) • first time direct election were introduced
• communal electorate continued- extended to Sikhs, Indian
Christians,Anglo-Indians and Europeans also.
• two lists were drawn - The Central List and the Provincial list.
Residual powers were vested in the GG-in-council
• Special powers of the GG- veto- power of certification

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 •
Provincial Autonomy introduced for the first time in India
•
separation of sources of revenue between the centre and the
provinces
• In Provincial List
✓ Transferred list → Local Self Government, Heath ,
Education
✓ Reserved list - Land revenue, Police, Justice, Printing,
Press etc,
• separated, for the first time, provincial budgets from the
Central budget
• granted franchise to a limited number of people on the basis of
property, tax or education
• provided for the establishment of a public service commission.
• provided for the appointment of a statutory commission (Simon
Commission in 1927)
GOI Act 1935 Government of India act, 1935

Federal level
• Subjects to be administered were divided into reserved and
transferred subjects.
• Three lists for legislation.
• Religion based and class-based electorates further extended.
• GG → residuary powers

Provincial autonomy
• Provincial autonomy replaced dyarchy.
• Bicameralism – in 6 provinces (- Bengal, Madras, Bombay,
United Provinces, Bihar and Assam)
• Creation of new provinces - Sind and Orrisa and Burma was
separated from India.
• Independent financial powers. Could borrow money.
• Separate electorates
• Direct elections to all the members.
• Women got right to vote.

Others
• All India Federation
• establishment of Federal Bank and Federal Court (1935 and
1937)

Limitations
• safeguards and special responsibilities of the governor general
• Governor still had extensive powers
• Most part of budget still not votable
• enfranchised only 14% of Indian population

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 • extension of communal electorates to depressed classes
• provided a rigid constitution with no possibility of internal
growth.
• Provisions related to federation not implemented because of
suspicion of Muslim League (federation with strong center
means harming Muslin interest ) + Congress (1/3rd reservation
for Princely states) + Princely States ( issue of Paramountcy not
resolved, might encourage Democratic movements in states) +
Labor opposition in England

On this Act - JL Nehru commented - “We are provided with a car, all
brakes and no engine

Indian
Independence • Declared India as an independent and sovereign state from
Act, 1947 August 15, 1947.
(Updated) • Provided for creation of two independent dominions of India
and Pakistan with the right to secede from the British
20 Feb, 1947 Commonwealth. (Governor General of each were to be
Atlee declared appointed by King, the on advice of the Dominion Cabinet)
British rule end • Empowered the Constituent Assemblies of the two dominions
by 30 June,1948 to frame and adopt any constitution and to repeal any act of
(3 June 1947 the British Parliament, including the Independence act itself.
Mountbatten • Abolished the office of the secretary of state for India and
Plan accepted) transferred his functions to the secretary of state for
Commonwealth Affairs
• Assigned dual functions (i.e. constituent and legislative) to the
Constituent Assembly formed in 1946.
• It declared this dominion legislature as a sovereign body.
• Granted freedom to the Indian princely states either to join the
Dominion of India or Dominion of Pakistan or to remain
independent.

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 Part-D – Important Previous Year Questions

Q1 Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various
ideological strands and thereby expanded its social base. Discuss.

Approach:
1) Briefly discuss the advent of Indian Renaissance and global events which led to flow of
ideologies to Indian Subcontinent.
2) Discuss the impact of global events such as Russian Revolution on Indian political
discourse earmarked by mass mobilization of peasants, workers and women.
3) Conclude briefly the way these ideologies added masses to Indian struggle for
independence.

Introduction:
Advent of Indian Renaissance in late 19th century and Swadeshi Movement marked the
beginning of shaping of India’s social and political discourse. This was further intensified by
increasing communication and transportation system which led to interaction of Indians
with outside world. The global events such as Boer War, Russian Revolution e.t.c. shaped
the intellectual thought process which led to advent of new ideologies in Indian politics.
This led to formation of ideological groups rather than fringe local protests.

Formation of political parties and groups with wider social base driven by ideology
• Revolutionary terrorist and formation of HSRA: Driven by the success of Russian
revolution, Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was formed with Bhagat Singh,
Chandrasekhar Azad and Rajguru.
• This party had a secular vision of the society and wanted to form an independent United
States of India with a socialist ideology driven government.
• This group mobilized the peasants, workers and students across the country to fight
against the imperial forces.

• Communist Party of India: The communist movement in India was driven by MN Roy
which attracted individuals as well as workers and peasants towards the social
movement. This movement was also inspired by leftist ideology owing to Russian
revolution.

• Gandhian Socialism: Advent of foreign elements in national movement led to

amalgamation of Indian ideologies chiefly driven by Gandhi into it. This led to
emergence of a new socialist idea called ‘Gandhian Socialism’ with some of the ideas of
Gandhi while having some of the ideas of Socialism.

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• Major leaders of this school of ideology were Vinoba Bhave and Jay Prakash Narayan.
This ideology tried to enforce major economic and social policies such as ‘Sarvodya’ and
‘Bhoodan’ which aimed to provide land to landless.
• Within Congress, young nationalists such as Jawahar Lal Nehru and Subhash Chandra
Bose were flag bearers of socialist ideas which shaped the course of India’s progress
after independence.
• These ideologies through revolutionary ideas and slogans brought out the energy of
vulnerable class as they advocated for casteless and classless society, common in both
Marxist and D Gandhian Philosphies.

Conclusion: The advent of Indian National Congress led to pan India participation of
Indian people in Indian polity. But it was limited to upper class people. It was Indian
Renaissance and advent of Gandhi which led to participation of masses in the beginning
which was intensified by Socialist and communist ideologies. These ideologies within
and outside congress led to mass mobilization of weaker section of society which
culminated in form of Non-cooperation and Civil Disobedience movement.

Q2 Examine the linkages between 19th centuries ‘Indian Renaissance’ and the emergence
of national identity.

Approach:
1) Briefly discuss the state of Indian society in early 19th century and advent of Indian
Renaissance.
2) Discuss in detail various movements which established a common national identity in
India.
3) Briefly conclude with the emergence of middle class intelligentsia as flag bearers of
common national identity.

Introduction: Till the first half of 19th century, the Indian society was a decadent society like
dark ages of Europe with social evils such as Purdah, Sati, child marriage and Polygamy. The
advents of Europeans also marked the beginning of flow of intellectual ideals and thoughts
from Western World which was going through the phase of industrialization and the wave
of Renaissance had already hit the society. Mocking of Indian society by western educated
foreigners and transmission of western ideals and thoughts of Rousseau, Voltaire, and
Tolstoy e.t.c. led to emergence of Indian Renaissance which transformed the Indian society.
Indian Renaissance and emergence of national identity
• Revival of India’s glorious past: The Ramakrishna Movement led by Swami
Vivekananda and Arya Samaj by Dayanand Saraswati revived the Vedic traditions of
India in its pure form.
• Arya Samaj proclaimed its motto “Back to Vedas” and started many educational
institutes defining the rich Indian history.
• These movements not only glorified the Indian past but also kept it parallel to other
civilizations.

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• Participation of Swami Vivekananda in World Religion Conference in Chicago in 1893
and its outcomes made Indian proud of their civilized past, infusing a sense of
superiority and National Identity.

• Unearthing the real motto of the imperial rule: The renaissance movement in
unearthed the real motto behind the imperial rule. Arya Samajist opposed Christian
missionaries across the country. Similarly, in Punjab, Christian missionaries were
opposed by Singh Sabha Movement.

• Challenging social evils and customs: Western education and showcasing of Indian
culture and traditions by western intellectuals in poor light pinched the Indian
intellectuals to enquire about India’s rich culture heritage and traditions.
• Intellectuals such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidhyasagar openly
criticized evil social customs such as Sati and child marriage respectively.
• Roy also proclaimed that ‘Vedas are not infallible’, underlining his sense of enquiry on
modern lines.
• Movements against casteism: Various intellectuals such as Jyotiba Phule and Sri
Narayan Guru started anti-caste movements and Temple entry movement challenging
the rigid caste system. Such movements were not only in Hinduism but also among
Muslims.
• Such movements were concentrated towards a unified social order and a singular
National identity rather than an identity based on caste, culture, race and religion.
• Translation of Indian Texts: British also commissioned the study of Indian texts and
translated them to English. They reacted positively on its farsightedness, made Indian
realize the value of Indian culture and tradition.
• The availability of printed texts in English also helped the English educated Indians to
enquire and investigate about their common glorious past.

Conclusion: Indian Renaissance was the result of infusion of new ideas after the advent of
Europeans and attempts by them to marginalize the original inhabitants on the basis of
race and infringement in their religious affairs. Further global events such as victory of
Japan over imperial forces and Boer bar inspired them to a greater extent. The English
educated new middle class which was scarce in resources fought bravely to establish
‘India’s superiority’ through newspapers, articles and pamphlets and thus strengthened a
national identity.

Q3 Many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement during the
Gandhian phase. Elaborate.

Approach:
1) Discuss briefly advent of Gandhi as ‘watershed’ moment .

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2) Discuss participation of people belonging to different ideologies and background in
National Movement during this phase.
3) Conclude with emergence of Gandhi as leader of masses.

Introduction: The advent of Gandhi in Indian polity is considered as the ‘watershed’

moment. It saw the emergence of different political groups emerging out of different
ideologies and their accommodation in Indian polity. This phase is also marked by
participation of all class, caste, creed, sex and religion for a common cause i.e. ‘Swarajya’.
During this phase, Indian National congress under Gandhi dominated the Indian polity and
assimilated different ideologies within it. Before Gandhi, the Swadeshi movement saw little
participation of Muslims and Women but starting from Khilafat to Quit India Movement it
saw the wide participation of people.
Participation of different groups and ideologies in national movement during the
Gandhian era
• Participation of Farmers and industrial workers: Gandhi publicly attended the first
meeting at stone laying ceremony of Benaras Hindu University and battled there for
voice of vulnerable section of Indian society in front of wealthy crowd consisting of
riches, kings and intellectuals.
• His participation in Champaran Satyagraha and Ahmedabad Mill strike mobilized the
farmers and mill workers respectively.

• Participation of Muslims: The Khilafat Movement which was against the British wrongs
in Turkey against Khalifa found Gandhi as a supporter of Muslim cause and against the
common imperial enemy.
• It also strengthened the Muslim’s association with Indian National Congress. It was the
second time after the Lucknow Pact (1916) that nation saw the wave of Hindu-Muslim
unity.

• Creation of factions within congress: Many factions were created within congress
starting from Extremist and moderate to Swarjists and No-changers and from
conservatives to socialists all worked under the leadership of Gandhi together. Gandhi
acted like a strong bond among them making them to work together without hurting
their interests.
• Ideological driven factions outside congress: Gandhian era saw the formation of
Communist Part of India by MN Roy and Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
(HSRA) by Bhagat Singh and their associates.

• Participation of Women and Scheduled Caste: Gandhi was a flag bearer of gender and
caste equality. He openly favored temple entry movements, Women movements and
inked the historic ‘The Poona Pact’ with Ambedkar leading to reservation for Scheduled
Caste and Scheduled Tribes.

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• He univocally supported women and their movements including Sarda Act, 1929 which
was opposed by conservative leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Madan Mohan
Malaviya.

Conclusion: Gandhian era coincided with era of globalization, interconnections, global

events such as Russian Revolution and World Wars. Thus the era witnessed the emergence
of various ideological streams within and outside India and their impact on Indian National
Movement was seen. These ideologies enriched the mass movement during Gandhian
phase and projected Gandhi as leader of the masses.

Q4 Assess the role of British imperial power in complicating the process of transfer of
power during the 1940s.

Approach:
1) Briefly discuss the ‘Policy Paralysis’ during the last decade of the transfer of power.
2) Discuss in detail the causes behind various legislative and executive reforms in
1940s and complications created by them.
3) Conclude with results of turbulent policy paralysis by British during transfer of
power.

Introduction
The transfer of power by British to Indians came at the cost of partition, death of thousands
and displacement of more than two million people. The complicated transfer of power by
British led to misery, uncertainty, and poverty and unemployment at large scale. The era of
1940s saw ‘hooks and crooks’ in policies of British government in transferring power to
Indians. It led to uncertainty in lives of millions and complicating the process of transfer of
power.
Irresponsible decision and paralyzed policy amid transfer of power in 1940s
• Deliberate induction of Indians in Second World War: Mounting pressure on British
after the start of Second World War and deliberate dragging of Indians in the war
without any discussion led to criticism of British policies at large scale.
• War caused India a loss of resources in form of armed forces and supply of large amount
of raw material and finished products.
• August Offer: To garner support of Indians in Second World War, British proposed
August Offer which intended to provide dominion status to Indians in particular and
legislative reforms such as formation of constituent assembly to draft constitution in
general. The offer was again an intention of British to disillusion Indians in lieu of
garnering support. The offer was rejected by the Congress.

• Cripps Mission: Japanese threat to British empire and reverses in South-east Asia led
British to Send this mission. This mission also intended to provide dominion status to

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 India along with illusionary offers such as expansion of legislative council and limited
powers to deal foreign affairs.
• This was again seen as an attempt of British to satisfy nationalist and avert any mass
movement amid the World War. The proposals of the mission were rejected and
Mahatma Gandhi termed it as post dated cheque.
• Further, provisions such as ‘Right of provinces to secede from Union’ and form separate
Union was an attempt to garner support of Separatists elements.
• Wavell Plan: The plan tried to outreach Muslim community and provided them equal
representation to that of Hindus in Viceroy’s executive council. It was seen again as an
attempt to marginalize majority community by appeasement of minority community
having 25% of total population.
• Cabinet Mission Plan: The plan was again a departure of British form the previous
attempts to partition India however it proposed to form a federal structure with
autonomous states with a common centre having defence, communication and
external affairs.
• However it was considered as a good from national unity but it lacked clarifications in
terms of proposal of a separate Pakistan.
• This led to communal holocaust after the call of ‘Direct Action’ by Pakistan on 16 th
August 1946.
• Mountbatten Plan: Although the plan clarified the future course of action but
confusion on date of Freedom and Radcliff boundary commission created chaos. Earlier,
date of freedom was set in June, 1948 but India got freedom 10 months before that
day.
• The boundary commission was led by Sir Cyril Radcliffe who was neither know to Indian
culture and tradition nor its geography. The partition was criticized on ethical and
practical principles.

Conclusion
• The independence of India can be explained as one of the largest forced migration of
the Indian history. The sudden change in instance of British government and
mismanagement coupled with communal riots made it bloodiest event of mankind. This
was the result of ‘Sea-Saw’ policies which was adopted by the British in 1940s.

Q5 Clarify how mid-eighteenth century India was beset with the spectre of a fragmented
polity.

Approach:
1) Briefly discuss weakening of Mughal empire and fragmented polity in India.
2) Discuss rise of regional powers and their consequences on political sphere of India.

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3) Conclude with note that fragmented polity helped Europeans to establish in India.

Introduction: The weakening of Mughal Empire after death of Aurangzeb in 1708 led to
development of new states and kingdoms. These were either derivatives of old Mughal
Empire or new kingdoms, some of them still recognized the Suzerainty of Mughal empires
where some of them defied it. The Mughal’s control was limited to patches in Northern
India. They had little or no control; over rest of the India. The fragmented polity in India
allowed European power to spread and establish across India.
Fragmented Indian Polity in mid of 18th century
• Rise of Marathas, Sikhs and Zats: After the death of Aurangzeb in Ahmednagar
Khulalabad in 1708 their successors become weak. Further, the radical and reactionary
policies adopted by him also led to rise of Marathas, Sikhs and Zats who were constantly
in conflict with Mughals.

➢ Marathas: Marathas had prominent presence in modern day Maharashtra and they
marched up to Delhi before the third battle of Panipat. They had captured the Mughal
throne but did not overthrow the ruler.
➢ Sikhs: Sikhs had prominent presence in Punjab since the time of Guru Nanak Dev ji. But
it was after the execution of Guru Arjan Dev ji by Mughal empire Jehangir they rose to
prominence after militarization of Sikh cult.
➢ Execution of Guru Tegh Bhadue publicly by Aurangzeb turned them more rebellious and
conciliatory approach by previous and later Mughal emperors was futile.
➢ Jats: Jats were prominent agricultural warrior class during the time of Mughals and they
served in their army as well. But the policies of Aurangzeb forced them to form another
faction under leadership of Churaman Zat which later led too establishment of
Bharatpur state rising at prominence during the king Surajmal.
➢ Rajputs: Although Rajputs were courtier of Mughal kingdoms but after weakening of
the central leadership they established their own kingdoms such as Amber, Kota-Bundi,
Marawar and Ranthambore in Rajasthan.

• Migration of courtiers and establishment of new states: The disintegration of Mughal

empire is marked by establishment of independent Hyderabad state by Nizam-ul-Mulk
Asaf Zah, Awadh state by Burhan-ul-Mulk Saadat Khan, Carnatic which includes modern
day Coromandal coast and inner regions by Nawab Saadatullah Khan and independent
Bengal state by Murshid Kuli Khan, the Mughal Governor of Bengal.
• Although these states were once part of Mughal empire had were under the suzerainty
of Mughals they had completely separated court affairs.
• Rise of Haider Ali in Mysore: Haider Ali replaced the Hind ruler of Mysore and rose to
prominence after that. Although despotic in nature, he maintained his army on French
lines, trained by European trainers and hence was a French ally. He constantly waged
war aginst Nizam, Marathas and British.

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Impact of Fragmented Polity during
• The polity of mid 18th century marked by constant war and exploitation of invading
armies on common people.
• Undue burden of taxes imposed by raiding armies led to harassment of common
people. For Example, Marathas collected tax in form of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
• Looting by invading armies consisting of Pindaris who were mercenaries recruited on
the promise of division of loots caused panic among common people.
• Fragmented Poilty invited invaders such as Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali who
relied completely on War booty after defeating weak local rulers and even Mughals.

Conclusion:
The fragmented Indian polity provided a level and easy playing field for Europeans
especially the French and Englishmen to expand their dominance. They easily pitted one
ruler against another and fought along one side to capture their state. Hence, death of
Aurangzeb can be marked as watershed of Indian history which marked the beginning of
weakening of Mughals and arrival of foreign elements in Indian political sphere.

Q6 Examine how the decline of the traditional artisanal industry in colonial India crippled
the rural economy.

Approach:
1) Briefly discuss the advent of British and crippling of Indian economic system.
2) Discuss various spheres of exploitation by British leading to crippling of rural
economy.
3) Conclude with marking the destruction of self-sufficient rural economy in hands of
British.

Introduction: The advent of British in Indian polity is marked by exploitation of farmers,

peasants, artesian including craftsmen, poets, and singers’ etc. The decline of courts of
Mughal and local kings who patronized these artists led to unemployment at large scale. It
was further aggravated by ‘Industrial revolution’ in Europe. The large scale migration of
these artists to their native places in rural India led to overburden of peasantry which was
still under heavy taxation under British rule ultimately crippling the Indian economy.
Crippling of rural economy after collapse of artisanal Industry
• Loss of patronage by royal courts: The British era saw the decline of royal courts of
Mughals and local and regional rulers. Most of the kingdoms during that time were
either directly or indirectly ruled by the imperial East India Company.
• Singers, Metal craftsmen, painters, drama artists, court dancers who were patronized
by these rulers lost their jobs and started to migrate towards rural areas making the
only major economic activity i.e. agriculture overburdened.
• This period saw the ‘deurbanization’ led to destruction of economic and trading
activities in urban areas.

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• Heavy Taxation: British imposed heavy taxation with cunning rules such as ‘Sunset
Laws’ and confiscation of property on non-payment of revenues.
• Traditional Zamindars who knew rural India better succumbed to such pressure and lost
their Zamindari and new Zamindars started to impose heavy taxation on peasantry and
farmers.
• This led to lower investment in agriculture leading to loss of fertility of land and even in
case of drought these farmers were forced to pay taxes at fixed rate.
• This aggravated the situation coupled with immigration of artists from urban centre
leading to large scale famines.

• First Industrial Revolution: The industrial revolution led to advent of spinning jenny
which replaced traditional handicrafts tools used to make cloths. Handicraft and making
of yarn from raw cotton was flourishing industry in India from ancient time.
• The cheaper and machine woven cloths from Britain hit the industry hard leading to
large scale unemployment.
• Further, advent of steam operated machines; artificial dyes replacing Indigo also
hampered the Indian rural economy to a large scale.
• Forced plantation of indigo and purchase of raw material at very low price further
aggravated the economic situation of rural India.

Conclusion
The advent of British destroyed the economic hierarchy of the Indian economy. The Indian
villages which were self sufficient economic units started to be dependent on foreign
purchasers and lost their charm in very short time leading to crippling of Indian rural
economy.

Q7 The women’s questions arose in modern India as a part of the 19 th century social
reform movement. What were the major issues and debates concerning women in that
period?

Approach:
1) Briefly discuss major evil customary practices related to women in 19th century India.
2) Discuss major issues in detail and their emancipation by major social reformers.
3) Briefly conclude with the impact of reforms movements n women empowerment.

Introduction: Although early Indian society was decadent and stagnant with narrow social
customs and religious practices such as ‘Sati’, ‘Polygamy’, Child Marriages’, “Devadasi
System’ and ‘Purdha’ the advent of Islam further aggravated the position of women in
Indian society. It was only the advent of British who brought themselves the elements of
‘Renaissance’ in Europe and French with French Revolution advocating ‘Liberty, Equality,
Fraternity’, India saw the discussion on the state of vulnerable classes including women.
Major Issues and debates concerning women of that period

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• Sati: ‘Sati’ was most brutal system which was prevalent in India during early 19 th
Century. It was a ritual mandating widows to burn live on funeral pyre of husband.
• Many social reformers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the father of Indian Renaissance
raised their voice against this brutal practice which ultimately led to passage of
“Abolition of Sati Act, 1829’.
• Devadasi System: Devdasi System was a ritual associated with the temples of South
India. Parents often donated their girl child to temple in order to serve god. But these
girls were treated as ‘Sex Slaves’ by priestly class and often subjected to harassment.
• Many Social reformers raised their voice against this during that 19 th Century.

• Child Marriage: Child Marriage was most prevalent during 19th century. Girl Child were
often married to mature and old men. The death of men often leads to subjugation of
younger brides to widowhood having many social restrictions. “Age of Consent Act,
1891” was passed to do away the problem of Child marriage among Parsis. However, it
later culminated in form of ‘Child Marriage Restrain Act , 1929’ also known as Sarda Act
later.

• Polygamy: Polygamy was widely practiced across India and was most prominent among
‘Kulin Brhamins’ in Bengal who used to have hundreds of wives. The death of husband
often led to hundreds of widows on the mercy of others in a society where widowhood
was considered as sin.
• Social Reformers such as Ishwar Chandra Vidhya Sagar often criticized the practice of
Widowhood. Due to his efforts “Widow Remarriage Act, 1856’ was passed.

• Purdah System: Purdah system became rigid in India after advent of Islam and its
amalgamation in Indian Polity. It led to elimination of women from economic spheres
thus making them pseudo prisoners in their homes.

• Feminist activism in Bengal led by Begum Rokeya and Faizunnesa Choudhurani raised
voice against Purdah system in Bengal in late 19th century.

• Women Education: Denial of women education in India had started in later Vedic Era
which became custom and tradition of Indian Society. The jinx of women education was
broken by ‘Savitribai Phule’ considered as first female teacher of India. She was
instrumental along with his husband in opening first girl’s school.

Conclusion: The 19th century social hierarchy was dominated by men but the advent of
elements of renaissance in Indian society led to empowerment of women. This culminated
in form of advent of women social reformers and women leaders in Indian polity marked
by Pandita Ramabai, Kamala Devi Chattopadhyay, Pritilata Wadeddar and Madam Bikaji
Kama in the 20th century.

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Q8 Discuss the role of women in the freedom struggle especially during the Gandhian
phase.
Approach:

1) Briefly discuss the reform movement in 19th century which led to emergence of
women leaders.
2) Discuss in detail participation of women in different spheres during freedom
movement in India.
3) Conclude by earmarking the base of modern India’s women empowerment to that of
Gandhian era.

Introduction: The empowerment of women in late 19th century culminated in form of

emergence of women leaders and women social reformers in 20 th century marked by the
advent of Gandhi in Indian polity. The gender equality and women rights movement gained
importance in India parallel to the women rights movement across the globe. The Indian
Independence struggle went hand in hand with emergence of women leader in India.

Role of Women in Indian Freedom Struggle during Gandhian Phase

• Social Reforms: Many women social reformers emerged during the Gandhian phase as
a result of modern education system and global women rights movements.
• Some important women reformers during Gandhian phase included Pandita Ramabai
who setup ‘Mukti Sadan’, a widow home for high class widow women.
• Sarla Devi Chowdhrani setup Bharat Shtree Mahamandala in 1910 which advocated
for women education. “Bharat Stree Siksha Sadan” was setup by her for female
education in Kolkata.
• Some other women reformers such as Ramola Sinha, Maneck Modi and Shiela Dawar
fought for victims of human trafficking and setup All Bengal Women Association.

• Women Rights Movement: Demand for Women Suffrage gained its prominence under
the banner of ‘Banigya Nari Samaj’ under the leadership of Kamini Roy, Mrinalini Sen
and Kaumudini Mitra.
• It later culminated in form of recommendation by Southbrough Franchise Committee
to provide for the same leading to women getting voting rights. Travancore became the
first state to provide voting rights to Women.
• Political Awakening to Indian women came in form of Annie Besant who worked as a
lamppost of inspiration. She started Indian Women Association along with Sarojini
Naidu and Margret Cousins to demand political rights to Indian Women.
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• Apart from voting rights the organization demanded abolition of child marriage, raising
of age of consent to 16 and compulsory primary education to women.
• Other women political activists during that time included Dr. Laxmibai Rajwade, Begum
Jhanara Sahanwaj (Only Indian Women to participate in all Round Table Conference)
e.t.c.

• Association with Revolutionary Terrorist Movements: Women activists also

participated in revolutionary terrorist activities. Pritilata Wadeddar and Kalpana Datta
were some of the women leaders during that time.
• Some of other women leaders included Durgawati Devi who was associated with
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association and Capitan Lakshmi Sehgal who was
associated with Indian National Army.

• Contribution in freedom struggle through Art: Some of the women during Indian
struggle participated through art. Kamala Devi Chattopadhyay who setup Indian
National Theatre was one such women.
• Further Usha Mehta also contributed in freedom struggle by operating secret radio
Station during Quit India Movement.

• Participation in legislature and international political events: Kamala Devi

Chhatopadhyay was the first woman in India to run for political office. She was defeated
by a margin of 55 votes for madras Legislative Assembly.
• Muthulakshmi Reddy became the first woman legislator in the British provinces. She
was elected in Madras Legislature.
• Other Women included Sarojini Naidu, Durgabai Deshmukh, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur,
Begum Aizaz Rasul, Renuka Ray e.t.c.

Conclusion
The empowerment of women which started in late 19th century started by Jyotiba Phule,
Savitri Bai Phule and Madam Bikaji Cama culminated in form of empowered women leaders
and social reformers in Gandhian era. Further, Gandhi ji was himself an advocate of women
rights movements and supported Sarda Act, 1929 defying the protests of conservatives.
This movement continued after independence earmarking inculcation of women rights in
constitution.

Q9 How different would have been the achievement of Indian independence without
Mahatma Gandhi? Discuss.

Approach:
1) Briefly discuss advent of Gandhi in Indian political sphere and change in its narrative.

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2) Discuss in detail the way Gandhi prepared Indians for a mass struggle by suppressing
some adverse elements.
3) Conclude with imprint of Gandhi on Polity and Governance after Independence.

Introduction: The advent of Gandhi saw the engagement of vulnerable and weaker section
of society in freedom struggle. From his first public appearance in stone laying ceremony
of Banaras Hindu University till the achievement of India’s independence, Gandhi ruled the
political sphere of India highlighting the problems and issues of weaker section of society.
He raised his voice against the imperial power in favor of poor peasants of Champaran and
vulnerable mill workers of Ahmedabad. He also preached Hindu-Muslim unity, advocated
for women rights and emancipation of scheduled caste and tribes.
Possible course of India’s freedom Struggle without Gandhi
• Dominance of Elite class: The congress which was the main force in India’s struggle for
independence was dominated by elite classes such as Zamindars, ex-government
employees and princes.
• The voice of vulnerable section of society was second priority. When Gandhi entered
into the political sphere of India he launched Champaran Satyagraha, Kheda
Satyagraha, heard the grievances of Women, raised the voice of mill workers of
Ahmadabad e.t.c.
• It was the first time that the leader of this stature was fighting for the vulnerable classes
with their separate grievances.
• This led to participation of leaders of these classes in political activities of congress and
finally into the freedom struggle.
• Struggle for independence without Gandhi would be class oriented not a mass
movement.

• Division of Congress on ideological lines: Gandhi acted like a thread which bound the
Indian National Congress into a single bundle.
• Before the Advent of Gandhi, the congress was split into Moderates and Extremist
factions during the Surat session of Congress in 1907 weakening the spirit of national
movement and losing the opportunity to garner momentum from Swadeshi Movement.
• After Gandhi, although many differences propped up within congress, they were bound
by single goal of achieving freedom.
• Without Gandhi, Congress would have spit into Extremists, Moderates, Conservatives,
Socialists, Swarajists, Leftists, e.t.c and Indian independence would have a been a
dream.

• Struggle through violence and militancy: Pre-Gandhian era saw the emergence of
Anushulan Samiti, Gadar Party and other similar political forums across the country
advocating violence and militant activities to achieve independence.

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• After advent of Gandhi, although these activities remained in Indian polity in form
Hindustan Socialist Republic Association, the opposition by Gandhi to violent means of
freedom struggle checked these movements in gaining momentum and thus these did
not convert into a mass movement.
• India would have a different polity and struggle for independence without Gandhi at
helm.

• Division of Indian Society into religious and caste line: Gandhi acted as a binding thread
which bound Indian society into a single stack. He launched ‘Harijan Sevak Sangh’ and
toured across India to raise the issues of dalits and against untouchability.
• He whole heartedly supported all anti untouchability movements be it ‘Temple Entry
Movement’ or reservation of Scheduled Tribe and Scheduled caste.
• He advocated Hindu-Muslim Unity and toured to riot prone areas, led movement of
Khilafat and extended support to Muslims on various issues. Without Gandhi, India
would have witnessed a fragmented society with a decadent character.

• Fragmented Indian polity: Gandhi strengthened the Indian National Congress which
emerged as a pan-India party raising voice against local rulers of princely states such as
Junagarh, Hyderabad e.t.c.
• The association of people from across India with Congress and common course of
struggle till independence culminated into Indian Union after Independence.
• Hence, it was Gandhi at the helm of Indian polity who helped to shape Indian Union.

Conclusion
Gandhian thought process of peace and non-violence has been imbibed in Indian polity
since independence. It was Gandhian Ideals which brought concept of “Sarvodya” and
“Bhoodan” after independence. Gandhian ideals also helped in formulation of laws, DPSP
and other governing tools in India after independence. Gandhi truly lived through his
‘Father of the nation’ image before and after independence.

Q10 It would have been difficult for the Constituent Assembly to complete its historic
task of drafting the Constitution for Independent India in just three years but for the
experience gained with the Government of India Act, 1935. Discuss.

Approach:
1) Briefly discuss the Indian constitution as the synthesis of imperial evolution of
legislative and executive process.
2) Discuss in detail the provisions of the Indian constitution borrowed from the
Government on India Act, 1935.
3) Conclude briefly by denoting it as guiding principle behind constitution of India.

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Introduction: Government of India Act, 1935 helped the makers of constitution in
constituent assembly, as it provided basic structure of the final constitution. The
constitution of India did not complete in three years only but it was the result of learning
of Indian way of life and its complex social structure by British in about two centuries of
their rule. The evolution of legislative process which started way back with Regulating Act
in 1973 continued till Government of India Act, 1935. The various features of the act
imbibed in Indian Constitution are:

• Federal Legislature: The current day Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha were described in GOI
Act, 1935 as the Federal Assembly and the Council of States as the upper house
respectively.
• The formation, tenure, composition and functioning of both the houses are similar to
that the current houses.
• Provincial Autonomy: The GOI Act, 1935 envisaged for Provincial Autonomy with three
lists namely Federal list to be governed by the Centre, Provincial list to be governed by
the Provinces and Concurrent list to be governed jointly. The Residuary powers were to
be administered by the Viceroy. The final constitution of India contained these lists in
its 7th schedule with a different name but similar subjects.

• Administrative Details: The present day constitution borrowed administrative details

for running day to day administration from the Government of India Act 1935.

• Joint Sitting: The provision of joint sitting of the house was provided by government of
India Act, 1935 in case of deadlock in any legislative process.

• Judiciary: Indian judiciary is an amalgamation of independent and integrated judiciary.

The GOI Act, 1935 provided for Federal Court has highest court of appeal but was not
so independent as it was to be dominated by Privy Council in London.

Conclusion: Although Indian constitution borrowed provisions from different countries of

the world but at the same time it was based on the bedrock of evolution of legislative,
executive and governance processes which evolved for centuries under imperial rule. As
the last major constitutional reform synthesized in form of the GOI act, 1935, it provided
for the basic guiding principle for the completion of Indian constitution in record time of
almost three years.

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