Structures

In this chapter, you will learn about the forces that act
on structures and can break them. You will see how
structures and parts of structures can be strengthened.
You will also learn about different materials that are
used in structures, and how materials differ from each
other.
There are many different types of structures in the
world. These are constantly being tested by natural and
man-made forces, and structures can fail in lots of
different ways. The most likely is they fail through fracturing, bending and falling over or collapsing.
Structures need to be strong and sturdy. So it is important that they are made of the correct
materials and structural members.
Structural Member – support that is an important part of a building.

Activity 1
Left are structures
damaged by
earthquakes, blizzards
and strong winds.

Draw a rough sketch of the petrol station canopy before it fell over. Add at least two different types
of supporting members that would stabilise the structure. Add labels to your sketch to explain your
answer.

Activity 2
1. Is the load on the roof in Figure 5 always in the
same place? Why do you say so?
2. Is the load on the roof in Figure 6 always in the
same place? Why do you say so?

3. Are the loads on the bridge in Figure 7 always in

the same place?
Why do you say so?
4. In the above picture, the truck and the car exert
forces on the bridge. Can these forces also be
called static? Explain why you say so.
5. In each of the following cases, state whether the force exerted on the table is static or dynamic.
Explain why you say so in each case.
(a) A pot of flowers standing on the table
(b) A cat walking on the table.
(c) A boy puts a soccer ball on the table.
(d) A man scrubbing the table
 As long as a person sits still on a chair, the force on the chair remains in the
same place. This is called a stationary or a static force.
Static force – the force acting on an object when it
is not moving.
When a moving object exerts a force on another
object, you can say that the force is dynamic.
Dynamic force – the force acting on an object when it is moving.
The man pushes
the box in this
Contact forces – forces that act when a force
Direction.
Friction is comes in direct contact with another object.
caused in this
direction. Contact forces exist between objects that are in
direct contact with one another. Applied forces (for
example pushing against an object), friction, air
Weight of
resistance, tension and compression are all
the box in contact forces.
this
direction.
Non-contact forces – forces that act across a distance.
Examples of non-contact forces are the forces of gravity,
electricity, magnetism, radio waves, microwaves, infrared and
X-rays.

Look at the different ways in which the two

trucks below are loaded. On the one truck,
the drums exert force everywhere on the
cargo deck of the truck. On the other truck,
the load is just one big drum. The single
drum exerts force on a small part of the
cargo deck.
Even Load – A load that is balanced and
exerts an equal force over the whole
structure that supports it.
Uneven Load – A load that is unbalanced
and mainly exerts a force on one part of the
structure that supports it.

Activity 3
1. What is the difference between the loads exerted on the two tables above?
2. Think of a house with a corrugated iron roof sheets and the forces that the sheets exert on
the roof structure.
a. Is the load even or uneven? Why do you say so?
b. Is the load static or dynamic? Why do you say so?
3. Think of a person climbing up and down wooden steps.
a. Is the load even or uneven? Why do you say so?
b. Is the load static or dynamic? Why do you say so?
 4. Draw two designs of wooden tables. You have been requested to use as little wood as
possible. For the one table, the design brief states that the load on the table will always be
static and even. The design brief for the other table states that it has to carry the same
weight as the first table, but the load will sometimes be dynamic and uneven. Explain why
your designs for the two tables will differ.

Activity 4
In the drawing below, if the weight of the car is 8 000N and the weight of the bridge 40 000N,
answer the following questions:

A B A B A B
1. What is the total load (bridge plus car)?
2. What is the total load on each support, in the first diagram?
3. What is the total load on each support, in the second diagram?
4. What is the total load on each support, in the third diagram?
5. In which picture is the bridge supporting an even load?
6. In which picture is the bridge supporting a moving load?

Strength of material
Materials are under pressure from various forces. These materials need to be strong. Materials
can be improved in certain ways.
A cross section of different metal beams.
Materials used in construction, like
metal beams, must resist tension,
compression, torsion and shear forces.
Beams used to be constructed as
solid, rectangular structures. This
meant that beams were heavy and
also expensive. Beams are now
manufactured in various shapes, that
maintain the strength of the beam but
also help to reduce their weight and
cost.
Types of forces
Tension – Occurs when equal and
opposite forces are applied to the
ends of an object to increase the
length of the object.
Compression – Occurs when two
equal and opposite forces decrease
the length of an object.
Torsion – Occurs when a turning
force makes an object twist. Cross
bracing helps resist torsion.
Shear – A force that tries to snap or
break materials apart.
 Cross-bracing – in construction, this is where the structure is reinforced by beams
that cross each other to form an X shape.

Activity 5
1) Draw a cross section
of the objects below at
the position of the red line.

2) Tear one piece of paper into two equal pieces.

a) Name the force that occurred as you tore the paper.
b) Place the two pieces of paper on top of each other and twist the pieces together.
Name the type of force.
c) Hold the twisted paper by the ends. Try pull it apart. What type of force occurred?

Construction materials
There are four types of construction materials:
▪ Metals (Aluminum and steel)
▪ Non-metals (Glass and stone)
▪ Synthetic materials (plastic, synthetic rubber)
▪ Natural materials (Stone and wood)

Light passes Wood is strong and cost-

Aluminum
through glass effective material to use
window Plastic pipes endure
windows in house construction.
frames do not many weather
rust fluctuations.

Properties of materials
Most structures are built to last. We need to know the different properties of materials so that we
know how to use them in construction of buildings, etc…

Look at the figure on the left. The lead and the feathers
have been weighed so that both piles weigh 1kg.
However, even though they have the same mass, the
kilogram of feathers has a much greater volume then
the kilogram of lead. (The feathers take up more space
than the lead).

Now look at the figure on the left. The pile of feathers

and piece of lead now have the same volume, but the
mass of the lead is much greater than the mass of the
feathers. This is because lead is more dense than the
feathers. Density is one of the properties that materials
have.
Density – the mass of an object compared to it’s volume. (Mass ÷ volume)
Mass – a measure of how much matter there is within an object, typically given in grams. Mass is
not affected by gravity, so a given object would not have the same mass on Earth as in outer
space.
Volume – The measure of space occupied by the object.

We can measure the density of a material by comparing its mass to

its volume. So, by looking at the mass of a cubic metre of different
materials, we can compare their densities.
Density is an important property to consider when designing
structures, especially when the mass of the structure is important.
For example, the mass of a car’s wheel will affect how quickly the
car can accelerate. A high-performance car, such as a racing car,
needs low mass wheels like those shown in the picture on the left.
The car wheel needs to be made out of materials that are strong,
but very light. Most normal car wheels are made of steel. However,
steel is not suitable for high performance wheels because it is too
dense.

Activity 6
Look at the table alongside and answer the questions below: Material Density
1. Give 4 examples of metals from the table. (kg/m3)
2. Which metals would you choose to make high Gold 19 300
performance wheels from? Give a reason for your Copper 8 930
answer. Mild Steel 7 800
3. Name one material that will float on water. Aluminum 2 700
4. Explain why the material you chose will float on water. Concrete 2 700
Magnesium 1 700
Nylon 1 100
Water 1 000
Ice 900
Wood (oak) 600-800
Polystyrene 25

Hardness – is the ability of a stiff material to resist scratches, wear and tear, or denting.
Stiffness – the ability of a material not to bend or lose shape under pressure.
Flexibility – the property of a material to bend and return to its original shape.

Activity 7
1. What bends more easily: your pencil or a sheet of paper?
2. Put a sheet of paper flat on your desk. Pick it up with both hands and bend it. Now put it
back on the desk. Is it flat again? Which property best describes this?
3. (a) Is wet clay flexible or stiff?
(b) Is the leg of a chair flexible or stiff?
(c) Is a piece of wire flexible or stiff?
(d) Is your shoe flexible or stiff?
4. Press your finger against your desk. Now press your finger against your arm. What was
different when you pressed your finger against your desk from when you pressed your
finger against your arm? Which property best describes the desk and your arm?
5. When you press your finger against a bag of sand, will it be the same as against your desk
or arm?

Corrosion – is a reaction between a metal and gases; the metal oxidises to form an oxide layer
on the surface.
For example, iron reacts with oxygen and water
and forms a crumbly red-brown substance called
rust. Corrosion reduces the durability of a material,
and eventually the material is destroyed. A
corroded material will usually look different.
Construction materials that are the least likely to
corrode include plastic and stainless steel.
Durability – the ability of a material to stand up to
wear and tear or deterioration.
Resistant – the ability of a material not to be
affected by events like fire and earthquakes.
Resistance to corrosion:
Some construction materials are more resistant to corrosion than others. A resistant material will
last longer before stating to wear. Construction materials such as stainless steel and aluminium
are resistant to corrosion because they are less reactive to oxygen.
Prevention of corrosion:
Various methods have been developed to delay the process of corrosion. These methods aims to
prevent contact between the material and oxygen and water (which cause corrosion). This
includes painting the material with a waterproof paint, and covering the material with other rust-
resistant metals such as zinc.

Activity 8
Look carefully at the labelled component of each structure below,
1. Are the forces in components A – F tensile or compressive?
2. Decide whether the components A – F need to be flexible or stiff?
B – Tent pole

A - Spring
C - Column

D – King Post F - Tie

E - Strut

Suitability of materials
The suitability of materials used to build structures are very important. They determine what the
material can be used for and how the material will react to outside forces.
Toughness – The ability of a material to stand up to sudden blows or shocks without being
damaged.
Brittleness – The material is NOT able to stand up to any strain, and cracks or breaks easily.
Stability – The ability of a material to resist changes in its shape and size in wet or dry conditions
over time.
Fatigue – Failure of a material caused by repeated stretching.