UNIT-2: Basic Computer Architecture

Concepts of Address Bus and Data Bus

Concept of virtual memory and cache memory
Hardware Components
Motherboard
Types of Processor (CPU and GPU)
Understanding processor speed
Memory – RAM (SRAM, DRAM, SDRAM), ROM,
EPROM, EPROM
Storage Devices – Hard Disk, CD, DVD, USB flash memory
Introduction to Software
Purpose and significance of Operating System
Concept of System Software and Application Software

Concepts of Address Bus and Data Bus

Buses: It is a set of lines used to move information from one part of computer to
another.

Buses are divided to three functional groups:

(1) Data Bus : Data transfers between peripherals, memory and CPU. It is very
busy bus.

(2) Address Bus : The components pass memory addresses to one another over the
address bus. This determines the location in memory that the processor will read
data from or write data to.

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(3) Control Bus: Used to send out signals to coordinate and manage the activities
of the motherboard components.

How Does Computer Bus Work?

• A bus transfers electrical signals from one place to another. An actual bus
appears as an endless amount of etched copper circuits on the motherboard’s
surface. The bus is connected to the CPU through the Bus Interface Unit.
• Data travels between the CPU and memory along the data bus. The location
(address) of that data is carried along the address bus. A clock signal which
keeps everything in synch travels along the control bus.

Concept of virtual memory and cache memory

Virtual memory:

Virtual Memory increases the capacity of main memory. Virtual memory is not a
storage unit, its a technique. In virtual memory, even such programs which have a
larger size than the main memory are allowed to be executed.

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Cache memory:

Cache memory is a chip

chip-based
based computer component that makes retrieving data
from the computer's memory more efficient. It acts as a temporary storage area that
the computer's processor can retrieve data from easily. This temporary storage
area, known as a cache,
cache, is more readily available to the processor than the
computer's main memory source, typically some form of DRAM.
DRAM

Difference between Virtual memory and Cache memory:

S.NO VIRTUAL MEMORY CACHE MEMORY

Virtual memory increases the While cache memory increase the

1. capacity of main memory. accessing speed of CPU.

Virtual memory is not a memory Cache memory is exactly a

2. unit, its a technique. memory unit.

The size of virtual memory is While the size of cache memory is

3. greater than the cache memory. less than the virtual memory.

Operating System manages the On the other hand hardware

4. Virtual memory. manages the cache memory.

In virtual memory, The program

with size larger than the main While in cache memory, recently
5. memory are executed. used data is copied into.

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 In virtual memory, mapping
frameworks is needed for mapping While in cache memory, no such
6. virtual address to physical address. mapping frameworks is needed.

Explain mother board in detail.

• A motherboard is the main circuit board inside the computer which is also
known as mainboard or mobo.
• It holds the processor, memory and expansion slots and connects directly or
indirectly to every part of the computer like power supply, CPU, hard drive,
RAM, Graphics card, CD drive and other peripheral devices such as sound
cards, network cards, etc.
• Front view:

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 Side view:

Motherboard is made up of a chipset (Glue Logic), some code in ROM and various
interconnections or buses.
In computer design, various types of buses are used to link different components of
motherboard.
Motherboard connected with all other boards of the computer. So, it is mother of
all other board.

There are many different components on motherboard:

1. CPU Chip
• CPU or processor chip is main component of mother board.
• The CPU chip may be different for one computer model to other.
• It processes the data and controls the function of computer.

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2. Co-processor Chip
• The function of co-processor chip is to help CPU chip.
• E.g. Math co-processor chip is used to support CPU chip, for doing
mathematical operations.

3. Memory Chips
• Memory chips are physically installed on motherboard by different
packaging methods.
• There are three different methods for packing RAM chips:
(1) DIP : Dual Inline Package
(2) SIMM : Single Inline Memory Module Packaging
(3) SIPP : Single Inline Pin Package

4. Expansion Slots
• Expansion Slots are connectors on motherboard where expansion cards like
display card, hard disk controller card etc. can be connected.
• Most common expansion slots are:
(1) PCI Express – To communicate with motherboard. So, with
microprocessor quickly and efficiently. Newest standard for expansion cards
on personal computers.
(2) PCI – Peripheral Component Interconnect is for internal expansion of
computer using sound cards, network cards, USB expansion cards, etc.
(3) AGP – Accelerated Graphics Port designed for graphics adapters.
(4) ISA – Industry Standard Architecture, most ancient type of expansion
slot, compatible with older expansion cards.

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5. Buses
• It is a set of lines used to move information from one part of computer to
another.
• Buses are divided to three functional groups :
(1) Data Bus : Data transfers between peripherals, memory and CPU. It is
very busy bus.
(2) Address Bus : The components pass memory addresses to one another
over the address bus.
(3) Control Bus : Used to send out signals to coordinate and manage the
activities of the motherboard components.

6. System Clock
• It is used to synchronize the activities of various components.

7. BIOS

• Basic input/output system (BIOS) is the set of software programs that test
hardware at startup, start the operating system and support the transfer of
data among hardware devices.
• BIOS is stored in read only memory (ROM) so that it can be executed when
you turn on the computer.
• BIOS setup gives the facility of :
1. Hard drives, diskette drives and peripherals
2. Video display type and display options
3. Password protection from unauthorized use
4. Power management feature

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8. CMOS Battery

• Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) that remembers date

and time settings for every time you restart your computer.
• It is used to power clock and BIOS. It is a little bit of memory that
remembers all the BIOS settings, so that your computer won't have to be
configured each time you turn your computer on.

9. Ports

• It is used for connecting devices like keyboard, mouse, printer, etc.

• Different ports are like,

1) PS2 Mouse Used to connect a PS/2 pointing device.

2) PS2 Keyboard Used to connect a PS/2 keyboard.

3) VGA Port Connect your monitor to the VGA port.

4) DVI-I Port Connect a monitor with DVI connection.

5) HDMI Connect a monitor or HDTV with HDMI connection.

6) Optical S/PDIF Used for sound connections to home audio receivers or

powered PC speakers with optical connections.

7) LAN Port Used to connect an RJ-45 cable to a Network hub or router.

8) USB Ports Used to connect USB devices such as printers, scanners cameras
etc...

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 9) Analog Audio Ports Used to connect audio devices.

10. NIC

• A network card, network adapter, network interface card or NIC is a piece

of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a
computer network.

11. SMPS
• A switched mode power supply, or SMPS, is an electronic power supply
unit (PSU) that incorporates a switching regulator – an internal control
circuit that switches the load current rapidly on and off in order to stabilizes
the output voltage.

Types of Processor (CPU and GPU)

CPU:

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

• CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

• CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
• It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
• It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
• A computer’s CPU handles all instructions which it receives from hardware
and software running on the computer.

• It is located on the motherboard. It referred to as brain of a computer.

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 • The processor speed is measured in terms of MHz or GHz.
• The CPU chip is in the shape of square or rectangle and on the bottom of
chip have hundreds of connector pins that plug into each of the
corresponding holes in the socket.

• CPU has three main components :

1. Control Unit (CU)

2. ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

3. Memory (Register/ Cache)

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CPU read from and writes data to internal memory

Internal Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as
internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random
Access Memory (RAM).

Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary
memory are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory
unit are −

• It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.

• It stores intermediate results of processing.

• It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an
output device.

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 • All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

1. Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out
any actual data processing operations.

Functions of this unit are −

• It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among

other units of a computer.

• It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

• It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.

• It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results

from storage.

• It does not process or store data.

2. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

• Arithmetic Section
• Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by
making repetitive use of the above operations.
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 Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,

selecting, matching, and merging of data.

3. Memory (Registers/ cache) –

It is used by processor for temporary storage and manipulation of data and

instructions immediately.
Commonly used registers are :

MAR (Memory Address Register) :

-It holds the address of memory where CPU wants to read or write data.

-When CPU wants to store some data in the memory or reads the data from the
memory, it places the address of the required memory location in MAR.

MBR (Memory Buffer Register) :

- It holds the contents of data or instruction read from or written in memory.

- It is acted as an interface between the CPU and memory.

PC (Program Counter):

- It is also known as Instruction Pointer Register.

- It contains the address of the next instruction.

IR (Instruction Register):

- Once the instruction is fetched from main memory, it is stored in the Instruction
Register.

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- So, it holds instruction until it is decoded by Control Unit.

AC (Accumulator) :

- All results generated by ALU are stored temporarily in this register.

The functioning of the CPU is based on the architectural design.

Most common CPU architecture are:

(1) CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) Processor –

- It has large instruction set with variable length instructions.

-It has variety of addressing modes.

-It is mostly used in personal computers.

(2) RISC (Reduced Instructions Set Computer) Processor –

-It has small instruction set with fixed length instructions.

-It is mostly used in workstations.

Give the difference between CISC and RISC

CISC RISC
1. Large Instruction set. 1. Compact Instruction set.
2. More complex hardware. 2. Simple hardware.
3. Designed using code control. 3. Designed using hard wired control.
4. Slow clock speed. 4. Fast clock speed.
5. Compact and versatile register 5. Numerous registers.
set.

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6. Takes more cycles per 6. Takes one cycle per instruction.
instruction.
7. Uses less RAM as no need to 7. Uses more RAM to handle
store intermediate results. intermediate results.
8. Used for personal computers. 8. Used for workstations.

GPU (Graphics processing unit):

− A Graphics processing unit (GPU) is a specialized, electronic circuit.

− GPUs are used in embedded systems, mobile phones, personal computers,
workstations, and game consoles.
− Modern GPUs are very efficient at manipulating computer graphics and
image processing.
− Their highly parallel structure makes them more efficient than general-
purpose central processing units (CPUs) for algorithms that process large
blocks of data in parallel.
− In a personal computer, a GPU can be present on a video card or embedded
on the motherboard. In certain CPUs, they are embedded on the CPU die.
− GPU is used to provide the images in computer games.
− GPU is faster than CPU's speed and it emphasis on high throughput. It's
generally incorporated with electronic equipment for sharing RAM with
electronic equipment that is nice for the foremost computing task.
− It contains more ALU units than CPU.

− Difference: The basic difference between CPU and GPU is that CPU
emphasis on low latency. Whereas, GPU emphasis on high throughput

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 S.NO CPU GPU
1 CPU stands for Central While GPU stands for Graphics
Processing Unit. Processing Unit
2 CPU consumes or needs While it consumes or requires less
more memory than GPU memory than CPU
3 The speed of CPU is less than While GPU is faster than CPU's
GPU's speed Speed
4 CPU contain minute powerful While it contain more weak cores
cores
5 CPU is suitable for serial While GPU is not suitable for
instruction processing serial instruction processing
6 CPU is not suitable for While GPU is suitable for parallel
parallel instruction processing instruction processing
7 CPU emphasis on low While GPU emphasis on high
latency. throughput.

Understanding processor speed

Normally when we go for purchasing any computer kind of electronic gadget we

are more concern for the processing speed of the device. CPU speed is basically
Clock speed. The more cycles that a computer's central processing unit is able to
complete per second, the faster data is able to be processed. The faster data can be
processed, the faster the computer can complete a task. This means that a computer
with a fast processor speed can complete more tasks in the same amount of time
than a computer with a slow processor, and that more applications can be running
at the same time. Some applications are processor-intensive, which means that they
require a great deal of data to be processed in order to operate.

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Usually measured in Hz (Herts as in number per second). These days CPUs tick at
billions per second, with the prefix G (for giga) so you see CPUs in the range of
between 1GHz and 4GHz.

While often limited by other reasons, a 3.0 Ghz processor is roughly twice as fast
as a 1.5Ghz processor. One gigahertz represents a processor's ability to perform a
billion — 1,000,000,000 —operations per second, and a megahertz is 1000 times
less, or one million operations per second. Thus, an older 500 Mhz processor
would be considered one third the speed of a 1.5Ghz processor.

Processor speed is impacted by several factors. These include circuit size, die size,
cache size, efficiency of the instruction set and manufacturing variables. Smaller
chips usually result in faster processor speeds because the data has less distance to
travel, but smaller chips also result in greater heat generation, which needs to be
managed.

Memory

• Memory is one of the core components of the computer hardware.

• In Memory, programs and data are stored. From the moment you turn on the
computer until you shut it down, the memory is used.
• The basic unit of memory is the binary digit (bit). A bit may contain a 0 or 1.
• Memory is made up of large number of cells and each cell is capable of storing
one bit.
• Computer's Memory is complicated System.

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 • The memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs (sequence
of instructions) or data on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a
computer or digital electronic devices.
• It is made up of large number of cells where each cell stores a bit (binary no
0 or 1).
• The computer memory is used from starting the PC to turning off the PC.

How memory works?

• When the computer is booting, the process begins.

• The operating system files are first loaded from the hard disk into the main
memory and then the CPU starts executing the instructions from these files.
• Therefore, the user starts performing his actions.
• Whenever any file or folder is referenced, the same is made available in the
main memory where the further processing is done on them.

Write about different types of memory.

There are two categories of computer memory:

1. Primary Memory

2. Secondary Memory

• Primary memory is further divided into two types:

o Magnetic Core Memory
o Semi-conductor Memory

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1. Magnetic Core Memory –

• In this type of memory magnetic cores were surrounded by thin wire which
magnetize core in 2 directions, depending on the current passing through
wires.
• Depending upon the magnetization, bit value is stored as either 0 or 1.
• Semiconductor memory is far better than this memory. So, magnetic core
memory is totally outdated now.

2. Semi-conductor Memory –

• Semiconductor memory consists of semiconductor IC chips.

• An IC chip is fabricated out of a number of transistors.
• Transistors are electronic devices.
• Semiconductor memory are of two types :

(1) RAM

(2) ROM

Difference between Primary memory and Secondary memory.

Primary Memory Secondary Memory
1. It stores programs and data which 1. The information which is not
are currently needed by the CPU. currently being processed resides in
Secondary Memory.
2. Semiconductor memory is used as 2. Magnetic or optical memory is used
primary memory. as secondary memory.
3. It is faster compared to secondary 3. It is slower compared to primary
memory. memory.

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4. It has higher cost per bit of storage. 4. It has lower cost per bit of storage.
5. It has low storage capacity. 5. It has much larger storage capacity
than primary memory.
6. The CPU communicates directly 6. The CPU does not communicate
with main memory. directly with secondary memory.
7. It is usually contained on the mother 7. The secondary memory is the
board. external memory.
8. E.g. RAM, ROM, etc. 8. E.g. Hard disk, CDs, etc.

What do you mean by volatile and non-volatile storage?

Volatile Storage :

• Volatile memory is computer memory that requires an active power

connection to function.
• When the power to a volatile memory source is shut off, volatile memory
loses its contents and the information is deleted.
• RAM is the most common form of volatile memory.
• RAM is used to temporarily hold data that is required to run programs or
applications on a computer or similar electronic device.

Advantages:

• It functions fast.
• It is well suited to protecting sensitive information.
• When power is shut down, the information is quickly deleted.

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Non-Volatile Storage:

• Non-Volatile memory is memory that does not require a connection to a

power source to retain information.
• In other words, when the power source to which the memory is connected is
shut off, the memory does not lose the information it has.
• Hard drives or flash drives are the most common examples of non-volatile
memory.

Advantage:

• Longer term retention of information

Volatile Memory Vs Non-Volatile Memory.

Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory

1. Requires a power source to retain 1. Does not require a power source to

information. retain information.

2. When power source is disconnected, 2. When power source is disconnected,

information is lost or deleted. information is not deleted.

3. Often used for temporary retention 3. Often used for long term retention
of data, such as with RAM, or for of data, such as files and folders.
retention of sensitive data.

4. E.g. RAM 4. E.g. Hard drive or CDs.

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What do you mean by random access?

Ability to access data at random.

Direct access by a computer to any memory address of a data storage device,

without starting from the first address, every time the data needs to be read.

What is RAM? Explain different types of RAM.

• RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is also called “Direct Access
Memory”.
• It is the Read and Write (R/W) memory of a computer. The user can write
information to it and read information from it.
• The RAM is a volatile memory, it means information written to it can be
accessed as long as power is on. As soon as the power is off, it cannot be
accessed.
• RAM holds data and processing instructions temporarily until the CPU
needs it. So program must be loaded into RAM before execution.
• RAM is considered as “Random Access” because you can access any
memory cell directly if you know the row and column that intersect at that
cell.
• RAM is made in electronic chips made of semiconductor material. In RAM,
transistors make up the individual storage cells which can each “remember”
an amount of data, for example, 1 or 4 bits – as long as the PC is switched
on.
• This RAM are installed in the PC’s motherboard using sockets – there are
typically 2, 3 or 4 slots.
• RAM plays very important role in speed of a computer. The amount of data
that can be stored in RAM is measured in bytes.

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There are two basic types of RAM :

1. Dynamic RAM

2. Static RAM

1. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) –

• DRAM is IC that made up of millions of transistors and capacitors.

• Dynamic memory cell represents a single bit of data in a small capacitor.
The capacitor holds the bit of information – 0 or 1. The transistor acts as a
switch that changes its state.
• A capacitor is like a small bucket that is able to store electrons.
• To store a 1 in the memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons.
• To store a 0, it is emptied.
• The problem with the capacitor’s bucket is that it has a leak. So, in few
milliseconds, a full bucket becomes empty.
• In other word, DRAM loses its stored data in very short time i.e.
milliseconds even when power supply is on.
• So, CPU or memory controller has to come along and recharge all of the
capacitors holding it before they discharge.
• To do this, the memory controller reads the memory and then writes it back.
• This refresh operation happens automatically thousands of times per second.
• So, this RAM is known as Dynamic RAM. It has to be dynamically
refreshed all the time or it forgets what it is holding.
• Because of this refreshing, it is too slow. So, it slows down the memory.
• It is cheaper and takes less space.

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There are different types of DRAM :

• DDR-DRAM: Double Data Rate Dynamic RAM

• DDR-SDRAM Double Data Rate Synchronized Dynamic RAM
• FCRAM Fast Cycle RAM
• FPM-DRAM Fast Page Mode Dynamic RAM
• QDR-DRAM Quad Data Rate Dynamic RAM
• QDR-SRAM Quad Data Rate Static RAM
• SDRAM Synchronized Dynamic RAM
• SSRAM Synchronized Static RAM
• ZBT-SRAM Zero Bus Turnaround Static RAM
• RDRAM Rambus Dynamic RAM
• RLDRAM Reduced Latency Dynamic RAM

2. Static RAM (SRAM) –

• Static RAM holds data in a static form, and does not need to be dynamically
refreshed as in the case of DRAM.
• The reason is because SRAM chips are made of a flip-flop circuit which
does not need constant refreshing.
• It is still volatile, means when the power is removed from the memory
device, the data is not held and will disappear.
• SRAM has very fast access speed because of configuration of 6 transistors
which keeps current flowing in one direction or the other (0 or 1 state). Each
state can be written and read instantly, therefore the chip does not require a
capacitor to fill up.

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 • It used as cache memory and has very fast access.
• It is more expensive and consumes more power.
• There are two types of SRAM:

(1) Zero power SRAM

(2) Non-volatile SRAM (NVSRAM)

Difference between SRAM and DRAM.

SRAM DRAM

1. It is faster than DRAM. 1. It is slower than SRAM.

2. It is more expensive. 2. It is less expensive.

3. It does not need to be power 3. It has to be refreshed after each

refreshed. operation.

4. It utilizes less power. 4. It utilizes more power.

What is ROM? Explain different types of ROM.

• ROM stands for Read Only Memory.

• The data and instructions in ROM are stored by the manufacturer at the time
of its manufacturing.
• This data and instructions cannot be changed or deleted afterwards.
• That is, the data and instructions stored in ROM can only be read but new
data or instructions cannot be written into it. So, it is known as Read Only
Memory.

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 • ROM stores data and instructions permanently. When the power is turned
off, the instructions stored in ROM are not lost. So, it is non volatile
memory.
• ROM is used to store frequently used data and instructions to control basic
input/output operations of the computer. Frequently used small programs
like operating system data are stored in ROM.
• When the computer is switched on, instructions in the ROM are
automatically activated. These instructions help the booting process of
computer.
• There are different types of ROM:

1. PROM

2. EPROM

3. EEPROM

1. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) –

• This type of ROM is initially blank.

• Main difference between ROM and PROM is that PROM is manufactured as
blank whereas ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process.
• The user or manufacturer can write data or program on it by using special
devices like PROM programmer or PROM burner.
• Once the data or program is written in PROM chip, it cannot be changed.
• If there is an error in writing data or program in PROM, the error cannot be
erased. PROM chip becomes unusable.

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2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) –

• This type of ROM is also initially blank.

• The user or manufacturer can write data or program on it by using special
devices.
• But the data written on EPROM chip can be erased by using special devices
and ultraviolet rays.
• So data or program written in EPROM chip can be changed and new data
can also be added.
• When EPROM is in use, its content can only be read.

3. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) –

• This type of ROM can be written or changed with the help of electrical
devices.
• So data stored in this type of ROM chip can be easily modified.

Difference between RAM and ROM.

RAM ROM

1. It is Temporary memory. 1. It is Permanent memory.

2. The data in RAM can be changed 2. The instruction written in the

or deleted. ROM, cannot be changed or deleted.

3. Instructions in RAM change 3. It is not possible to write new

continuously as different programs

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are executed and new data is information or instruction in ROM.
processed.

4. It is volatile memory. 4. It is non-volatile memory.

5. The instruction is written into the 5. The instruction written into ROM
RAM at the time of execution at manufacturing time.

What is UVPROM?

UVPROM stands for Ultra Violet Programmable Read Only Memory.

An integrated circuit memory chip in which the stored information can be erased
only by ultra violet light and the circuit can be reprogrammed with new
information that can be stored indefinitely.

What is flash memory?

Flash memory is the special type of EEPROM that can be erased and
reprogrammed in blocks instead of one byte at a time.

It retains information without requiring power. So, it is nonvolatile memory.

It writes and reads at 512 bit at a time instead of usual one allowing for faster data
transfer.

It is also known as Flash ROM.

It is used in smart phones, GPS, MP3 player, digital camera, PC, USB drive, etc.

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Explain the concept of virtual memory and how it works.

• Pseudo RAM called virtual memory exits on your hard drive rather than
as memory modules on your motherboard.
• Suppose that you PC has only 2 GB of RAM installed, but you ran photo
shop and demanded that it load two 500MB high resolution digital images.
• If windows were limited to using only your computer’s physical RAM, you
would be trouble because windows 8 requires a minimum of around 500 MB
of memory itself and photo shop also takes chunk of memory to run.
• You are also loading 1 GB of data. So, your 2 GB PC could not work
because amount of RAM needed by memory hungry mega applications is so
much.
• In this case, windows turn to your hard drive for help. It uses portion of
the empty space on your hard drive to temporarily hold the data. That
portion of hard drive is known as virtual memory.
• So, computer uses 2 GB of hard drive space, hence total memory available
within windows is now 4 GB i.e. 2 GB of RAM (physical memory) and 2
GB of hard drive (virtual memory).
• Your programs don’t know that they are using virtual memory.
• This virtual memory is always slower than true physical memory (RAM)
because the data has to be written to and read from your hard drive.
Demand paging
• Demand paging is the process where pages on hard drive are not loaded on
RAM until the program calls the page.
• After data is paged, paging processes track memory usage and constantly
call data back and forth between RAM and hard drive.

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 • Page states (valid or invalid and available or unavailable to the CPU) are
registered in the virtual page table.
• While executing a program, if the program reference a page which is not
available in the RAM because it was swapped out a little ago, the processor
treats this invalid memory reference as page fault and transfers control form
the program to the OS to demand the page back into the memory.

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 Explain in detail cache memory.

• Cache memory is a small size and very fast temporary storage memory in
CPU.
• The data or instructions that are most recently or most frequently used by
CPU are stored in cache.
• It stores and retains data only until a computer is powered up. So, it is
volatile memory.
• The data and instructions are retrieved from RAM when CPU uses them for
the first time. A copy of that data or instructions is stored in cache
memory.
• So, when the next the CPU needs that data or instructions, it first looks in
cache memory.
• If the required data is found there, it is retrieved from cache memory instead
of main memory.
• A computer can have several different levels of cache memory.
• The level numbers refers to distance from CPU where Level 1 is the closest.
All levels of cache memory are faster than RAM.
• The cache closest to CPU is always faster but generally costs more and
stores less data then other level of cache.

FY BCA SEM -1 Divyanshi Patel

Levels of cache memory are:

1. Level 1(L1) cache –

• It is also called primary or internal cache.

• It is built directly into the processor chip.
• It has small capacity from 8 kb to 128 kb.

2. Level 2 (L2) cache –

• It is slower than L1 cache.

• Its storage capacity is more i.e. from 64kb to 16 mb.
• The current processors contain advanced transfer cache on processor chip
that is a type of L2 cache.
• The common size of this cache is from 512 kb to 8 mb.

FY BCA SEM -1 Divyanshi Patel

3. Level 3 (L3) cache –

• This cache is separate from processor chip on the motherboard.

• It exists on the computer that uses L2 advanced transfer cache.
• It is slower than L1 and L2 cache.
• The personal computer often has up to 8 mb of L3 cache.

Cache memory Vs Virtual memory.

Cache Memory Virtual Memory

1. Cache Memory is a type of memory 1. Virtual Memory is a memory management

used for improving the main memory method in which programs get its own virtual
access time. It is a faster memory that memory space, which may be larger than the
resides between CPU and RAM. real physical RAM.

2. It is type of hardware memory that 2. There is no hardware called virtual memory

actually exists physically. but it is a concept that uses RAM, hard drive,
memory management unit and software that
provides virtual type of memory.

3. This is done fully by hardware. 3. This is done by OS (software).

4. It involves transfer of data between 4. It involves transfer of data between RAM

RAM, Cache memory and processor. and hard drive.

5. It takes small size as kilobytes and 5. It takes large size as gigabytes.

megabytes.

6. Page tables are not required for 6. Page tables are required for virtual memory
cache memory. for mapping between physical to virtual.

FY BCA SEM -1 Divyanshi Patel

 STORAGE DEVICE

HARD DISK (HD, HDD)

• A hard disk drive (sometimes abbreviated as a hard drive, HD, or HDD) is a

non-volatile data storage device. It is usually installed internally in a
computer, attached directly to the disk controller of the computer's
motherboard.
• It contains one or more platters, housed inside of an air-sealed casing. Data
is written to the platters using a magnetic head, which moves rapidly over
them as they spin. Internal hard disks reside in a drive bay, connected to the
motherboard using an ATA, SCSI, or SATA cable. They are powered by a
connection to the computer's PSU (power supply unit).
• To install a computer operating system, a hard drive (or another storage
device) is required. The storage device provides the storage medium where
the operating system is installed and stored.
• A hard drive is also required for the installation of any programs or other
files you want to keep on your computer. When downloading files to your
computer, they are permanently stored on your hard drive or another storage
medium until they are moved or uninstalled.

ARCHITECTURE OF HARD DISK

• They are made up of rigid metal platters & comes in many sizes

• Depending on how they are packed, they are of 4 types:

FY BCA SEM -1 Divyanshi Patel

ZIP/BERNOULLI DISK

• It consist of single hard disk platter encased in a plastic cartridge.

• The disk is 3 1/2 inch and has a storage capacity of 100 MB.
• Its disk drive called Zip drive may be of portable of fixed typed
• Fixed type is a part of computer system, permanently connected to it.
• The portable type can be brought and connected to the when needed. I
• It can be easily loaded or unloaded.

DISK PACK

• It consists of multiple hard disk platters mounted on a single central shaft.

• All disks rotate together with the same speed.
• Its disk drive has a separate read/write head for each surface.
• Its disk drive is of interchangeable type.
• This gives unlimited capacity of data storage.

WINCHESTER DISK

• It consists of multiple hard disk platters, mounted on a central shaft.

• It is of fixed type.
• It has limited capacity storage but have larger than disk pack.

OPTICAL DISKS

• All read and write activities are performed by light. All recording
information stores at an optical disk. As per the opinions of data scientist
that compact space is most useful for huge data storage. Their big
advantages are not more costly, light weight, and easy to transport because it
is removable device unlike hard drive.

FY BCA SEM -1 Divyanshi Patel

 • All data is saved like as patterns of dots which can be easily read with using
of LIGHT.
• The data is read while bouncing laser beam on the surface of storage
medium. Laser beam creates the all Dots while reading process, but it is used
with high power mode to mark the surface of storage medium, and make a
dot. This entire process is also called the "Burning" data onto Disc.

CD-ROM

CD-ROM stands for "Compact Disc Read Only Memory", and CD-ROM comes in
the "Random Access" category's devices. These types of disc can capable to store
almost 800 MB of digital data. These data can't discard by mistaken.

DVD-ROM

DVD-ROM stands for "Digital Versatile Disc — Read Only Memory", and it also
comes in the "Random Access" category's devices. DVD-ROM discs can store data
up to 4.7 GB, but Dual Layer DVD device's storage capacity is double. These types
of disc are used to store ultra quality video.

BLUE RAY

Blue Ray discs are totally replaced by DVDs, because these discs are capable to
hold data up to 25-50 GB, as well as double layer Blue Rays discs can store double
data. Due to high storage capacity, Blue Ray discs are used to store HD (High
Definition) videos.

FY BCA SEM -1 Divyanshi Patel

HD DVD

HD DVD stands for "High Density DVD", and these devices are capable to store
data up to 15 GB (Dual Layer HD DVDS have storage capacity double). High-
Density DVD discs are also used to hold HD Videos.

DVD-RAM

DVD-RAM stands for "DVD-Random Access Memory", and it is able to Re-Write

data. DVD-RAM is available in market like as floppy-disc style case. These types
of discs have storage capacity of data similar to DVD (up to 4.7 GB).

Advantages of Optical Storage Devices

• It is capable to store vast amount of data.

• Affordable price
• It can be recycled (Re-used).
• It has ultra data stability.
• Countable/uncountable storage units
• Best Durability, Transport-ability, and archiving.

Disadvantages Optical Storage Devices

• Some traditional PCs are not able to read these disks.

• It is getting trouble while recycling.

USB FLASH DRIVE

Also known as a thumb drive, pen drive, flash-drive, memory stick, jump
drive, and USB stick, the USB flash drive is a flash memory data storage
device that incorporates an integrated USB interfaces. Flash memory is
generally more efficient and reliable than optical media, being smaller,

FY BCA SEM -1 Divyanshi Patel

 faster, and possessing much greater storage capacity, as well as being more
durable due to a lack of moving parts.

Explain in detail backup devices.

• Back up memory is used to store the copy of important programs such as

operating systems, compilers, etc.
• This memory is generally available as secondary memory. So, back up will
be reloaded in case of lost accidentally or hard disk fails.
• Commonly used back up devices are Zip disks, Cartridge tape drive, DVD
disks, Floppy disks, etc.

Introduction to Software

Purpose and significance of Operating System

Operating system works like as bridge in between hardware and software, and
primary purpose and goal of an operating system is to manage all resources of
hardware and software that are connect with computer.
Without operating system all computer system are helpless, because operating
system create the interface between user and hardware.
When user give any instruction to computer then operating system transform these
instructions in to binary form such as 0 and 1, because computer systems are not
able to understand directly our commands. Computer can understand only machine
language.

FY BCA SEM -1 Divyanshi Patel

 Concept of System Software and Application Software

Software:

It is collection of programs where program is a sequence of instructions written in

the language which computer can understand. Like hardware it is also important
for computer system to work with hardware. Both hardware and software are
complementary to each other. Rather comparing to hardware, software is
continuing expense thing. It may be differing in terms of price as per the
requirement of user as well as working of itself. It can be categorized in System
Software and Application Software.

• System Software

It is designed for handling the operation and extending the processing capability of
the computer system. It makes computer system operation more effective and
efficient.

System software helps for operating the hardware components together as well as
supporting the development and execution of the application programs. Some
example of system software: Operating Systems, utility programs,
compilers/interpreters etc.

• Application Software

It is a set of programs which are designed to some specific task or some special
job. It can further classify in the two types: general purpose application software
and special purpose application software. General purpose application software
can be used for very common need like word processing, spread sheets etc. Special
purpose application software is specially designed for solving special problems or

FY BCA SEM -1 Divyanshi Patel

for performing specific task with use of some particular language of computers.
Eg. Billing System, Hotel Management System etc.

FY BCA SEM -1 Divyanshi Patel