NATIONAL

FORENSIC SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY
TRIPURA CAMPUS

ASSIGNMENT FOR FORENSIC ENGINEERING

Project on
“SEMICONDUCTOR”

NAME-Vaisali Barua
ENROLLMENT NUMBER-108563
DATE OF SUBMISSION-10.09.2024
SUBJECT CODE-CTBTCSE S1P1
COURSE- B.TECH-M.TECH COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING (CYBER SECURITY)

Guided by
Dr.Bapi Dey
(Assistant
Professor)
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Miss Vaisali Barua has successfully
completed the project entitled “Semiconductor” during the
academic year 2024-2025.The project was a part of her course
B.Tech-M.Tech.Computer Science & Engineering (Cyber
Security),conducted at National Forensic University,Tripura campus.
Vaisali Barua exhibited great dedication throughout her task,which
included creativity and rigorous academics.She has been pivortal in
nourishing the classroom environment and she has represented
excellence.Through we would like to express our gratitude to the
student for her excellent work and her significant role in the
academic environment.

Date:10th September,2024

-----------------------
Dr.Bapi Dey

Assistant
Professor

Physics
Department

National Forensic
Science University

(Tripura Campus)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the accomplishment of this project successfully many people have

best owned me their blessing and the heart pledged support this time I
am utilizing to thank all the people who have been concerned with
project. Primarily , I would thank god for being able to complete this
project with success. Then I would like to thank my Physics teacher
Dr.Bapi Dey whose valuable guidance has been the ones that helped
me patch this project and make it full proof success.
His suggestion and instructions have served as the major contributor
towards the completion of this project. Then I would like to thank my
parents and friends who have helped me with their valuable
suggestions and their guidance has been helpful in various phrases of
the completion of the project.
 Table of Contents
 INTRODUCTION
 DISCOVERY
 ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM
 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
 N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
 P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
 MASS ACTIO LAW
 BARRIER FORMATION IN P-N JUNCTION DIODE
 DEPLETION BARRIER
 POTENTIAL BARRIER
 P-N JUNCTION DIODE
 FORWARD BIASING OF A P-N JUNCTION
 REVERSE BIASIG P-N JUNCTION
 P-N JUNCTION AS RECTIFIER
 SPECIAL PURPOSE p-n JUNCTION DIODE
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 INTRODUCTION
The material whose electrical conductivity lies between those of
conductor and insulator are known as semiconductor.
Silicon 1.1Ev
Germanium 0.7Ev
Cadmium Sulphide 2.4Ev
 Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with distinct
electrical characteristics.
 They are of high resistance higher than typical resistance materials
but still of much lower resistance than insulators.
 Their resistance decreases as their temperature increases , which is
behaviour opposite to that of a metal .
 Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor .

DISCOVERY

 Whenever you will learn about the history of electricity and

electronics you will find that a lot of the ground breaking work
was done in the 19th century .the situation is no different for
semiconductor.

 Michael Faraday is generally acknowledge is one of the first

experimenters to notice semiconductor properties.

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 ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM

 Forbidden energy band is small for semiconductors .

 Less energy is required for electron to move from valence to
conduction band .
 A vacancy hole remains when an electron leaves the valence band .
 Hole act as a positive charge carrier.

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 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor material in its pure form is known as an intrinsic
semiconductor. Thus, the intrinsic semiconductors are chemically
pure, i.e. they are free from impurities. In case of intrinsic
semiconductors, the number of charge carriers, i.e., holes and
electrons are determined by the properties of the semiconductor
material itself instead of the impurity. Also, the number of free
electrons is equal to the number of holes in the intrinsic
semiconductor. The common examples of the intrinsic
semiconductors are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si). The extrinsic
semiconductors have high electrical conductivity. The conductivity of
extrinsic semiconductor is dependent on temperature as well as
amount of impurity added. The extrinsic semiconductor conducts at 0
Kelvin temperature.

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 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
When a small amount of chemical impurity is added to an intrinsic
semiconductor, then the resulting semiconductor material is known as
extrinsic semiconductor. The extrinsic semiconductor is also known
as doped semiconductor. The process of adding impurity in the
intrinsic semiconductor is known as doping. The doping of
semiconductors increases their conductivity Based on the type of
doping, the extrinsic semiconductors are classified into two types viz.
N-type semiconductors and P-type semiconductors. When a
pentavalent impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, then the
resulting semiconductor is termed as N-type semiconductor. On the
other hand, when a trivalent impurity is added to a pure

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semiconductor, then the obtained semiconductor is known as P-type
semiconductor.

Two types of impurity atoms are added to the

semiconductor
a. Atom containing 5 valances
Pentavalent impurity atoms (trivalent impurity)
eg. P,As,Sb, Bi

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
 The semiconductors which are obtained by introducing
pentavalent impurity atoms are known as N-type
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semiconductors .  Examples are P, Sb,As, and Bi. These
elements hav 5 electron in their valence Sheel.Out of which 4
electron will form covalent bonds with the neighbouring atoms
and the 5th electron will be available as a current carrier .the
impurity atom is thus known as donor atom.
 In N-type semiconductor current flows due to the movement
of electrons and holes but majority of through electrons.Thus
electon in N – type semiconductor are known as majoriy charge
cariers while holes as minority charge carriers.

b.atom containing 3 valances

(trivalent impurity)
eg. Al,Ga,B,In

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
 The semiconductor which are obtained by introducing trivalent
impurity atom are known as P-type semiconductor
 Examples are Ga, In, Al and B .these elements have 3 electron
in their valence Sheel which will form covalent bond with the
neighbouring atom .
 The fourth covalent bond will remain incomplete.A vacancy
which exist in the incomplete covalent bond constitute a
hole .The impurity atom is thus known as acceptor atom
 In P-type semiconductor current flows due to movement of
electrons and holes but majority of through holes .Thus holes in
P-type semiconductor are known as majority charge carrier
while electron as minority charge carrier

MASS ACTIO LAW

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Addition of n –type impurities decrease the number of holes
below a level .Similarly the addition of p-type impurities
decreased the number of electron below a level .It has been
experimentally found that under thermal equilibrium for any
semiconductor the product of no. of holes and the no. of
electrons is constant and independent of amount of doping . this
relation is known as mass action law .

ne. nh =ni2

Where ne = electron concentration

nh = hole concentration and
ni= intrinsic concentration
BARRIER FORMATION IN P-N JUNCTION DIODE

The holes from p-side diffuses to the n side while the free
electons from n-side diffuses to the p-side.This movement
occurs because od charge density gradient . This leaves the
negative acceptor ions on the p-side and positive donor ions on
the n-side un covered in the vicinity of the junction .Barrier
formation in P-N junction Diode. Thus there is negative charge
on p-side and positive on n –side.This setup potential difference
across the junction and hence an internal electric filed directed
from n-side to p-side .Equilibrium is established when the field
become large enough to stop further diffusion of the majority
charge carrier .The region which become depleted of the mobile
charge carrier is called the depletion region .The potential
barrier across the depletion region is called potential barrier.
width of depletion region depend upon the doping level .The
higher the doping level, thinner will be the depletion region .

DEPLETION REGION
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  It is a region near the p-n junction that is depleted of any
mobile charge carrier
 The depletion region depends upon 1 The type of biasing 2
Extent of doping
POTENTIAL BARRIRE (VB)
Due to accumulation of immobile ion cores in the junction , a
potential difference is developed which prevent the further
movement of majority charge across the junction .

P-N JUNCTION DIODE

A p-n junction consist of wafers of p-type and n type
semiconductors fused together or grown on each other

FORWARD BIASING OF A P-N JUNCTION

(a) A p-n junction is said to be forward biased when p region is
maintained at a higher potential with respect to the n- region
as shown
(b) (b) When forward biased majority changes carriers in both
the regions are pushed through the junction .The depletion
region’s width decreases and the junction offers low
resistance , and potential difference across the junction
becomes VB-V
REVERSE BIASIG P-N JUNCTION
(a) A p-n junction is said to be reversed biased when its p-
region is maintained at lower potential with respect to its n-
region is as shown
(b) When the junction is reverse biased the majority career in
both the regions are pushed away from the junction .the
depletion region width increase and the potential difference
across the junction becomes VB+V
P-N JUNCTION AS RECTIFIER
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Rectification: it is the process of conversion of AC into DC.A
single p-n junction, of two or four p-n junction can be used
for this purpose.
Half wave rectifier : a single p-n junction can be used for
half wave rectifier .It conducts only during alternate half
cycle of the input AC voltage .As a result the output voltage
does not change in polarity .The average of the voltage from
a half wave rectifier is low .
Full wave rectifier: It is achieved using two p-n
junction .It conducts for both halves of the cycle .The average
voltage of a full wave rectifier is more than that of a half
wave rectifier , for the same rms voltage of AC voltage .

SPECIAL PURPOSE p-n JUNCTION DIODES

ZENER DIODE
A Zener diode is a heavily doped semiconductor device that
is designed to operate in the reverse direction. A Zener
Diode, also known as a breakdown diode, is a heavily doped
semiconductor device that is designed to operate in the
reverse direction. When the voltage across the terminals of a
zener diode is reversed, and the potential reaches the zener
Voltage (knee voltage), the junction breaks down, and the
current flows in the reverse direction. This effect is known as
the zener Effect.

OPTOELECTRONIC JUNCTION DEVICE

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 We have seen so far how a semiconductor diode behaves under applied electrical
inputs. In this section, we have learn about semiconductor diode in which carrier are
generated by photons (photo-excitation) .All these devices are called optoelectronic
device.
(I) Photo diode : used for detecting optical
signal (photo detectors)
(II) Light emitting diode : (LED) : which
convert electrical energy into light
(III) Photo voltaic devices : which convert
optical radiation into electricity (solar cells)

PHOTO DIODE
A photodiode is a light-sensitive semiconductor diode. It produces
current when it absorbs photons. The package of a photodiode allows
light (or infrared or ultraviolet radiation, or X-rays) to reach the
sensitive part of the device. The package may include lenses or optical
filters. Devices designed for use specially as a photodiode use a PIN
junction rather than a p–n junction, to increase the speed of response.
Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as their surface area
increases. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias. A solar
cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode.
Photodiodes are used in scientific and industrial instruments to
measure light intensity, either for its own sake or as a measure of
some other property (density of smoke, for example). A photodiode
can be used as the receiver of data encoded on an infrared beam, as in
household remote controls. Photodiodes can be used to form an opt
coupler, allowing transmission of signals between circuits without a
direct metallic connection between them, allowing isolation from high
voltage differences.

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 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits
light when current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor
recombine with electron holes, releasing energy in the form of
photons. The colour of the light (corresponding to the energy of the
photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross
the band gap of the semiconductor. White light is obtained by using
multiple semiconductors or a layer of light emitting phosphor on the
semiconductor device. LEDs have many advantages over
incandescent light sources, including lower power consumption,
longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching. In exchange for these generally favourable attributes,
disadvantages of LEDs include electrical limitations to low voltage
and generally to DC (not AC) power, inability to provide steady
illumination from a pulsing DC or an AC electrical supply source, and
lesser maximum operating temperature and storage temperature. In
contrast to LEDs, incandescent lamps can be made to intrinsically run
at virtually any supply voltage, can utilize either AC or DC current
interchangeably, and will provide steady illumination when powered
by AC or pulsing DC even at a frequency as low as 50 Hz. LEDs
usually need electronic support components to function, while an
incandescent bulb can and usually does operate directly from an
unregulated DC or AC power source.

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 SOLAR CELL
A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates EMF when
solar radiation falls on the p-n junction .It works on the same principle
(photo voltaic effect) as the photodiode, except that no external bias is
applied and the junction area is kept much larger for solar radiation to
be incident because we are interested in more power.
A transistor has three doped regions forming two p-n
junctions between them there are two types of
transistor
(i)n-p-n transistor: here two segments of n –type semiconductor
(emitter and collector) are separated by a segment of p-type
semiconductor (base) .
(ii) p-n-p transistor: here two segment of p-type
semiconductor(termed as emitter and collector)are separated by a
segment of n-type semiconductor (termed as base). A brief
description of the three segments of a transistor is given below:
Emitter: this is the segment on one side of a transistor .It is of
moderate size and heavily doped. It supplies a large number of
majority carrier for the current flow through the transistor
Base: this is the central segment .It s very thin and lightly doped.

Collector: this segment collects major portion of the majority carrier

supplied by the emitter.

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 TRANSISTOR AS A DEVICE
When the transistor is used in the cut off or saturation state it acts it
acts as a switch. On the other hand for using the transistor as an
amplifier it has to operate in the active region
Transistor as a switch
We shall try to understand the operation of the
transistor as a switch by analysing the behaviour of the
base-biased transistor applying Kirchhoff’s voltage rule
to the input and output sides of this circuit we get , V BB
= IBRB +VBE And VCE=VCC- ICRC
TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER
For using the transistor as an amplifier we will use the active region
of the V o versus Vi curve .The slope of the linear part of the curve
represent the rate of change of the output with the input .It is negative
because the output is VCE – ICRC. That is why as input voltage of the
CE amplifier increases its output voltage decreases and the output is
said to be out of phase with the input.
IMPORTANCE OF SEMICONDUCTOR
Semiconductors are a key element of electronic systems, allowing for
developments in communication, computing, healthcare, military
technology, transportation, clean energy, and a variety of other
applications. Semiconductors, also called integrated circuits (ICs) or r
microchips, are made of raw materials like silicon and germanium.
The process is known as doping, where small add-ons of other
elements create fluctuations in how well the electricity flows.
Semiconductors are necessary for electronic devices, which are an
integral part of our lives. For example, phones, radios, TVs,

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computers, video games, and medical diagnostic equipment would not
exist without semiconductors.

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SEMICONDUCTOR PLAYS VITAL ROLE IN MANY AREAS,
INCLUDING THE FOLLOWING:
Transistors
The foundation of transistors is the semiconductor. Transistors have
allowed us to create smaller devices that can accomplish more. They
may be found in everything from cell phones to tablets to PCs, as well
as a variety of other applications. They’re also essential for things like
solar panels and medical imaging equipment.
Computing
Semiconductors are the fundamental components of today’s
computing. They are in charge of operating all of our technology,
including smartphones, computers, and automobiles. We wouldn’t
have any of today’s technologies without them. They are present in
almost every type of electrical device imaginable.
Appliances
Semiconductors are present in almost every aspect of our lives, from
microwave ovens to dishwashers. Many of our appliances would be
useless without them. Semiconductors regulate the flow of electricity
and assist in making electronics function. They’re also used in solar
panels, LED lights, refrigerators, and other appliances.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

For successful completing my project file I have taken help

from the following:
 NCERT PHYSICS BOOK
 S.L. ARORA’S PHYSICS REFERENCE BOOK
 WWW.GOOGLE.COM
 WWW.WIKEPEDIA.COM

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