Unit 3 Cellular Energetics

ENERGY
The living cell is a miniature chemical factory where thousands of reactions occur. The
cell extracts energy and applies energy to perform work. Energy is needed to drive
reactions and processes essential to life. Cells need energy for growth & maintenance
(biosynthesis), change in position, movement of materials against gradients,
generation of heat, generation of light, electrical work with membrane potentials (nerve,
mitochondrial, thylakoid).

Two common units of energy:

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Two fundamental concepts govern energy as it relates to living organisms:

Total energy in a closed system is neither lost or gained. Energy can be transferred
and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed. Conservation of energy.

Entropy (disorder) constantly increases in a closed system. Every energy transfer or

transformation increases the entropy of the universe.
○ High entropy = high disorder/chaos = low energy
○ Living things are highly ordered (low entropy)
i. Takes a lot of effort
ii. Require constant input of energy
iii. As they “eat” energy-storing molecules, they lose a little energy in
that process to the universe and produce waste products
INCREASING ENTROPY OF THE UNIVERSE
○ Cells maintain a low-entropy state by increasing the entropy of their
surroundings
i. Living things are in a constant uphill battle against this constant
increase in universal entropy

ENTHALPY
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If a process has a negative change in enthalpy

If a process has a positive change in enthalpy

Heat RELEASED or EXOthermic or

ABSORBED ENDOthermic

Melting ice cubes

Freezing water

Cooking an egg

Burning wood

Evaporation of water

Formation of covalent
bonds

Breaking of covalent
bonds

Adding acid to water

ENTROPY
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If a process goes from less to more order
● ORDER IS INCREASING
● -ΔS
● Cleaning up your room

If a process goes from more to less order

● DISORDER IS INCREASING
● +ΔS
● Your room is chaos

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 DISORDER is…

Glucose → CO2 + H2O

Fertilized egg (zygote) →

human baby

Ice → water

Solute on one side →

Solute on both sides of the
of the membrane
membrane

Amino acids → protein

Glucose → starch

Water → ice

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If the reaction is exothermic is it also exergonic? Justify your answer.

When can an endothermic reaction be exergonic?

For reaction C, is there a way to make the reaction spontaneous? Look at the equation and identify
the part(s) that need to change to make Δ G< 0.

What is the energy released by reaction B? ______________________

How much energy is required for reaction A to occur? _____________________

If both reactions occur in a cell, where do you think you can get the energy needed for reaction A?

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ATP

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REACTION COUPLING

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What you need to know:
● All living systems require constant input of energy.
● Life requires a highly ordered system and does not violate the second law of thermodynamics:
○ Energy input must exceed energy loss to maintain order and to power cellular
processes.
○ Cellular processes that release energy may be coupled with cellular processes that
require energy.
○ Loss of order or energy flow results in death.
● Energy-related pathways in biological systems are sequential to allow for a more controlled
and efficient transfer of energy.
● A product of a reaction in a metabolic pathway is generally the reactant for the subsequent
step in the pathway

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ENZYMES
Bozeman Video Lecture - use the link in Module 3 in CANVAS
1. What reaction does catalase catalyze? Write out the balanced chemical equation.

2. How fast does catalase work?

3. What is the active site and what is its function?

4. What kinds of regulation exist for enzymes? (2x)

5. What are the two types of inhibition? (2x)

6. How do you measure the rate of an enzymatic reaction? (2x)

7. What is the interaction between the active site and the substrate?

8. What is the advantage to using an enzyme?

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9. How do we turn enzymes on? (2x)

10. What are the two types of activators?

11. Define cofactor and give an example of one.

12. Define coenzyme and give an example.

13. Describe competitive inhibition.

14. What is another name for non-competitive inhibition? Describe non-competitive inhibition.

15. What is the allosteric site? What are two possible ways that allosteric inhibitors affect the
action of the enzyme?

17. How does temperature affect enzyme activity?

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ENZYMES are…
catalytic proteins responsible for many processes in the body of humans and
plants alike.They have a very important function of speeding up chemical reactions
by reducing the activation energy needed to start those reactions. Each enzyme
has its own structure, function, and specific environment in which it functions best.
They have very unique characteristics:

1. Highly ____________________________ specific

2. Are ____________________________

3. Can be ____________________________ by factors outside their optimum environment

4. Can catalyze both _________________________ & _________________________ reactions

5. Usually end in _____________

PINEAPPLE LAB
Many enzymes in tropical fruits like pineapple break down other proteins. For example, meat
tenderizers have the enzyme papain from papaya fruit that breaks down some of the fiber that makes
meat tough. Pineapple has a digestive enzyme called bromelain which we will investigate. Vitamin C
is a co-enzyme to Bromelain.

CO-ENZYMES

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CO-FACTORS
Jell-O is actually made of a protein known as gelatin, which can be obtained from boiling skin,
tendons, ligaments, and/or bones with water, usually from cows or pigs. Gelatin is found in animal
collagen, a protein that makes up connective tissue of these structures. When the protein is heated in
water, it will form a solution that solidifies into an odd, squishy, jiggly substance…JELL-O! Maybe you
noticed that it says on the back of Jell-O containers NOT to use fresh or frozen pineapple. Given our
knowledge of enzymes, pineapple, and gelatin, we will attempt to answer the following questions:

● Why can’t we add fresh pineapple to Jell-O?

● How do different types of pineapple affect gelatin?
● How does boiling affect the enzyme function?

Pineapple in Gelatin Data Table

Time Fresh Canned Boiled
No Pineapple
Passed Pineapple Pineapple Pineapple

2 minute

4
minutes

6 minutes

8 minutes

10 minutes

24 Hours

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LAB ANALYSIS
1. Why did the fourth sample contain only Jell-O and no pineapple?

2. Compare the Jell-O that contained canned pineapple to the Jell-O that contained fresh pineapple.

3. Consider what happened in the boiled sample. Canning often involves heating the fruit to eliminate
any bacteria and then vacuuming sealing it. Explain why canned pineapple could be used to make a
delicious Jell-O dish, but fresh pineapple cannot.

4. What do you think would happen if you added frozen pineapple to gelatin? Explain your reasoning.

5. Use the claim-evidence-reasoning (CER) format to answer this question: What accounts for the
different results in the test tubes?

Claim

Evidence

Reasoning

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ENERGY GRAPH

6. When an enzyme is added to a reaction, it will require ____ energy to start the reaction.
a. more b. less c. the same amount
7. When an enzyme is added to the reaction, ___ energy is released during the reaction.
a. more b. less c. the same amount
8. Adding an enzyme will ____ the amount of products.
a. increase b. decrease c. not change

9. Which of the following statements is correct?

a. Enzymes lower the amount of energy necessary to start a chemical reaction.
b. Enzymes raise the amount of energy necessary to start a chemical reaction.
c. Enzymes keep the amount of energy necessary to start a chemical reaction the same.

10. If you removed the fresh pineapple from the gelatin and added it to fresh gelatin, which would you
expect to happen?
a. the gelatin would solidify in an ice water bath
b. the gelatin would not solidify in an ice water bath

11. Explain your reasoning for #10.

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DENATURATION

ENZYME INHIBITION

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ALLOSTERIC REGULATION

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is how autotrophic organisms use the energy from the sun to make
sugar. They are able to convert electromagnetic (light) energy into chemical energy
(glucose). They must first absorb the light energy using pigments.

Watch the video on the Photosynthesis Lab page in the Unit 3 module in CANVAS in
order to complete this page.

What are the two parts of photosynthesis?

1.

2.

Which chlorophyll is most important?

What is chromatography?

Why are the leaf chads put in water that contains baking soda?

The leaf chad will absorb ____________________________________________________

It will convert the H2O into _________________________________

The O2 will cause the chad to be more ____________________________________________

What is the dependent variable? How will you be measuring it?

In the older lab, a spectrophotometer measured how fast ___________________

became reduced. (It replaced the role of the electron carrier, NADP in the plant). As it
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becomes reduced it changes from ___________________ to ___________________.

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS LECTURES

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ENZYME CASE STUDY
Read the case study in Module 3 in CANVAS to complete this assignment.

1. What is the main carbohydrate in milk? ____________________________________

2. What enzyme breaks this carbohydrate down? ________________________________

3. Individuals who do not produce this enzyme as adults are called

_____________________________

4. What happens when these individuals drink milk?

5. Only ________% of individuals in the global human population still produce this
enzyme as adults and are known as:
___________________________________
6. Plot the data in Table 1.

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7. Why might someone’s blood glucose levels after drinking milk indicate their lactase
activity?

8. Divide the individuals in Table 1 into two groups (A and B) based on their blood glucose
test results. Write the names of the individuals in each group, including Spencer Wells,
below.
Group A Group B

9. Do you think the individuals in Group A are lactase persistent or non-persistent? Why?

10. Do you think the individuals in Group B are lactase persistent or non-persistent?
Why?

11. If the blood glucose test was performed on people from the Maasai population in
Kenya, would their results be more like those of the individuals in Group A or Group B?
Explain your prediction.

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12. A person taking a blood glucose test is usually told to fast (i.e., to not eat or drink
anything but water) before the test. Why do you think that might be necessary?

13. Create your own graph below using the data from Table 2 and determine which
individuals are lactase persistent and which are non persistent. Explain your
reasoning.

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Another common way to test whether a person is lactase persistent or nonpersistent is the
hydrogen breath test. This test uses the amount of hydrogen in a person’s breath to check for
lactose fermentation. As described in the “Background” section, undigested lactose is
fermented by bacteria in the large intestine. Fermentation produces several gases, including
hydrogen, that can exit the body through the anus. These gases can also be absorbed into
the blood, circulated to the lungs, and eliminated through the breath.

Table 2 shows the levels of hydrogen in the breath of four adults tested for lactase
persistence. As in Table 1, the measurements at “0 minutes” represent baseline levels before
drinking milk. The other measurements were taken at various times after drinking milk.

Create your own graph below using the data from Table 2 and determine which individuals
are lactase persistent and which are non persistent. Explain your reasoning.

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CATALASE ACTIVITY IN YEAST

1. What enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of hydrogen peroxide?

2. The bubbles produced in this reaction are made from what?

3. Why do animal and plant tissues contain catalase?

4. How will the rate of reaction be measured in this activity?

5. What chemical is used to create yeast capsules?

6. What is the substrate in the reaction?

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How Does Substrate Concentration Affect the Reaction Rate of Enzymes?

Table 1: Time for Yeast Spheres to Rise to the Surface in Different Substrate Concentrations
Seconds to Reach Surface
Trial 3.0 % H2O2 1.5 % H2O2 0.6 % H2O2 0.12 % H2O2

Average

Conclusion: Graph the means with error bars showing 2SEM. Then summarize the data to explain
how substrate concentration affects the rate of reaction. Include an explanation (reasoning) for your
claim.

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How Does Temperature and/or pH Affect the Reaction Rate of Enzymes?
Consider the experiment you performed with substrate concentrations. Design an experiment
that will test the reaction rate of catalase at different temperatures or at different pH levels.

Lab Report

1. Introduction: include
● background information about enzymes and substrates
● purpose of the experiment which includes CLAIM that answers the experimental
question you chose to test.

2. Procedures (include materials within steps)

3. Data: include
● a well-organized data table that shows 3 different temperature or pH values
● a graph of the means with error bars showing 2SEM. (Rate = mL traveled/seconds) or
(Seconds it took the yeast spheres to travel ??mL)

4. Analysis
● answer the experimental question, providing EVIDENCE that supports/refutes the claim
● use REASONING to suggest reasons for your experimental results

5. References - APA style

● find two or three total sources (about enzymes in general for your intro and about your
question for your intro and analysis)
● use in-text citations
● include a reference page

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Materials and Set-Up

Sodium Alginate can be purchased from Amazon or from biological supply companies. Create the solution the
day before and refrigerate. Instructions are on the package, just add water.

Using Fleischman’s rapid rise yeast, make this before class.

Hydrogen peroxide (3%) can be found in pharmacies or grocery stores. *Beware, old hydrogen peroxide will
not work as well.

CaCl2 can be purchased from biological supply companies or Amazon.

For the temperature experiment, I use a plug in kettle to create hot water. Students can change temperature
with hot water or ice.

DI water is preferred for mixing solutions, but tap water will work.

A. Preparing the yeast-sodium alginate solution

In a cup combine 10 ml of a 10% yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) solution to 10 ml of a 2% sodium alginate

solution (this solution is very viscous). Mix well with a glass rod.

Yeast 10% Stock Solution

5g to 50 ml
10g to 100 ml
20g to 200 ml ←- Enough for the whole class *Each group can have 20
ml mixture

*EZMode - 1 packet of yeast is ~20g, add to 200 ml *Use warm water!

Let the mixture sit for at least 20 minutes to activate yeast.

Preparing 0.15M CaCl2

4.16 grams in a beaker, then fill with DI water to 250 ml

Yeast sphere tips
- If spheres with “tails” form when the yeast-sodium alginate solution comes in contact with the CaCl 2 the
yeast-sodium alginate solution may be too thick. If this is the case, just thin it out with a bit of H 2O.
- Yeast spheres of different sizes are usually due to uneven pressure on the syringe plunger when
dropping the solution into CaCl2 so it is important to use even pressure when dropping into CaCl2.
- It is important for you to use spheres that are close in size for your trials.
- Discard any floating spheres. These are usually due to an uneven suspension of the yeast-sodium
alginate solution.
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C. Substrate Concentration
3.0% H2O2 is the % for most bottles of hydrogen peroxide
1.5% H2O2 (25 ml H2O2 + 25 ml H2O).
0.6% H2O2 (10 ml H2O2 + 40 ml H2O), and

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 0.12% (2 ml H2O2 + 48 ml H2O).

Beakers contain CaCl2 (4.2 g in 250 ml)

Large pipette from Amazon
Small plastic ounce containers from Amazon (10 ml of activated yeast and 10 ml of sodium alginate)

Spheres made on Day 1, removed from CaCl and rinsed with DI water, stored in the refrigerator in DI water.

Spoons can be used to remove floating spheres.

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Milk is packed with proteins, fats, and carbohydrates that support the growth, development,
and survival of baby mammals. The main carbohydrate in milk is a disaccharide-sugar called
lactose. To digest milk, lactose must be cleaved, or broken down, by lactase, an
enzyme produced in the small intestine. Lactase cleaves lactose into two smaller sugars,
glucose and galactose, which are easily absorbed through the walls of the small intestine.
Once these sugars are absorbed into the bloodstream, they can be delivered to the cells of
the body and used for energy.

As baby mammals grow up and stop drinking their mother’s milk, their bodies usually stop
producing the lactase enzyme (presumably because it is no longer needed). Individuals that
do not produce lactase as adults are called lactase non-persistent. Most mammals are
lactase non-persistent and do not drink milk as adults. Humans are unusual in that some
adults continue to drink milk from other mammals, such as cows. When an individual who is
lactase non-persistent drinks milk, they cannot easily break down the lactose in the milk. The
lactose passes from their small intestine to their large intestine, where it is fermented by
bacteria. Fermentation produces various gases in the large intestine, which can cause
abdominal pain, bloating, flatulence, and diarrhea — all symptoms of lactose intolerance, the
inability to digest lactose. Most adults are lactase non-persistent and thus typically lactose
intolerant (although some may not know it because their symptoms are mild). However,
about 35% of the global human population continues to produce lactase into
adulthood. These individuals are called lactase persistent and are typically lactose
tolerant, meaning that they can digest lactose easily and drink milk without problems.

There are several ways to test whether someone is lactase persistent or nonpersistent. One
method is the blood glucose test. Table 1 shows the blood glucose levels of 7 individuals over
time. The glucose levels were measured using glucose strips and a glucose reader. After
baseline levels (i.e., the ones at “0 minutes”) were measured, each person drank a liter of
milk. Their blood glucose levels were measured again at 15, 30, 45, and 60 minutes after
drinking the milk. Plot the data in Table 1 using different colored lines. Be sure to add them to
the key.

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