Chapter 1

REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Real number system. Properties of real numbers- Transitive, commutative, associative,

distributive, and inverse. Binary relations - Reflexivity, symmetry and transitivity. Laws of
indices and simple examples. Expansion and Simplification of Algebraic Expressions.

1. NUMBER
A number is a mathematical entity used to count, label, and measure of objects or items.
In mathematics, the definition of number has been extended over the years to include
such numbers as 0, negative numbers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, real numbers,
and complex numbers.

1.1. Natural numbers

The most familiar numbers are the natural numbers or counting numbers: 1, 2, 3, and so
on. Traditionally, the sequence of natural numbers started with 1 (0 was not even
considered a number). However, in the 19th century, set theorists and other
mathematicians started including 0 in the set of natural numbers. Today, different
mathematicians use the term to describe both sets, including 0 or not. The mathematical
symbol for the set of all natural numbers is N, also written as .

1.2. Prime number

A prime number is a number that is divisible only by itself only, e.g. 2,3,7,11,...
A natural number can be a prime or a nonprime number.

1.3. Integers:

These consist of the set of natural numbers, their negatives and zero, e.g.
..., 4,  3,  2, 1,0,1, 2,3, 4,... Hence, natural numbers are a subset of the set of integers.
Mathematically, the set of integers is denoted by the symbol Z .

1.4. Rational number:

a
A real number that can be written as a ratio of two integers; ,b0
b
a 1 3
, e.g. , ,  5, 0, 1.38, . . .
Every integer is a rational number since a 
1 2 4
Any terminating decimal is a rational number e.g. 0.721 is a rational number, since
721
0.721  .
1000

1
 1 2
Also any repeating decimal is also a rational number, e.g.  0.333... ,  0.6666... etc.
3 3
Mathematically, the set of rational numbers is denoted by the symbol Q .

1.5. Irrational number:

A number that cannot be represented by the ratio of two integers is called an irrational
number. An irrational number is a non-terminating and non-repeating decimal number. A
few examples are 2.  7 , 3 13,  , , e Naperien Constant) .We recall
that 2  1.414213..... is a non-terminating and non-repeating decimal number.
Mathematically, the set of rational numbers is denoted by the symbol  .

1.6. Real numbers:

Real numbers consist of the set of all rational and irrational numbers. We observe
that the set of natural numbers is a subset of set of integers, which in turn is a subset of
integers, which in turn is a subset of rational numbers. The set of real number is denoted
by R  (, )
We observe that   Z  Q and QUT   R

1.7. Real line

Real numbers can be represented on the points on a straight line. This line is called a real
number line or real line.

 
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

A real line is denoted by the notation  ,  .

1.8. Intervals:
A collection of real numbers, say, x , between two numbers say a and b , where  a  b 
but not including a or b is called an Open interval, written as a  x  b or  a, b  .
 

a x b

If the end points a and b are to be included in the interval, then the collection of real
numbers, x , is called a Closed interval, written as a  x  b or  a, b  .

 

2
 a x b

We may also define half open/closed (semi closed) intervals such as

(i) (a, b]  left open right closed interval.
(ii) [a, b)  left closed right open interval.

1.9 Complex numbers:

An imaginary number is denoted by i, where i   1. Note that

i 2  i  i  1  1   1 2
 1  1. The set of imaginary numbers is denoted by
I.

A complex numbers is denoted by z  a  ib, where a, b are any real numbers and
i   1. Note that a complex number is combination of a real and an imaginary number.

The set of complex numbers is denoted by C .

Number Set Relations Illustration:

C R QQ

Z N
T

2. Basic Rules of Algebra

2.1. Closure Property

An operation is said to demonstrate closure property, if for all real numbers a and b , the
result a b ( can be ,  etc.) is also a real number. A set has closure property under an
operation if the outcome of that operation on members of the set always produces a
member of the same set; in this case we also say that the set is closed under the operation.

3
 5
For example: 5  R,7  R, then , 5  7  12  R,5 - 7  -2  R,  R,5  7  35  R.
7
 That the operations +, -, / and  demonstrate closure property.
In general, the real numbers are closed under addition, subtraction and multiplication.
However it is not closed under division as 0/0 is not a real number.

The set of positive integers is not closed under subtraction for, 3 and 8 are both natural
numbers, but 3 − 8 = −5, is not a natural number.
Another example is the set containing only the number zero, which is closed under
addition, subtraction and multiplication but not division.

2.2. Commutative Property:

A binary operation on a set S is called commutative if:

An operation that does not satisfy the above property is called noncommutative.

(i) The Commutative law of Addition

Let a and b be any two real numbers, then a  b  b  a
e.g 2  5  5  2
(ii) The Commutative Law for Multiplication
Let a and b be any two real numbers, then a  b  b  a
e.g 2  5  5  2 (  is also denoted by  )
2.3. Associative law.
(i) Associative law of Addition
Let a , b and c be any three real numbers, then  a  b   c  a   b  c 
e.g.  2  5  3  2   5  3  10
(ii) The Associative law of Multiplication
Let a , b and c be any three real numbers, then  a  b   c  a   b  c 
e.g.  2  5  3  2  5  3  30
2.4. The Distributive law

Distributive law of addition and Multiplication

Let a , b and c be any three real numbers, then a   b  c    a  b    a  c  .
e.g., 2   5  3   2  5   2  3  10  6  16
2.5. The Inverse law

(i) Inverse Law of Addition

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 For any real number a, a   a   a  a  a  a  0 . Hence ' a ' is the inverse
element of ' a ' for addition.

(ii) Inverse law of Multiplication

For any real number a such that a  0,  a number which, when multiplied by a ,
we have a product equals to 1 (one). This number is called the inverse of a and is
denoted by a 1 , that is, a  a 1  1. Note that a 1  1/ a .
1 1
e.g. 12 121  12   1, a  12, a 1 
12 12
5 29 8 29 8
If a  3  , then a 1  and a  a 1    1.
8 8 29 8 29
2.6. Identity Element
(i) Additive Identity: If a number I is added to another real number a and if the
result is a itself, then the number I is said to be additive identity.
Zero is the additive identity of the real number system. This is because,
a  0  0  a  a . Hence 0 is the identity element for addition.

(ii) Multiplicative Identity: If a real number a is multiplied by another real

number I and if the result is a , then I is said to be the multiplicative identity of
the real number system. One is the multiplicative identity of the real number
system. This is because, a 1  1 a  a .

3. Order Relation
For any pair of real numbers a and b , we have three relationships or orderings
(i) a  b ( a is less than b ),
(ii) a  b ( a is greater than b ) and
(iii) a  b ( a is equal to b ).

4. Cartesian product of Two Sets

The Cartesian product of two sets A  a , b and B  x , y , z denoted by A  B (A

cross B) is defined as the set of all ordered pairs. That is,
A  B  a , b  x , y , z   a , x  ,  a , y  ,  a , z  , b , x  , b , y  , b , z  .
Notice that there are six ordered pairs.

Example 1.
Let A  4,8, 2 and B  10,12 . Then
A  B  4,8, 2  10,12   4,10  ,  4,12  , 8,10  , 8,12  ,  2,10  ,  2,12  .
Again there are six ordered pairs.

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5. Relations

Here we realte one member a (say) of a set A with one member b (say) of the set B (B
may be same as A) through some rule R (such as a function or even social relation e.g.
brother, sister etc.). We denote such relation by R(A) as a set of co-ordinates (x,y) where
x is a member of the set A which relates to y through such a rule R. This is written as

R A  x, y  x is related to y, x  A, y  B.

Arrow diagrams may be used to represent such relationship as follows.

B
A
.a .e
.b .f
.c .g
.d

Example 2.
Let A  2, 4,6,8 and define a relation R which relates the elements of A to multiple of
the of the elements of A.
The relation is defined as R A  x, y  y is a multiple of x , x  A, y  B. Thus we have,

R A  2,2, 2,4, 2,6, 2,8, 4,4, 4,8, 6,6, 8,8

Note that R(A) is a sub-set of the Cartesian product of A with A
i.e A  A  2, 4,6,8  2, 4,6,8 =  2, 2  ,  2, 4  ,  2,6  , , 8,6  , 8,8  .
Example 3.
Let A  2, 4, 6,8 and define R on the elements of A to be a factor of the elements of A.
The relation is defined as R A  x, y  y is a factor of x , x  A, y  B.
In this case R(A)={(2,2), (2,4), (2,6),(2,8),(4,4),(4,8),(6,6),(8,8)}. Here also R is a sub-set
of the Cartesian product of A with A is
A  A  2, 4,6,8  2, 4,6,8 =  2, 2  ,  2, 4  ,  2,6 , , 8,6 , 8,8  .

5.1. Properties of a Relation

(a) Reflexive property

A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive if  a, a   R for all a  A . That is, we say
that R is reflexive if every element in A is related to itself. In Example 3 above,

6
the relation R ( a is a factor of a ) is reflexive on the set A  2, 4,6,8 because
 2, 2 ,  4, 4 ,  6,6 and 8,8 are in the set of the relation R( A) .
(b) Symmetric property
A relation R on a set A is said to be symmetric if for every  a, b   R ,  b, a   R . In
other words, if a is related to b , then b is related to a .
Example 4.
Let R be the relation „ a is the opposite of a ‟ on the set A = 1,  1, 2,  2 .
Then, R( A)  1, 1 ,  1, 1 ,  2, 2  ,  2, 2  . Here, A A is given by
1,1 , 1, 1 , 1, 2 , 1, 2 ,  1,1 ,  1, 1 , ,  2, 2  ,  2,  2  .
Clearly R  A A , and R(A) is
(c) Transitive Property
A relation R on a set A is transitive if  a, b   R and  b, c   R , then  a, c   R .
Example 5.
Consider the relation R „is a factor of‟ on the set A = 2, 4,6,8,12 gives

 2, 2  2, 4  ,  2, 6  ,  2,8  ,  2,12  ,
 

R .

 4, 4  ,  4,8  ,  4,12  ,  6, 6  ,  6,12  ,  8,8  , 12,12  

Note:  2, 4   R and  4, 8  R   2,8  R ,
(2,6)  R and (6,12)  R  (2,12)  R so on.
Note that to show that the transitive property is satisfied, once needs to establish the fact
if  a, b   R and  b, c   R , then  a, c   R for all such pairs of sets in R . However, the
existence of one such pair such that if  a, b   R and  b, c   R , but a, c   R , is
sufficient show that a relation is not transitive.

(d) Equivalence Relation

Any relation on a set that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an Equivalence
Relation.
Example 6.

Let A   1,0,1,2and a relation on A be given by

R A   1,1,  1,0,  1,1,  1,2, 0,0, 0,1, 0,1, 0,2, 1,1, 1,0, 1,1, 1,2, 2,1, 2,0, 2,1, 2,2

Note that
(i) R A is a relation on A since R A  A  A.
(ii) R A is reflexive, since  a, a   R for all a A i.e.,
 1,1, 0,0, 1,1, , 2,2  R A ,
(iii) R A is symmetric, since for every  a, b   R ,  b, a   R . i.e.,
 1,0, 0,1  R A,  1,1, 1,1  R A, 0,1, 1,0  R A, 0,2, 2,0  R A,
,
 1,2, 2,1  R A1,2, 2,1  R A

7
 (iv) R A is transitive since,
 1,2, 2,1  R, then  1,1  R , 0,1, 1,2  R, then 0,2  R
Since R A satisfies the reflexive, symmetry and transitive properties it is an
equivalence relation.

DO IT YOURSELF EXERCISE

1. Write the Cartesian product of the set A  8,16, 20 and set B  5,8,18, 21 .
2. Let R be the relation "  a is the opposite of a " on the set
A  4,  4,7,  7,12,  12 . Represent the relation by an arrow diagram and
ordered pairs of the relation.
3. If the relation R denotes “square is” on the A  2,3,5 to set
B  1, 4,8,9,10,15, 25 , represent the relation by an arrow diagram.
4. Let the relation R be “is less than or equal to” on the set A  11, 22,35,36 .
Represent the relation by an arrow diagram and write the ordered pairs of the
relation. Determine which of the reflexive, symmetric and transitive properties are
satisfied by the relation.
5. If R represents the relation “is greater than” on the set A  6,10,11,19 ,
represent it by an arrow diagram.
6. Let the relation R be “is a factor of” on the set A  5,15,16, 20,32 . Draw the
arrow diagram of the relation and write the ordered pairs of the relation.

6. Laws of Indices

Definition of a n :

In general let a and n be non-zero real number (positive, negative or fraction), then

a n  a  a  ...  a ( n factors)
In the definition, a is called the base and n is called the exponent.

We always take a 0  1 (by definition).

0
 
Thus, 1  1,  5  1, 1.35  1, 100000
1
 1,    1 and so on.
0 0 0 0

 1000000000 

6.1 Law of Indices:

Law 1
a m  a n  a m n , where m and n are real numbers.

8
e.g. 23  25   2  2  2    2  2  2  2  2   235  28  256

Law 2

a 
m
n
 a mn

    3  3   3  3   3  3   3  3  3
3
 323  729
3
e.g. 32 6

Law 3

 a  b   a n  bn
n

3  2  3  2  3  2  3  2  3  2  34  24  64  6  6  6  6  1296 .
4

Law 4
m
a am
   , b0
b bm
 2   2   2   2   2  2  2  2  2 2 16
4 4
e.g.                 4 
 3   3   3   3   3  3333 3 81

Law 5
am
 a mn , a  0
an
53 5  5  5
e.g. 2   53 2  5
5 55
Law 6
1

(i) a n  n a
m

(ii) a n
 n am
1
1 1
 27  3 3
Thus, 3
27   27   3,
3 3
125   125  3  5,    .
 64  4

7 . Polynomials of degree k
An expression of the form a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  ...  ak x k , where a0 , a1 , a2 ,..., ak are constants
(any real numbers) is known as a polynomial of degree k if k  0 ,and a k  0.
The largest power of x in the expression determines the degree of the polynomial.
e.g., 4 x4  5x2  8x3  2 x  6 is a polynomial of degree 4.

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7.1 Simplification of algebraic expressions
Priority of Mathematical Operations:
a. Those within parenthesis (innermost first)
b. Raising all terms to powers
c. Multiplication and Division
d. Addition and Subtraction
e. Among operations with same priority through step (d), proceed from left to right.

7.2 Some basic algebraic expansion formulae

We make use of the following standard results for simplifying algebraic expressions.
(i) (a  b)2  a 2  2ab  b2
(ii) (a  b)2  a 2  2ab  b2
(iii) (a  b)3  a3  3a 2b  3ab2  b3
(iv) (a  b)3  a3  3a 2b  3ab2  b3
(v) a 2  b2  (a  b)(a  b)
(vi) (a  b)n  nC0 a n  nC1a n1b  nC2a n2b2  ...  nCnbn ,
n! n!
where nCr  , n!  1 2  ...  n and nC0   1  nCn
r !(n  r )! 0!(n  0)!
Example 7.

Expand and simplify the following:

3  5x  2   2  x 2  2 x  1
Solution

 
3  5x  2   2 x 2  2 x  1  15 x  6  2 x 2  4 x  2  2 x 2  19 x  4

1.7.2 Factorizing algebraic expressions

Example 8.
Factorize the following algebraic expressions:
(a) 3x2  5x  2   6 x  5x  2   3  5x  2  , (b) 4 x2  4 x  1 and (c) 2ab4  4ab2c2  2ac4 .
Solution
   
(a) 3x2  5x  2   6 x  5x  2   3  5x  2    5x  2  3x 2  6 x  3  3  5x  2  x 2  2 x  1
(b) 4 x 2  4 x  1   2 x  1
2

   
2
(c) 2ab4  4ab2c2  2ac4  2a b4  2b2c 2  c 4  2a b2  c 2
 2a  b  c  b  c   2a  b  c   b  c  .
2 2 2

7.3 Simplifying rational expressions

A rational expression is a ratio (fraction) in which both numerator and denominator is a
polynomial.

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 P x 
Thus Rx   , where Px  and Qx  are plynomial functions
Q x 

Example 9.
Simplify the following algebraic expressions:
4a 2 x  8abx  60b 2 x x 2  2 xy  y 2 x 2  2 xy  y 2
(a) , (b)  and
5a 2 y  30aby  45b2 y x y 6x  6 y
x2  4 x  5 3x  15
(c)  2
3x  6 x  2x 1

Solution

(a) 
2

4a 2 x  8abx  60b 2 x 4 x a  2ab  15b
2


5a 2 y  30aby  45b 2 y 5 y a 2  6ab  9b 2 
4 x  a  5b  a  3b  4 x  a  5b 
  .
5 y  a  3b  a  3b  5 y  a  3b 

(b)
x 2  2 xy  y 2 x 2  2 xy  y 2
 
 
x 2  2 xy  y 2 x 2  2 xy  y 2 
x y 6x  6 y  x  y  6 x  6 y 
 x  y   x  y    x  y  x  y  .
2 2


6  x  y  x  y  6

(c)
x2  4 x  5 3x  15
 2 

x2  4 x  5 x2  2 x  1  
3x  6 x  2x 1  3x  6 3x  15
 x  5 x  1 x  1  x  1 .
2 3

 
3  3 x  2  x  5 9  x  2

7.4 Adding and subtracting rational expressions

Example 10.
Perform the indicated operations and simplify, if possible:
x  4 x 1 2x x 1
(a)  and (b)  2 
x 1 x  1 x 3 x  x 6 x  2
Solution
x  4 x  1  x  4  x  1   x  1 x  1
(a)  
x 1 x  1  x  1 x  1

x 2
 
 3x  4  x 2  2 x  1  2 x 2  5 x  3  2 x  1 x  3
 .
 x  1 x  1  x  1 x  1  x  1 x  1

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 2x x 1 2x x 1
(b)  2    
x  3 x  x  6 x  2 x  3  x  3 x  2  x  2
2 x  x  2   x   x  3 2 x 2  4 x  x  x  3 2 x 2  4 x  3
   .
 x  3 x  2   x  3 x  2   x  3 x  2 
DO IT YOURSELF EXERCISES

I. Simplify the following algebraic expression:

4
 2x 4 y 
 2 3  .
 8x y 
II. Evaluate the following:
9
 3x 2 / 6 
 3 / 6  when x  1 and y  2 .
 y 

III. Perform the indicated operations and simplify the following:

(i) 3x  6 x  2  5x  2 

 2 x  1
2
(ii)
(iii)  9 y 2  14 yz  8z 2   3z  4 y  5 z   2 y  3 y  2 z 
(iv) 2 x 4 x 2  x  3x  1  x 3x 2  2 x  3x  2 
(v)  x 2  2  2 x 2  3

IV. Factorize the following:

(i) x 2  2 x  1
(ii)  a  3 a  6    a  3 2a  8
(iii) 16 x3  16 x2  4 x
(iv) 25a2b2  100a2c2

V. Perform the following operations and simplify:

y 1 y  2 2y  7
(i)   2
y  2 y 3 y  y 6

m2  4mn  4n2 bm2  6bmn  9bn2

(ii) 
bm2  9bn2 m  2n

12
 4
x
(iii) x
x 2  12
3 2
x 4

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