CLASS: MASTIGOPHORA

 They use flagella for movement (have one or more flagella)

 There are several genera under this class:
1. Trypanosoma haemoflagellate
2. Leishmania
3. Trichomonas-Causes STI
4. Histomonias Tissue flagellates
5. Hexamita
6. Giardia –GIT flagellate

Haemoflagellates: They are found in blood and blood tissues

Trypanosoma

 These are blood or tissue parasites of all classes of vertebrates in

most of which they cause no disease but in some hosts especially
man and his domestic animals, they are highly pathogenic causing a
disease commonly known as trypanosomiasis/ sleeping sickness.
 Trypanosomiasis is a parasitic disease transmitted by the tsetse fly.
It gets its nickname ‘sleeping sickness’ because symptoms can
include a disturbed sleep pattern.

Species of trypanosoma

There are two types of species of trypanosoma:

i) Salivarian species:

They contain the genera which complete their development in the anterior
station i.e the salivary system and transmission takes place by inoculation of
the metacyclic stage into the host.

Species Definitive Vector Distribution Pathology

host
Trypanosom Cattle, Tsetse fly Tropical Are
a vivax sheep, Africa, pathogenic
equines Mauritius & causing a
(horses & S. America disease
donkeys) called Souma
goats,
antelopes &
dogs
Trypanosom Antelopes, Tsetse fly Central & E. Is pathogenic
a uniforme cattle, Africa, causing
sheep, goats Angola trypanosomi
asis
Trypanosom Sheep, Tsetse fly Tropical Pathogenic
a congolense cattle, Africa
zebras,
warthogs &
equines
Trypanosom Cattle, Tsetse fly Tropical Pathogenic
a dimorphan sheep, Africa
equines &
Pigs
Trypanosom Warthogs, Tsetse fly Tropical Pathogenic
a simiae quines, pigs, Africa
camels,
cattle
(sometime)
Trypanosom Pigs Tsetse fly DRC & TZ Pathogenic
a suiz
Trypanosom Domestic Tsetse fly Tropical Highly
a brucei mammals Africa pathogenic
brucei and causing
antelopes nagana
Trypanosom Man & Tsetse East and Pathogenic
a brucei antelopes central Africa causing
rhodesiense African
sleeping
sickness
Trypanosom Man Tsetse fly West and Causes W.
a brucei central Africa African
gambiense sleeping
sickness
Trypanosom Dogs, cattle, Tabanid flies Cosmopolita pathogenic
a evansi equines n
Trypanosom Equines, Tabanid S. America Causes
a equinum dogs, cattleflies& maldecadera
vampire s
birds
ii) Stercorarian species

Is that species which completes their development in the posterior station

i.e. the infective stage/forms appear in faeces and the host is infected by the contaminative route.
Species include:

Species Definitive Vector Distribution Pathology

host
T. cruzi Man, dogs, Triatomid C & S Highly
cattle, bug America pathogenic
armadillos, causing
opossums & chagas
Racoons disease
T.theileri Tabanid flies Cosmopolita Non-
n pathogenic
T. lewis Fleas Cosmopolita Non-
n pathogenic
T.rangeli Triatomid C & S Non-
bugs America pathogenic
Morphological forms of flagellates

1. Amastigoe: Is a protist cell that does not have visible external

flagella or cilia. A rounded form with no free flagellum. Found in
Leishmania, Trypanosoma cruzi
2. Promastigote: this is a type of antenuclear kinetoplast i.e. flagella
arising near the kinetoplast and emerging from anterior end of the
body. Found in Leishmania, leptomonas etc
3. Epimastigote: Has a juxtanuclear kinetoplast (arises adjacent the
nucleus) with the flagellum arising near it and emerging from the
side of the body to run along a short undulating membrane. Found
in Trypanosoma
4. Trypomastigote: Is the true trypanosome and it has post-nuclear
Kinetoplast, flagella arising near it to run along a long undulating
membrane. Found in Trypanosoma

General characteristics of a trypanosome

1. The body is elongate and torpedo shaped (tapering at both ends)

2. The kinetosome and kinetoplast are posteriorly located behind the
nucleus in some cases and in others they are anteriorly located.
3. Trypanosomes have a single flagellum arising from the posterior
end and runs anterior-laterally attached by an undulating
membrane to the body.
4. The flagellum extends freely beyond the anterior end of the body
5. Trypanosomes have a large nucleus with a large central nucleolus
6. They possess a lateral pocket or reservoir surrounding the
kinetosome through which the flagellum emerges
7. They possess a single elongated tubular mitochondrion, an ER and
GA.
Life cycle of a salivarian trypanosome
 Development usually proceeds when blood stream forms of the
trypanosome (also called stumpy forms) are ingested by the
insect vector (tsetse fly or tabanid fly) when it sucks blood from a
mammalian host.
 In the midgut of the vector, the parasites multiply and transform
into the slender midgut forms also called procyclic
trypomastigote in about 10 days (usually within 24 hours)
 These migrate to the foregut and transform to the slender
proventricular type of trypomastigote.
 They migrate to the salivary glands through the crop,
oesophagus and hypopharynx and transform into epimastigote
forms
 After further multiplication, epimastigote forms transform into
metacyclic trypomastigotes which are small, stumpy with a short
free flagellum and this is the infective stage
 Man and other susceptible hosts become infected when the
metacyclic trypomastigote forms are injected into the blood
stream when the fly bites while feeding.
 This type of development is known as cyclical development
and it takes up to 20-35 days to complete the cycle
Epidemiology of a salivation trypanosome
1. Human typanosomiasis (-African sleeping sickness) is caused by
a. Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense causes East African sleeping
sickness but is distributed in E & C Africa
b. Trypanosoma brucei gambiense causes West African sleeping
sickness but is distribed in West and Central Africa
2. Animal trypanosomiasis is caused by T. b brucei causing nagana
3. Vectors of trypanosomiasis are large dipteran tsetse flies of the
genus Glossina found in Tropical Africa.
4. Both male and female flies feed on blood from a variety of
vertebrates
5. There are three main groups of tsetse flies found in Africa:
a. Palpalis group-include the riverline tsetse flies e.g. Glossina
Palpalis (transmits T.b gambiense), Glossina tachnoides
transmits T. b rhodesiense
b. Morsitans group-savannah tsetse flies (can transmit any form
of trypanosoma)e.g. Glossina morsitans, G. pallidipes, G.
longipalpis, G. swynnertoni
 c. Fusca group-dense forest tsetse flies (transmit west African
sleeping sickness) e.g Glossina fusca, G. fuscipes,
G.midicomm
6. Trypanosomiasis occurs between latitudes 15 oNnand 25oN in tropical
Africa covering an area of 10M Km2
7. Researvoir hosts for human trypanosomiasis-antelopes, buffaloes,
elephants, elands, warthogs and domestic animals like pigs, dogs
and goats
Pathogenesis and pathology of human trypanosomiasis
 African human trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)is caused by two
species: T. b rhodesiense and T.b gambiense
 T.b gambiense attacks only man while T. b rhodesiense infects both
man and animals
 The trypomastigotes spread from the skin through the blood to
the lymph node and the brain. The typical somnolence (sleeping
sickness) usually progresses to coma as a result of demyelinating
encephalitis. In acute form, cyclical fever spike (approximately
every 2 weeks) occurs that is related to antigenic variation. As
antibody mediated agglutination and lysis of the trypomastigotes
occurs, the fever subsides. With a few remains of antigenic variants
new fever spike occurs and the cycle repeats itself over a long
period.
Symptoms
The pathogenic symptoms are the same for both T.b gambiense and T. b
rhodesiense
1st stage disease

 The trypomastigotes are injected with saliva of an infected fly into

the subcutaneous tissue of the host where they change into the
blood stream forms.
 At the site of infection, 2-3 days after inoculation there is local
inflammation, itching, erythema (reddening), pain and local heat
 On the 6th day a swelling called trypanosomal chancre starts to
develop
 Between 5th and 12th day after infection, trypanosomes are detected
in blood and the parasitaemia may be 1x105 trypanosomes per ml of
blood.
 There is fever, headache, pain in joints and limbs
 At this stage, the disease is easily taken for flu or malaria but the
only concurrent physical signs are enlarged lymph nodes and the
spleen
2 stage of the disease
nd

 Symptoms occur as a result of specific lesion, wounds or ulcers in

the tissues, primarily the brain and heart.
 There are also anomalies in the appearance of cerebrospinal fluid
 Clinical manifestations include:
o High irritability
o Insomnia-lack of sleep
o Brisk reflexes- an above-average response during a reflex test
 o Personality changes
o Gradual depression manifestations
o Disintegration of the CNS functions
o Abnormal reflexes- due to the disruption of the sensory
(feeling) or motor (movement) nerves or both
o Delayed deep hyperesthesia: Hyperesthesia is an increase in
the sensitivity of any of your senses, such as sight, sound,
touch, and smell
o Psychotic changes
o Convulsions and eventually coma
o Electrocardiographic changes (cardiomegaly, heart failure
(cardiac arrest)
o Oedema in lungs followed by congestion due to heart failure,
inadequate ventilation resulting in deterioration & pneumonia
which is the immediate cause of death.
o Anaemia
o Immune complexes
o Immune suppression
Diagnosis
Examination of thin and thick films, in concentrated anticoagulated blood
preparations-for trypanosomes
Examination of stained fluids from enlarged lymph nodes, and
cerebrospinal fluids
Detection of trypanosoma antibodies in serum
Treatment
 Suramin-for acute stages
 Pentamidine –for acute stages
 In chronic disease with CNS involvement, the drug of choice is
melarsoprol.
Control
 Control of breeding sites of tsetse flies and use of insecticides.
 Sterile male technique to kill the vector (tsetse fly)
 Treatment of human cases to reduce transmission to flies.
 Avoiding insect bite by wearing protective clothing & use of screen,
bed netting and insect repellants.
 Mass treatment of animals