UNIT 4

I. INTRODUCTION
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
 The name Greece comes from the Latin “Graecia” which in turn comes from the Greek
word “Graikoi”, the original name of the people living in Dodona. However, the word is
used to address people living in Greece.
 The original Greek name was “Hellas”, the land of the Helens
Greek language is well known for being one of the oldest languages. In fact, it has the most
extended history of all Indo-European languages. The earliest inscriptions of Greek words
written using the Ancient Greek alphabet.
Hellenism refers to the modern pluralistic religion practiced in Greece and around the world
by several communities derived from the beliefs, mythology, and rituals from antiquity through
and up to today.
Greek Literature
The Greeks invented the epic and lyric forms and used them skillfully.
Greek Literature Periods:
1. The Age of Homeric Poems
2. The Age of the Epic Poetry
3. The Age of the Lyric Poetry
4. The Attic Period
IMPORTANT WRITERS IN THIS PERIOD
1. Homer- author of the Iliad and the Odyssey. He is one of the greatest of the world’s
literary artists.
Homeric poetry
• refers to the works of Homer, written in the “epic” style.
• These poems deal with themes of pride, war, and honor including well-known
mythological figures like the Greek gods
2. Sophocles- one of classical Athens’s three great tragic playwrights. The best known of his
123 dramas is Oedipus the King.
3. Sappho- was a Greek lyric poet greatly admired in all ages for the beauty of her writing
style. Among Greek poets, she has an ability to impress readers with a lively sense of
her personality.

II. ILIAD AND ODYSSEY (Author: Homer)

The “Iliad” and “Odyssey” are epic poems attributed to Homer, focusing on the Trojan War
and its aftermath. The “Iliad” centers on the wrath of Achilles during the siege of Troy, while
the “Odyssey” follows Odysseus’s long journey home after the war.
 THE ILIAD
The “Iliad” is set during the Trojan War, a conflict between the Greeks (Achaeans) and the
city of Troy. It focuses on a brief period towards the end of the war, particularly the wrath of
Achilles, the mightiest Greek warrior.

Main Characters:
•Achilles: The central character, known for his exceptional strength and bravery. His anger at
Agamemnon sets off a chain of events that affects the entire war.
•Agamemnon: King of Mycenae and leader of the Greek forces. His dispute with Achilles
over war prizes creates significant conflict.
•Hector: The noble prince of Troy and its greatest warrior. He is a key figure in defending
Troy against the Greeks.
•Patroclus: Achilles’ close friend and companion, whose death spurs Achilles back into
battle.
•Priam: The aging king of Troy, who mourns the loss of his son Hector and seeks Achilles to
recover his body.
•Helen: The wife of Menelaus, whose abduction by Paris instigates the war.
•The Gods: Zeus, Hera, Athena, Apollo, and others play significant roles, often intervening in
mortal affairs

THE ODYSSEY
The “Odyssey” recounts the adventures of Odysseus as he tries to return home to Ithaca after
the Trojan War. It explores themes of loyalty, cunning, and the struggle against fate.

Main Characters:
•Odysseus: The hero of the tale, known for his intelligence and resourcefulness. His journey
home takes ten years due to various challenges.
•Penelope: Odysseus’s loyal wife, who awaits his return and fends off numerous suitors.
•Telemachus: The son of Odysseus, who embarks on a journey to find news of his father.
•Athena: The goddess of wisdom who aids Odysseus throughout his journey.
•Poseidon: God of the sea, who opposes Odysseus and complicates his journey home.
•Circe: A sorceress who initially detains Odysseus but later helps him.
•Calypso: A nymph who keeps Odysseus on her island for several years before he finally
leaves.

III. OEDIPUS REX (Author: Sophocles)

OEDIPUS REX
 One of the world’s greatest tragedies
 an Athenian tragedy by Sophocles that was first performed about 429 BC. Of his three
Theban Plays that deal with Oedipus, Oedipus the King was the second to be written
  A TRAGEDY a form of drama in which the protagonist, having some quality of
greatness (as I Greek, Roman and Renaissance tragedy in high places), comes to
disaster through some flaws in him brings about his inevitable downfall of death.

OEDIPUS REX – BACKGROUND

During the early years of the Peloponnesian War, when Oedipus Rex was produced, Athens
suffered from political instability and devastating plague.

CHARACTERS
1. Oedipus
 the protagonist
 becomes King of Thebes
 he is renowned for his intelligence and his ability to solve riddles
 stubbornly blind to the truth about himself
 name’s literal meaning (“swollen foot”)
 he killed his biological father, not knowing who he was, and proceeded to marry
jocasta, his biological mother.
2. Jocasta
 Oedipus’s wife and mother, and Creon’s sister
 she tells Oedipus not to trust in the oracles
3. Antigone
 Child of Oedipus and Jocasta
 lead and care for her old, blind father in his exile
4. Ismene
 Child of Oedipus and Jocasta
 underscores her sister’s grandeur and courage
5. Polynices
 Son of Oedipus, and thus also his brother
 he arrives at Colonus seeking his father’s blessing in his battle with his brother,
Eteocles, for power in Thebes
6. Creon
 Oedipus’s brother-in-law
 claims to have no desire for kingship. Yet, when he has the opportunity to grasp at the
end of that play, Creon seems quite eager. We learn in Oedipus at Colonus that he is
willing to fight with his nephews for this power, and in Antigone Creon rules Thebes
with a stubborn blindness that is similar to Oedipus’s rule. But Creon never has our
sympathy in the way Oedipus does, because he is bossy and bureaucratic, intent on
asserting his own authority.
7. Tiresias
 blind prophet and servant of Apollo
 reveals the reasons for the devastation and plague in Thebes
 tells Oedipus he will become blind and poor
 8. Messenger
 tells Oedipus that King Polybos of Corinth is dead
 Oedipus learns from the messenger that Polybos was not his father
 the messenger had been given Oedipus as an infant by one of Laius’ men
9. Shepherd оr Lalus
 reveals his information only after Oedipus threatens his life
 admits to receiving the infant (he gave to Polybos’ messenger) from Laius and J
 Oedipus eventually realizes his own identity and his crimes of patricide and incest after
hearing the shepherd’s story
10. Second messenger
 announces and describes Jocasta’s suicide
 predicts future sorrows for a people whose kings descend from this polluted line

IV. THE GODS AND GODDESSES

Myth
 Is a set of beliefs, myths and religions hosted by Greek civilization
 Uses the supernatural to interpret natural. events
 Explains the culture's view of the universe and the nature of humanity
Chaos (shapeless nothingness)
Chaos had two children:
1. Night (darkness)
2. Erebus (death)
 Love was born of darkness and death.
 When Love was born, order and beauty. began to flourish.
 Love created Light and Day.
Earth was created.
 She was the solid ground, but also a personality.
 She bore Heaven to cover her and be a home for the gods.
THE FIRST PARENTS
1. Mother Earth = Gaea (Gaia)
2. Father Heaven = Ouranos (Uranus)
They had three kinds of children:
1. Three monsters with 100 hands and 50 heads
2. Three Cyclopes (Giant of the giants of mythology)
3. The titans.
FIRST CHARACTERS THAT HAD THE APPEARANCE OF LIFE
The Titans -The Elder Gods
1. Cronos (Saturn): Ruler of the titans.
2. Rhea: Wife of Cronos
3. Ocean: River that encircled the world.
 4. lapetus: Father of Prometheus
 Epimetheus, and Atlas (also titans)
THE PRINCIPAL GODS
Cronos and Rhea children:
1. Zeus (Jupiter, Jove)
2. Poseidon (Neptune)
3. Hades (Pluto)
4. Hera (Juno)
5. Hestia (Vesta)
6. Demeter (Ceres)
Other Olympians include
1. Athena (Minerva)
2. Ares (Mars)
3. Hebe (Juventas)
4. Hephaestus (Vulcan)
5. Apollo (Apollo)
6. Artemis (Diana)
7. Hermes (Mercury)
8. Aphrodite (Venus)
9. Dionysus (Bacchus)
10. Persephone
THE OLYMPIANS
1. Zeus
 Roman Name: Jupiter (also Jove)
 Supreme god of the Olympians.
 Fathered many characters in mythology King of the gods and its ruler, a god of thunder
and lightning.
2. Hera
 Roman Name: Juno
 Zeus's sister and wife
 Jealous protector of marriage (Goddess of marriage
 Punished the women Zeus fell in love with
3. Poseidon
 Roman Name: Neptune
 Brother of Zeus and Hades
 God of the Seas and Waters
 "The Earthshaker
4. Hades
 Roman Name: Pluto
 Brother of Poseidon and Zeus
 God of the Underworld/ Dead
 Kidnapped Persephone
5. Hestia
 Roman Name: Vesta
 Goddess of Home & fireplace
 Powerful Protector
 Relinquished her position as one of the major Olympian gods Dionysius.
6. Demeter
 Roman Name: Ceres
 Goddess of the Harvest
 A Goddess of the Earth
7. Athena
 Roman Name: Minerva
 Goddess of Wisdom, Planning, and War
 Sprang from Zeus's head
 Favorite daughter. of Zeus.
8. Ares
 Roman Name: Mars
 God of War and Revenge
 Son of Zeus and Hera
 Bloodthirsty and merciless
9. Hephaestus
 Roman Name: Vulcan (Mulciber)
 God of Fire/Forge
 Son of Zeus and Hera
 Kind, unlike his brother
 Husband of Aphrodite, who was forced to marry him
10. Apollo
 Roman Name: Apollo
 God of arts, including music and poetry is also a sun god
 Brother of Artemis
11. Artemis
 Roman Name: Diana
 Goddess of hunting, shooting, birth, virginity, protector of young animals and humans,
and in some legends, the goddess of the moon
 Sister to Apollo
12. Hermes
 Roman Name: Mercury
 Messenger of the Gods
 God of travel, thieves, Trade
 Appears in more myths than any other character
13. Aphrodite
 Roman Name: Venus
  Goddess of Love and Beauty
 Sprang from the ocean foam
14. Dionysus
 Roman Name: Bacchus
 God of Wine
 Patron god of the Greek stage
 A God of the Earth
15. Persephone
 Roman Name: Proserpina
 Goddess of the Underworld
 Daughter of Zeus. and Demeter
 Abducted by Hades
16. Hebe
 Roman Name: Juventas
 Goddess of Youth
 Restored youth to the aged
17. Eros
 Roman Name: Cupid
 Young God of Love
 Son of Aphrodite and Hephaestus
18. Iris
 Goddess of the Rainbow
 Messenger for Zeus and Hera
 Daughter of the titan Thaumus and the nymph Electra
THE MUSES
 Nine daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne
 Inspired artists of all. kinds
 Goddesses who presided over the arts and sciences
 "He is happy whom the muses love."
Clio, Urania, Thalia, Melpomene, Erato, Calliope, Euterpe, Terpsichore, Polyhymnia
The Graces
THREE GODDESSES OF GRACE AND BEAUTY "They give life its bloom."
1. Aglaia (Splendor)
2. Euphrosyne (Mirth)
3. Thalia (Good Cheer)
The Erinnyes (The Furies)
 Roman Name: Furiae or Dirae (The Furies)
THREE GODDESSES OF VENGEANCE
 They punish evildoers.
1. Tisiphone
2. Alecto
 3. Megaera
The Fates
 Roman Name: Parcae, Moirae
THREE SISTERS
 They weave, measure, and cut the thread of life for humans.
1. Clotho ("The Spinner")
2. Lachesis ("The disposer of lots")
3. Atropos ("The cutter")
The Satyrs
 Gods of the woods and mountains
 "Shepherd gods".
 Goat men (like Pan)
 Companions of Dionysus
 They like to drink, dance, and chase nymphs.
The Gorgons
 Three snake- haired monsters
 Medusa is most well-known
 Their look turns men to stone.
The Centaurs
 Half man, half. horse
 Savage creatures (except Chiron)
 Followers of Dionysus

V. TITANS AND OLYMPIANS (Author: Tony Allan)

Greek Mythology
- It refers to the set of stories about the gods, goddesses, heroes and rituals of Ancient
Greeks.
- It was part of the religion in Ancient Greece.
The most popular Greek Mythology figures include:
1) Greek Gods
- Zeus, Poseidon & Apollo
2) Greek Goddesses
- Aphrodite, Hera & Athena and Titans like Atlas.
In Greek mythology, the Titans and the Twelve Great Olympians are two different groups of
deities.
The Titans:
 They were a race of powerful and ancient gods who ruled the world before the Olympian
gods came into power.
 They were the children of the primordial deities Uranus (heaven) and Gaea (earth).
 were often depicted as gigantic beings with incredible strength.
  were the deities in Greek mythology that preceded the Olympians.
The Olympians:
 were the major deities who Ancient Greeks believed in.
 they came into power after dethroning the Titans
 their name, Olympians, originates from Mount Olympus, which was their place of
residence.
Titanomachy- the great war between the Olympians and the Titans
CHARACTERS:
1) CRONUS- father of Zeus, was a fierce ruler who become a king after overthrowing his
father, leader of the Titans
2) RHEA- mother of Zeus, wife of Cronus
3) ZEUS- a strong wise man, son of Cronus and Rhea, leader of the Olympians
4) Hestia, Demeter, Hera, and Poseidon- siblings of Zeus, together they become
Olympians
5) Cyclopes and Hecatoncheires- special allies of Zeus who forged powerful weapons for
Olympians

I. INTRODUCTION
Roman Literature
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
 As legend said, Rome was named after “Romulus” the first king of Rome
 Rome grew from a small town on central Italy’s Tiber River into an empire
 The history of Roman literature begins around the 3rd century BC. It reached its
"Golden Age" during the rule of Augustus and the early part of the Roman Empire.
Latin was the main language used for writing during Ancient Rome.
Greek was also a popular language because it was used by so many people in the eastern
portion of the Roman empire.
Roman Catholicism is the oldest and largest branch of Christianity.

ROMAN MOST FAMOUS AUTHORS:

1. VIRGIL-Is the best-known and most celebrated. He famously wrote the legendary
poem The Aeneid.
2. OVID- was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a younger
contemporary of Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the three
canonical poets of Latin literature.
3. APULEIUS- was a Platonic philosopher, rhetorician, and author remembered for The
Golden Ass, a prose narrative that proved influential long after his death. The work, called
Metamorphoses by its author.

II. THE AENID (Author: Virgil)

 Introduction:
 Between 29 and 19 BCE, the epic poem The Aeneid was written by a Roman poet of
the name Virgil. The Aeneid tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero who
after surviving the fall of Troy travels to Italy where he will become an ancestor to the
Romans in time.
 In total the poem consists of twelve books. The first six books, which are more
reminiscent to the Odyssey (though lately, some scholars have been deeming the
genre of books from line 210 to 295 as ekphrasis it still fits) backdrop showing Aeneas
wandering after Troy falls, and the last six books, reminiscent of the Iliad, with mostly
military struggle in Italy. In Book 1, Aeneas is beset by obstacles on his voyage, not
least a horrific storm that shipwrecks him at Carthage where he encounters Queen
Dido and love.
 Virgil's work is not just an adventure story, it also reads like political propaganda,
praising the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the heritage that Rome sprang from. One of
the most read and studied pieces of Latin literature, The Aeneid has contributed a lot to
Western culture.

Characters:
1. Aeneas: Trojan hero, son of Venus, destined to found Rome.
2. Dido: Queen of Carthage falls in love with Aeneas.
3. Anchises: Aeneas’s father represents the past and traditions.
4. Ascanius (Iulus): Aeneas's son, symbolizes the future and the lineage of Rome.
5. Juno: Queen of the gods opposes Aeneas because she loves Carthage.
6. Venus: Aeneas’s divine mother supports him on his journey.
7. Turnus: The primary antagonist in Italy, opposes Aeneas's settlement.
8. Creusa: Aeneas's Trojan wife, lost during the fall of Troy.
9. Lavina: Daughter of King Latinus, destined to marry Aeneas.

III. CUPID AND PSYCHE (Author: Apuleius)

Cupid and Psyche is a story from the ancient Roman novel The Metamorphoses (also
known as The Golden Ass) by Apuleius, written around 160 CE. The story describes the love
between Cupid, the god of love, and Psyche (pronounced SY-kee), a young woman, and the
trials they undergo as the result of human and divine meddling.
Characters:
Major:
1) Cupid – (or Eros in Greek) is the god of love and desire. He is also one of the
offsprings of Venus and Mars.
2) Psyche – the wife of Cupid; and later, she became the goddess of soul
3) Venus – the goddess of love and beauty; as well as the mother of Cupid.
Minor:
1) Proserpine – queen of the underworld and wife of Pluto
2) Zeus – ruler of the Olympians; God of sky and thunder
3) Zephyr – the west wind
4) King and father of Psyche
 5) Sisters of Psyche
6) Oracle of Apollo

VI. ECHO AND NARCISSUS (Author: Ovid)

Echo and Narcissus
 The myth of Echo and Narcissus explores the boundaries between love and
obsession and warns that obsessive self-love comes with consequences. Echo and
Narcissus is a myth from Ovid's Metamorphoses, a Roman mythological epic from
the Augustan Age. The introduction of the myth of the mountain nymph Echo into
the story of Narcissus, the beautiful youth who rejected Echo and fell in love with
his own reflection, appears to have been Ovid's invention.
Main characters:
1. Echo - Echo is an innocent forest nymph that loved to talk. She has put on a terrible curse
for the rest of her life where she can only echo what others say.
2. Narcissus - Narcissus is a vain and handsome young man, with many admirers but
uninterested in a romantic relationship.
3. Zeus/Jupiter/Jove - Zeus, King of the gods, is always in pursuit of a young girl. He never
seems to be satisfied with his own wife, Hera, and constantly seduces those of the female
species.
4. Hera/Juno - Hera is the wife of Zeus who constantly gets on her nerves, striking up
romances with other women. Echo, a beautiful nymph, falls victim to her angry power.