WATER SUPPLY AND WASTE WATER ENGINEERING, BCV304

MODULE-I

WATER TREATMENT
 WATER TREATMENT OBJCTIVES
Some of the main objectives of the water treatment process are:
1. To reduce the impurities to a certain level that does not cause harm to human health.
2. To reduce the objectionable color, odor, turbidity, and hardness.
3. To make water safe for drinking.
4. To eliminate the corrosive nature of water affecting the pipe.
5. To make it suitable for a wide variety of industrial purposes such as steam generation, drying, etc.

 UNIT FLOW DIAGRAM OFWATER TREATMENT PLANT

Functions of each unit

1. Intake well
The raw water admitted from the source, in these wells, through the inlet opening having screen to
Separate the floating material.

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2. Screen
Screens are used to remove the floating, suspended material.
3. Aerators
To remove the gases from the water, the raw water exposed to the air.
4. Coagulant tank
It is Used to add the coagulant into the water.
5. Flash mixer
In this unit, added coagulators are properly mixed.
6. Clari Floccurator
In this unit two process are done i.e. Flocculation and sedimentation. • Flocculation Floc are
formed and in sedimentation Floc get settleddown.
7. Filter beds
It helps to remove the fine and colloidal matter from the water.
8. Disinfection
It helps to kill microorganisms and also to destroy organic impurities. This is important process
for water treatment.
9. Distribution System
Treated water convey to household.

 AERATION PROCESS LIMITATIONS AND TYPES.

Aeration is an important unit operation in which the principle of gas transfer is used. The process of
exposing large surface of water to the atmospheric air is called aeration. Its main purpose is to absorb
more oxygen and let out unpleasant odours and gases and oxidise Fe and Mn in water.
Objectives of Aeration:
 To increase oxygen contents in water for imparting freshness.
 To expel volatile substances and gases like H2S, CO2 causing bad taste and odour.
 To oxidise iron and manganese so that these can be precipitated and removed.
 To destroy bacteria to some extent, by agitation of water during aeration.
Methods of Aerations
1. By using Fountains:
Spray Nozzles Water is discharged under the effect of fountain action, in the form of fine spray.

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Spraying results in the formation of extremely minute droplets of water. This increases its surface area
of contact with air. Spray nozzles are located in a pool of water. They involve considerable loss of
head. The pressure required to operate spray nozzles is about 0.7 to 1.4 kg/cm 2. This removes CO2 and
H2S to the extent of 90%. Spray nozzles may be of fixed type or movable type as shown in the Fig.

2. Gravity fall aerators or Cascade Aerators:

They are the simplest free fall aerators. A simplest cascade consists of a series of 3 or 4 steps, either
circular or straight type as shown in Fig. Water is allowed to fall through a height of 1 to 3 metres.
These may be in the open air or under shelter.

Limitations of Aeration
• It is inefficient to remove or reduce tastes and odours caused by
(a) Non-volatile substances like oils of algae.
(b) Chemicals discharged in industrial wastes.
• Due to over oxygenation, water becomes corrosive and de-aeration may be required.
• Aeration is economical only in warmer climate months.

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• Possibility of air-borne contamination in water.
• Iron and Manganese can be precipitated by aeration only when organic matter is absent.

 Sedimentation:
A sedimentation tank is structure in which wastewater is filled and stored for some time to remove the
suspended particles present in the water. These particles may settle at the bottom of the tank and are
removed by using scrapers. If the suspended particles have low specific gravity than water, they settle at the
top of the tank.

Types of Sedimentation Tanks:

Depending upon various factors sedimentation tanks are classified as follows.
1. Based on methods of operation
a. Fill and draw type tank
b. Continuous flow type tank
2. Based on shape
a. Circular tank
b. Rectangular tank
c. Hopper bottom tank
3. Based on location
a. Primary tank
b. Secondary tank

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1. Types of Sedimentation Tanks based on Methods of Operation:
a) Fill and Draw Type Sedimentation Tank
In case of fill and draw type sedimentation tank, water from inlet is stored for some time. The time may be
24 hours. In that time, the suspended particles are settled at the bottom of the tank. After 24 hours, the water
is discharged through outlet. Then settled particle are removed. This removal action requires 6-12 hours. So,
one complete action of sedimentation requires 30-40 hours in case of fill and draw type sedimentation tank.

b) Continuous Flow Type Sedimentation Tank

In this case, water is not allowed to rest. Flow always takes place but with a very small velocity. During this
flow, suspended particles are settle at the bottom of the tank. The flow may be either in horizontal direction
or vertical direction.

 Horizontal flow type sedimentation tank

These tanks generally in rectangular shape. They have more length twice its width. Because they need to
flow more distance to settle all suspended particles. The maximum permissible velocity in this case is
0.3m/sec.
 Vertical flow type sedimentation tank
The vertical flow type sedimentations tanks are generally in circular shape and flow takes place in vertical
direction. Hopper bottom is provided at the bottom of the tank to dispose the collected sludge.

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2. Types of Sedimentation Tanks based on Shape:
a. Circular Tank
Circular sedimentation tanks are preferred for continuous vertical flow type sedimentation tanks. In this
case influent is sent through central pipe of the tank and radial flow takes place. Mechanical sludge
scrappers are provided to collect the sludge and collected sludge is carried through sludge pipe provided at
the bottom. But circular tanks are uneconomical as compared to rectangular tanks but they have high
clarification efficiency.

b) Rectangular Tank
Rectangular sedimentation tanks are mostly preferred sedimentation tanks and are used widely. The flow
takes place in horizontal direction that is length wise in rectangular tanks. Sometimes baffle walls are
provided for rectangular tank to prevent short circuiting. Maintenance costs are low in case of rectangular
sedimentation tanks. They are also suitable for large capacity plants.

c) Hopper Bottom Tank

In case of hopper bottom tank, a deflector box is located at the top which deflects the influent coming from
central pipe to downwards. Sludge is collected at the bottom and it is disposed through sludge pump.

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3.Types of Sedimentation Tanks based on Location:

a) Primary Sedimentation Tank
Primary sedimentation tank is a normal sedimentation tank in which water is stored at rest for some time
and sludge collected at bottom and oily matter collected at top are removed. After primary sedimentation
process the wastewater is discharged into aerobic filter where activated sludge process take place.
b) Secondary Sedimentation Tank
After activated sludge process the wastewater enters secondary sedimentation tank in which suspended
particles contains microbes are removed and are reflected towards aerobic filter to maintain high microbe
concentration in aerobic filter

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 Different zones of settling tanks
All sedimentation basins have four zones - the inlet zone, the settling zone, the sludge zone, and the
outlet zone. Each zone should provide a smooth transition between the zone before and the zone after.
In addition, each zone has its own unique purpose .
Zones can be seen most easily in a rectangular sedimentation basin, such as the one shown below:

 Inlet Zone
The two primary purposes of the inlet zone of a sedimentation basin are to distribute the water and to
control the water's velocity as it enters the basin. In addition, inlet devices act to prevent turbulence of
the water.
 Settling Zone
After passing through the inlet zone, water enters the settling zone where water velocity is greatly
reduced. This is where the bulk of floc settling occurs and this zone will make up the largest volume of
the sedimentation basin. For optimal performance, the settling zone requires a slow, even flow of
water.
The settling zone may be simply a large expanse of open water. But in some cases, tube settlers and
lamella plates, such as those shown below, are included in the settling zone.
 Outlet Zone
The outlet zone controls the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin - both the amount of water
leaving the basin and the location in the basin from which the outflowing water is drawn. Like the inlet
zone, the outlet zone is designed to prevent short-circuiting of water in the basin. In addition, a good
outlet will ensure that only well-settled water leaves the basin and enters the filter. The outlet can also
be used to control the water level in the basin.

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 Sludge Zone
The sludge zone is found across the bottom of the sedimentation basin where the sludge collects
temporarily. Velocity in this zone should be very slow to prevent resuspension of sludge.
A drain at the bottom of the basin allows the sludge to be easily removed from the tank. The tank
bottom should slope toward the drains to further facilitate sludge removal.

 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION:

Coagulation-flocculation is a chemical water treatment technique typically applied prior to
sedimentation and filtration (e.g. rapid sand filtration) to enhance the ability of a treatment process to
remove particles. Coagulation is a process used to neutralize charges and form a gelatinous mass to
trap (or bridge) particles thus forming a mass large enough to settle or be trapped in the filter.
Flocculation is gentle stirring or agitation to encourage the particles thus formed to agglomerate into
masses large enough to settle or be filtered from solution.
Advantages
1. Simplicity and cost-effectiveness
2. Separates many kind of particles from water
3. Enhances filtration process
4. Uses abundant and low cost chemicals.
Disadvantages
1. Input of chemicals required
2. Qualified personnel required for design (e.g. construction of chambers and dosage of chemicals) and
system maintenance
3. Transfer of toxic compounds into solid phase and formation of sludge that has to be treated
subsequently
4. Relatively time consuming process
 COAGULATION:
Coagulants with charges opposite to those of the suspended solids are added to the water to neutralise
the negative charges on dispersed non-settable solids such as clay and organic substances.
Once the charge is neutralised, the small-suspended particles are capable of sticking together. The
slightly larger particles formed through this process are called microflocs and are still too small to be
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visible to the naked eye. A high-energy, rapid-mix to properly disperse the coagulant and promote
particle collisions is needed to achieve good coagulation and formation of the microflocs. Over-mixing
does not affect coagulation, but insufficient mixing will leave this step incomplete. Proper contact time
in the rapid-mix chamber is typically 1 to 3 minutes.

 FLOCCULATION:
The microflocs are brought into contact with each other through the process of slow mixing. Collisions
of the microfloc particles cause them to bond to produce larger, visible flocs. The floc size continues to
build through additional collisions and interaction with inorganic polymers formed by the coagulant or
with organic polymers added. Microflocs are formed. High molecular weight polymers, called
coagulant aids, may be added during this step to help bridge, bind, and strengthen the floc, add weight,
and increase settling rate. Once the floc has reached its optimum size and strength, the water is ready
for the separation process (sedimentation, floatation or filtration). Design contact times for flocculation
range from 15 or 20 minutes to an hour or more.

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 JAR TEST
• A jar test is a laboratory procedure that simulates the coagulation and flocculation process in
water treatment. The test involves adding different amounts of chemicals to water samples in
jars, stirring, and observing how the solids settle.
• The goal is to determine the minimum amount of chemicals needed to achieve the desired
water quality.
Steps for performing a jar test:
• Record water properties: Before starting, record the water's pH, turbidity, alkalinity, and
temperature.
• Prepare a stock solution: Dissolve a known amount of alum in distilled water. Each milliliter
of the stock solution will equal a certain amount of milligrams per liter (ppm) when added to the
water.
• Add chemicals and stir: Add a coagulant solution to the water sample and stir at high speed for
a few minutes.
• Observe: Observe the coagulation of the particles.
• Add a flocculant: If the particles need help settling, add a flocculant and stir slowly.
• Evaluate: After a few minutes, evaluate the results.
• Repeat: If the settling is incomplete or too slow, repeat the test with more coagulant.
• Filter or take a sample: After a few minutes, you can take a sample of the clear water on top or
filter the entire contents of the beaker.
The sequence of chemical additions is important, and the pH of the water may also need to be
adjusted.

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 TYPES OF COAGULANTS:
In water treatment, coagulants are chemicals used to remove suspended particles by destabilizing
colloidal systems, allowing them to clump together into larger aggregates, which can then be easily
removed. There are several types of coagulants, categorized into inorganic coagulants, organic
coagulants, and polyelectrolytes. Below are the most commonly used coagulants, along with their
chemical reactions.

1. Alum (Aluminum Sulfate) – Al₂(SO₄)₃

Alum is one of the most widely used coagulants in water treatment. It works by forming positively
charged aluminum ions that destabilize negatively charged colloidal particles, causing them to
aggregate.
Reaction:
Al₂(SO₄)₃+6H₂O→2Al(OH)₃(s)+3H₂SO₄

Al(OH)₃ (Aluminum Hydroxide) is the precipitate that traps and binds the particles.

 H₂SO₄ (Sulfuric Acid) lowers the pH, which is often compensated by adding an alkaline
substance.

2. Ferric Sulfate – Fe₂(SO₄)₃

Ferric sulfate is another commonly used inorganic coagulant, similar to alum, that works through the
formation of ferric hydroxide precipitates.
Reaction:

Fe₂(SO₄)₃+6H₂O→2Fe(OH)₃(s)+3H₂SO₄

 Fe(OH)₃ (Ferric Hydroxide) helps trap and remove suspended particles.

 As with alum, H₂SO₄ affects the pH of the water.

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3. Ferric Chloride – FeCl₃

Ferric chloride is also widely used, especially in wastewater treatment. It hydrolyzes to form ferric
hydroxide, which acts as a flocculant.

Reaction:

FeCl₃+3H₂O→Fe(OH)₃(s)+3HCl

 Fe(OH)₃ (Ferric Hydroxide) forms flocs that capture impurities.

 HCl (Hydrochloric Acid) is produced, which can lower the water's pH.

4. Sodium Aluminate – NaAlO₂

Sodium aluminate can act as both a coagulant and an alkalinity source. It forms aluminum hydroxide in
water, which coagulates particles.

Reaction:

NaAlO₂+2H₂O→Al(OH)₃(s)+NaOH

 Al(OH)₃ (Aluminum Hydroxide) is the coagulant formed.

 NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide) helps maintain alkalinity, avoiding excessive pH drop.

5. Polyaluminum Chloride (PAC)

PAC is a pre-hydrolyzed form of aluminum chloride. It provides better flocculation performance over a
wider pH range and produces fewer residuals than alum.

The exact reaction depends on the degree of polymerization, but the general idea is that PAC
hydrolyzes to form aluminum hydroxide, which traps impurities.

6. Lime (Calcium Hydroxide) – Ca(OH)₂

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Lime is often used in combination with other coagulants to adjust the pH or as a primary coagulant in
water softening processes.

Reaction:

Ca(OH)₂→Ca²⁺+2OH⁻

The hydroxide ions formed increase the pH, which aids in the precipitation of metals and phosphates.
When used for softening:

Ca(OH)₂+Mg²⁺→Mg(OH)₂(s) (s)Ca(OH)₂+Mg²⁺→Mg(OH)₂(s)

Magnesium hydroxide precipitates and removes impurities.

7. Organic Coagulants

 Polyamines and polyDADMAC (polydiallyldimethylammonium chloride) are examples of

organic coagulants. These do not rely on pH shifts but instead act directly by neutralizing
charges on suspended particles.

Simplified Reaction:

Organic coagulant + colloids → neutralization and flocculation

 THEORY OF FILTRATION:
The following are the mechanisms of filtration:
1. Mechanical straining
Mechanical straining of suspended particles in the sand pores.
2. Sedimentation
Absorption of colloidal and dissolved inorganic matter in the surface of sand grains in a thin film
3. Electrolytic action
The electrolytic charges on the surface of the sand particles, which opposite to that of charges of
the impurities are responsible for binding them to sand particles.

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4. Biological Action
Biological action due to the development of a film of microorganisms layer on the top of filter
media, which absorb organic impurities.
 TYPES OF FILTERS
Filtration is carries out in three types of filters
1. Slow sand filter
2. Rapid sand filter/Gravity filters
3. Pressure filter
Filter Materials
Sand:
Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media. The size of the sand is measured and
expressed by the term called effective size. The effective size, i.e. D10 may be defined as the size of the
sieve in mm through which ten percent of the sample of sand by weight will pass. The uniformity in
size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is measured and expressed by the term called uniformity
coefficient. The uniformity coefficient, i.e. (D60/D10) may be defined as the ratio of the sieve size in
mm through which 60 percent of the sample of sand will pass, to the effective size of the sand.
Gravel:
The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered water to move freely to the
under drains, and allows the wash water to move uniformly upwards.
Other materials:
Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthracite is used as filter media. Anthrafilt is made from anthracite,
which is a type of coal-stone that burns without smoke or flames. It is cheaper and has been able to give
a high rate of filtration.
 SLOW SAND FILTER:
Slow sand filters are best suited for the filtration of water for small towns. The sand used for the
filtration is specified by the effective size and uniformity coefficient .The effective size, D10, which is
the sieve in millimeters that permits 10% sand by weight to pass. The uniformity coefficient is
calculated by the ratio of D60 and D10.

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 Principles of Slow Sand Filtration

1. In a slow sand filter impurities in the water are removed by a combination of processes:
sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical and bacteriological action.
2. During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and physical chemical processes.
The resulting accumulation of sediment and organic matter forms a thin layer on the sand surface,
which remains permeable and retains particles even smaller than the spaces between the sand grains.
3. As this layer (referred to develops, it becomes living quarters of vast numbers of micro-organisms
which break down organic material retained from the water, converting it into water, carbon dioxide
and other oxides.
4. Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed from the raw water as it passes through
the filter skin and the layer of filter bed sand just below. The purification mechanisms extend from the
filter skin to approx. 0.3- 0.4 m below the surface of the filter bed, gradually decreasing in activity at
lower levels as the water becomes purified and contains less organic material.
5. When the micro-organisms become well established, the filter will work efficiently and produce high
quality effluent which is virtually free of disease carrying organisms and biodegradable organic matter.
6. They are suitable for treating waters with low colors, low turbidities and low bacterial contents.

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 Construction
Slow sand filter is made up of a top layer of fine sand of effective size 0.2. to 0.3mm and uniformity
coefficient 2 to 3 . The thickness of the layer may be 75 to 90 cm. Below the fine sand layer, a layer of
coarse sand of such size whose voids do not permit the fine sand to pass through it. The thickness of
this layer may be 30cm. The lowermost layer is a graded gravel of size 2 to 45mm and thickness is
about 20 to 30cm. The gravel is laid in layers such that the smallest sizes are at the top. The gravel layer
is the retains for the coarse sand layer and is laid over the network of open jointed clay pipe or concrete
pipes called under drainage. Water collected by the under drainage is passed into the out chamber.

 Operation
The water from sedimentation tanks enters the slow sand filter through a submersible inlet as shown in
fig. This water is uniformly spread over a sand bed without causing any disturbances. The water passes
through the filter media at an average rate of 2.4 to 3.6 m 3/m2/day. This rate of filtration is continued
until the difference between the water level on the filter and in the inlet chamber is slightly less than the
depth of water above the sand. The difference of water above the sand bed and in the outlet chamber is
called the loss of head.
During filtration as the filter media gets clogged due to the impurities, which stay in the pores, the
resistance to the passage of water and loss of head also increases. When the loss of head reaches 60cm,
filtration is stopped and about 2 to 3 cms from the top of bed is scrapped and replaced with clean sand
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before putting back into service to the filter. The scrapped sand is washed with the water, dried and
stored for return to the filter at the time of the next washing . The filter can run for 6 to 8 weeks before
it becomes necessary to replace the sand layer.
 Uses
The slow sand filters are effective in removal of 98 to 99% of bacteria of raw water and completely all
suspended impurities and turbidity is reduced to 1 N.T.U. Slow sand filters also removes odours, tastes
and colours from the water but not pathogenic bacteria which requires disinfection to safeguard against
water-borne diseases. The slow sand filters require large area for their construction and high initial cost
for establishment. The rate of filtration is also very slow.
 Maintenance
The algae growth on the overflow weir should be stopped. Rate of filtration should be maintained
constant and free from fluctuation. Filter head indicator should be in good working condition. Trees
around the plant should be controlled to avoid bird droppings on the filter bed, No coagulant should be
used before slow sand filtration since the floc will clog the bed quickly.

RAPID SAND FILTER:

Rapid sand filter are replacing the slow sand filters because of high rate of filtration ranging from 100
to 150m3/m2/day and small area of filter required. The main features of rapid sand filter are as follows.
 Operation
The water from coagulation sedimentation tank enters the filter unit through inlet pipe and uniformly
distributed on the whole sand bed. Water after passing through the sand bed is collected through the
under drainage system in the filtered water well. The outlet chamber in this filter is also equipped with
filter rate controller. In the beginning the loss of head is very small. But as the bed gets clogged, the
loss of head increases and the rate of filtration becomes very low. Therefore the filter bed requires its
washing.

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\
 Construction
Rapid sand filter consists of the following five parts
1. Enclosure tank a water tight tank is constructed either masonry or concrete
2. Under drainage system may be perforated pipe system or pipe and stracher system
3. Base material gravel should free from clay, dust, silt and vegetable matter. Should be durable, hard,
round and strong and depth 40cm.
4. Filter media of sand the depth of sand 60 to 75cm
5. Appurtenances Air compressors useful for washing of filter and wash water troughs for collection of
dirty water after washing of filter. Washing process is continued till the sand bed appears clearly. The
washing of filter is done generally after 24 hours and it takes 10 minutes and during back washing the
sand bed expands by about 50%.
Rapid sand filter bring down the turbidity of water to 1 N.T.U. This filter needs constant and skilled
supervision to maintain the filter gauge, expansion gauge and rate of flow controller and periodical
backwash.

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 Comparision of slow sand filter and rtapid sand filter

Parameter Slow Sand Filter (SSF) Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
Filtration Rate 0.1 – 0.3 m³/hour/m² 4.8 – 21 m³/hour/m²
Filter Medium Fine sand (0.15 – 0.35 mm grain size) Coarse sand (0.4 – 1.2 mm grain
size)
Cleaning Method Manual scraping of top sand layer Backwashing with water and air
Frequency of Cleaning Every 1 to 3 months Every 1 to 3 days
Pretreatment Requires minimal or no pretreatment Requires coagulation,
Requirement flocculation, and sedimentation
Depth of Sand Bed 0.5 – 1.5 meters 0.6 – 0.75 meters
Operating Cost Low, due to minimal maintenance and no Higher, due to energy and

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chemical usage chemical use for backwashing
Initial Cost Higher, due to larger size and longer Lower, due to smaller footprint
construction time and faster construction
Microbial Removal Very effective in removing pathogens Moderately effective; may
(biological layer) require disinfection afterward
Water Quality High quality, especially for removing Effective for physical impurities,
biological contaminants needs additional disinfection
Space Requirement Requires large area for slow filtration Compact design, smaller area
needed
Application Suitable for small communities or rural Suitable for large-scale
areas municipal water treatment
Start-up Time Slow (1-2 weeks to develop biological Immediate operation possible
layer)

 PRESSURE FILTER:
Pressure filter is type of rapid sand filter in closed water tight cylinder through which the water passes
through the sand bed under pressure. All the operations of the filter are similar to rapid gravity filter;
expect that the coagulated water is directly applied to the filter without mixing and flocculation. These
filters are used for industrial plants but these are not economical on large scale. Pressure filters may be
vertical pressure filter and horizontal pressure filter. The Fig shows vertical pressure filter. Backwash is
carried by reversing the flow with values. The rate of flow is 120 to 300m3/m2/day.

 Advantages
1. It is a compact and automatic operation
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2. These are ideal for small estates and small water works
3. These filters requires small area for installation
4. Small number of fittings are required in these filters
5. Filtered water comes out under pressure no further pumping is required.
6. No sedimentation and coagulant tanks are required with these units.
 Disadvantages
1. Due to heavy cost on treatment, they cannot be used for treatment large quantity of water at water
works
2. Proper quality control and inspection is not possible because of closed tank
3. The efficiency of removal of bacteria & turbidity is poor.
4. Change of filter media, gravel and repair of drainage system is difficult.

………………………THE END……………………

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