Name: _______________________

In-class Problems and Homework CHM 111

Chapter 4 Goals
• Define and describe the difference between ionic and covalent bonds; empirical formula,
molecular formula, and structural formula; octet rule; formula mass (a.k.a. molecular weight,
molecular mass) and molar mass; mass percent (mass percent composition).
• Describe the formation of an ionic compound from its elements.
• Describe the sharing of electrons in a covalent bond.
• Write the empirical formula, molecular formula, and structural formula for simple molecules.
• Identify and draw atoms with their valence electrons represented as dots (Lewis Structures).
• Explain that ionic compounds are composed of formula units and not discrete molecules
• Draw Lewis structures of ionic compounds containing main-group elements.
• Write formulas for ionic compounds using the charges of the ions and the principle of electrical
neutrality.
• Write names from formulas and formulas from names of ionic compounds.
• Identify and draw covalent compounds with single, double, and triple bonds between
constituent atoms.
• Write names from formulas and formulas from names of molecular compounds.
• Define and calculate the molar mass of a compound.
• Calculate and interconvert between mass, moles, and molecules of a compound.
• Calculate mass percent from a chemical formula.
• Use mass percent as a conversion factor.
• Use chemical formulas as conversion factors in mole calculations.
• Convert masses into moles and calculate mole ratios to determine empirical formulas.
• Determine empirical formulas from experimental data.
• Determine molecular formulas from empirical formulas and molecular masses.

Types of Chemical Bonds

• chemical bonds ______________.

Compounds are composed of atoms held together by ___________________

• Chemical bonds result from the attractions between the _____________

charged particles (the
electrons and protons) that compose atoms.

• Chemical bonds are classified into three types:

– Ionic
_______________________________

– Covalent
_______________________________

– Metallic
_______________________________

Ionic Bonds: Between a Metal Atom and Nonmetal Atom

• metal atom
Ionic bonds occur between __________________ and ________________________.
nonmetal atom

– transfer
They involve the ____________________ of electrons from one atom to another.
 Name: _______________________

• When a metal interacts with a nonmetal, it can transfer one or more of its electrons to the
nonmetal.
– The metal atom then becomes a ______________________.
cation

– The nonmetal atom becomes an ______________________.

anion

• Oppositely charged ions attract one another by electrostatic forces and form an ionic bond.

Covalent Bonds: Bonds between Nonmetal Atoms

• Covalent
_____________________ bonds occur between two or more _____________________.
nonmetals

– They involve the _____________________ of electrons between two atoms.

sharing
• When a nonmetal bonds with another nonmetal, neither atom transfers electrons to the other.
• Instead, the bonding atoms share some of their electrons.

• The covalently bound atoms compose a ____________________.

molecule

– Hence, they are referred to as _______________________

molecular compounds.
• Molecular compounds are composed of atoms covalently bonded to each other.

Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models

• formula
A compound is represented by its chemical ____________________.

• number
type
Chemical formula indicates the ____________ and _______________ of each element present
in the compound.

– Water is represented as H2O.

– Carbon dioxide is represented as CO2.

Types of Chemical Formulas

• Three Types of Chemical Formulas:

– Empirical
________________ formula: gives the relative number of atoms of each element in a
compound
• simplest whole-number ratio

– Molecular
________________ formula: gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a
molecule of a compound.
• For C4H8, the greatest common factor is 4. The empirical formula is CH2.

– Structural
___________________ formula: is a sketch or diagram of how the atoms in the
molecule are bonded to each other.
• shows how atoms in a molecule are connected or bonded to each other
 Name: _______________________

Example 4.1 Molecular and Empirical Formulas

Write the empirical formula for the compound represented by each molecular formula.

a. C4H8 b. B2H6 c. CCl4

CH2 BHz CC4

For Practice 4.1

Write the empirical formula for the compound represented by each molecular formula.

a. C5H12 b. Hg2Cl2 c. C2H4O2

CgH12 HgC Ch28

Conductivity of NaCl

• ______________
lonic ____________________ are composed of cations (metals) and anions
compounds
(nonmetals) bound together by ionic bonds.
• Examples of ionic compounds: NaBr, Al2(CO3)3, CaHPO4, and MgSO4

• formula unit____________, the smallest,

The basic unit of an ionic compound is the ________________
electrically neutral collection of ions (smallest whole-number ratio with the same number of +’s
and –’s)
– Example:
• The ionic compound table salt, with the formula unit NaCl, is composed of Na+
and Cl– ions in a one-to-one ratio.

Names and Formulas of Some Ionic Compounds

• charges
Formulas of ionic compounds are determined by the __________________of the ions.
– Charge on the cations must equal the charge on the anions. (Same # of +’s as –’s)

– The compound must be _____________________.

neutral
• NaCl sodium chloride (Na1+ & Cl1-)
• KOH potassium hydroxide (K1+ & OH1-)
• CaSO4 calcium sulfate (Ca2+ & SO42-)
• Al(OH)3 aluminum hydroxide (Al3+ & 3 OH1-)

Practice Writing Ionic Compound Formulas

Example 4.4 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds

Write the formula for the ionic compound that forms between calcium and oxygen.
2
cal
-

+
02 - Cab
 Name: _______________________

For Practice 4.4

Write the formula for the compound formed between aluminum and nitrogen.
Al3
+
NS => AN

Naming Ionic Compounds

• Ionic compounds can be categorized into two types, depending on the metal in the
compound.

• Metal whose charge is the same from

one compound to another. (Type I)

– Examples: Alkali (1+), Alkaline

earths (2+), Zinc (2+), Al (3+) &
Ag (1+).

• Metals that can vary in charge from one

compound to another. (Type II)

– Examples: Transition metals,

Inner Transition metals & p-block metals.

Naming Binary Ionic Compounds of Type I Cations

• _____________compounds
Ionic contain only two different
elements. The names of binary ionic compounds form:

– For example, the name for KCl consists of the name of the cation, potassium, followed
by the base name of the anion, chlor, with the ending -ide. KCl is potassium chloride.

– The name for CaO consists of the name of the cation, calcium, followed by the base
name of the anion, ox, with the ending -ide. CaO is calcium oxide.

Example 4.5 Naming Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation
Name the compound CaBr2.
Calcium Bromide

For Practice 4.5

Name the compound Ag3N.
Silver Nitride

For More Practice 4.5

Write the formula for rubidium sulfide.

RbS
 Name: _______________________

Multivalent Metals: Naming Type II Ionic Compounds

• The metals in this category tend to have ________________

multiple charges (i.e., multivalent cations):

• Their charge cannot be predicted as in the case of most representative elements and must be
noted in their name.

– Multivalent metals
• __________________
transition and inner transition metals
– Iron (Fe) forms a 2+ cation in some of its compounds and a
3+ cation in others.
• FeSO4: Here iron is a 2+ cation (Fe2+).
• Fe2(SO4)3: Here iron is a 3+ cation (Fe3+).

• p-block
Many of the ________________
.
metals
– Not all p-block metals are multivalent.
– Some main-group metals, such as Pb, Tl, and Sn, form more than one
type of cation.

Naming Type II Binary Ionic Compounds

• For these types of metals, the name of the cation is followed by a _________________
roman

numeral
____________________ (in parentheses) that indicates the charge of the metal in that
particular compound.
– For example, we distinguish between Cu2+ and Cu+ as follows:
• Cu2+ Copper(II)
• Cu+
Copper(I)

• The full names for compounds containing metals that form more than one kind of cation have
the following form:
• Cu2O Copper(I) oxide
• CuO Copper(II) oxide

Naming Type II Binary Ionic Compounds—Example: CrBr3

• To name CrBr3, determine the charge on the chromium.
• Total charge on cation + total anion charge = 0
• Cr charge + 3(Br– charge) = 0
• Since each Br has a –1 charge, then
– Cr charge + 3(–1) = 0
– Cr charge + (–3) = 0
– Cr = +3
• Hence, the cation Cr3+ is called chromium(III), and Br– is called bromide.
• The name for CrBr3 is chromium(III) bromide.
 Name: _______________________

Naming Type II Binary Ionic Compounds—Example: SnCl2

• To name SnCl2, determine the charge on the tin.

– Total charge on cation + total anion charge = 0
– Sn charge + 2(Cl– charge) = 0
– Since each Cl has a –1 charge, then
• Sn charge + 2(–1) = 0
• Sn charge + (–2) = 0
• Sn = +2
– Hence, the cation Sn2+ is called tin(II), and Cl– is called chloride.
• The name for SnCl2 is tin(II) chloride.

Example 4.6 Naming Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Cation
Name the compound PbCl4.
Lead(IV)
Chloride

For Practice 4.6

Name the compound FeS.
low (11) Sulfide

For More Practice 4.6

Write the formula for ruthenium(IV) oxide.

RuU2
 Name: _______________________

PART 2
Oxyanions

• Most polyatomic ions are _____________________, anions containing oxygen and another
oxyanions
element.

• Notice that when a series of oxyanions contains different numbers of oxygen atoms, the
oxyanions are named according to the __________________
number of oxygen atoms in the ion.

• If there are two ions in the series,

 the one with more oxygen atoms has the ending -ate; and
 the one with fewer has the ending -ite.

• For example,
 NO3– is nitrate SO42– is sulfate
 NO2– is nitrite SO32– is sulfite

• If there are more than two ions in the series, then the prefixes ______________,
hypo- meaning less
than, and ________________,
per- meaning more than, are used.

– ClO– hypochlorite BrO– hypobromite

– ClO2– chlorite BrO2– bromite
– ClO3– chlorate BrO3– bromate
– ClO4– perchlorate BrO4– perbromate

©Rhonda Coffelt, Ph.D.

 Quynh Phan
Name: _______________________

Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions

• Ionic compounds that contain a polyatomic ion rather than a simple anion (e.g., Cl–) are named
the same as binary ionic compounds, except that the name of the polyatomic ion is used.

– For example, NaNO2 is named according to

– its cation, Na+, sodium; and
• its polyatomic anion, NO2–, nitrite.
• Hence, NaNO2 is sodium nitrite.

Example 4.7 Naming Ionic Compounds That Contain a Polyatomic Ion

Name the compound Li2Cr2O7.
Lithium Chromate

For Practice 4.7

Name the compound Sn(ClO3)2.
fin (11) Chlorate

For More Practice 4.7

Write the formula for cobalt(II) phosphate.

cy(04) a
 Name: _______________________

Hydrated Ionic Compounds

• Hydrates
___________________ are ionic compounds containing a specific number of water molecules
associated with each formula unit.

– For example, the formula for epsom salts is MgSO4 2O.

– Its systematic name is magnesium sulfate heptahydrate.

– Another example: CoCl2 2O is cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate.

Common hydrate prefixes

• hemi = ½
• mono = 1
• di = 2
• tri = 3
• tetra = 4
• penta = 5
• hexa = 6
• hepta = 7
• octa = 8

Example: Writing Formulas and Naming Hydrated Ionic Compounds

a) Write the formula for: barium chloride hexahydrate.
Bally THe O
.

b) Write the name for: CaSO4 2O

Calcium Sulfate hemihydrogen

For Practice Writing Formulas for Hydrated Ionic Compounds

Write the formula for chromium (VI) phosphate heptahydrate.

C(p0q) THO .

For More Practice Naming Hydrated Ionic Compounds

Write the name for Co(NO3)2 4H2O
Cobalt nitrate tetrahydrate

Covalent Bonding: Bonding and Lone Pair Electrons

•
bonding
Electrons that are shared by atoms are called __________________ ______________.
pairs
• Electrons that are not shared by atoms but belong to a particular atom are called
lone
_________________
nobonding
pairs. (also known as __________________________ pairs.
 Name: _______________________

Single Covalent Bonds

• single
When two atoms share one pair of electrons, the result is called a ________________ covalent
bond. (two electrons)

• One atom may use more than one single bond to fulfill
its octet.
– To different atoms
– H only duet

Double Covalent Bond (PCONS)

double
• When two atoms share two pairs of electrons, the result is called a ________________ covalent
bond. (four electrons between the two atoms)
– Example: O2
• Elements that can double-bond with each other and
themselves are C, N, O, S, and P. (_____________)
PCONS

Triple Covalent Bond (CONS)

triple
• When two atoms share three pairs of electrons, the result is called a _______________ covalent
bond. (six electrons between the two atoms)
• Example: N2
• Elements that can triple-bond with each other and themselves are C, N, O, and S. (__________)
CONS

Covalent Bonding: Model versus Reality

• Lewis theory
– implies that some combinations should be stable, whereas others should not.
• Stable combinations result in “octets.”

• Allows us to predict the formulas of molecules of covalently bonded substances.

– diatomic
Hydrogen and the halogens are all __________________ molecular elements, as
predicted by Lewis theory.
– Oxygen generally forms either two single bonds or a double bond in its molecular
compounds.
• There are some stable compounds in which oxygen has one single bond and
another in which it has a triple bond, but it still has an octet.

Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names

• The formula for a molecular compound cannot readily be determined from its constituent
elements because the same combination of elements may form many different molecular
compounds, each with a different formula.
– Nitrogen and oxygen form all of the following unique molecular compounds:
NO, NO2, N2O, N2O3, N2O4, and N2O5.
 Name: _______________________

Molecular Compounds

• nonmetals
Molecular compounds are composed of two or more _____________________.

• Names of Molecular Compounds:

– Write the name of the element with the smallest group number first.
– If the two elements lie in the same group, then write the element with the greatest row
number first.
– The prefixes given to each element indicate the number of atoms present.

Binary Molecular Compounds

• These prefixes are the same as those used in naming hydrates:

mono = 1 hexa = 6
di = 2 hepta = 7
tri = 3 octa = 8
tetra = 4 nona = 9
penta = 5 deca = 10

• If there is only one atom of the first element in the formula, the prefix mono- is normally
omitted.

Example 4.8 Naming Molecular Compounds

Name each compound.

a. NI3 nitrogen triiodide

b. PCl5 phosphorus penta cloride

decoxide
c. P4S10 tetra phosphorus

For Practice 4.8

Name the compound N2O5.
dinitrogen pentoxide

For More Practice 4.8

Write the formula for phosphorus tribromide.
PBr3
 Name: _______________________

PART 3
Formula Mass/Molecular Mass of a Compound

• Molecular Mass:

– formula
The mass of an individual molecule or _______________ unit
___________ is known as
molecular mass or molecular weight of the compound.

– It is the mass of ________

one ___________
mole of that compound.

• Determining a Compound’s Molecular Mass:

– Sum of the masses of the atoms in a single molecule or formula unit

– Example: What is the molecular mass of water (H2O)?
2(1.01 amu H) + 16.00 amu O = 18.02 amu

One mole of water has a molecular mass of 18.02 grams.

Example 4.9 Calculating Formula Mass

Calculate the formula mass of glucose, C6H12O6.
C 6 x 12 01 .
= 72 06 .

H12 x 1 .
008 = 12 10
.

.0 gimd
196
06 x 16 00 .
=

6
 Name: _______________________

For Practice 4.9

Calculate the formula mass of calcium nitrate. Ca(Noy)2
Ca 1 x 40 08.
= 40 08
.

↑ 2 x 14 01.
= 28 02.

6x16
60
0 .
00 -

Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing

• Molar mass in combination with Avogadro’s number can be used to determine the number of
atoms in a given mass of the element.
– Use molar mass to convert to the amount in moles. Then use Avogadro’s number to
convert to number of molecules.

Example 4.10 The Mole Concept—Converting between Mass and Number of Molecules
An aspirin tablet contains 325 mg of acetylsalicylic acid (C9H8O4). How many acetylsalicylic acid
molecules does it contain?
(9 x 12 01) + 8(1 008) + (16 00x4) 180 17 g/mol)
.
.

.
= .

325mg xngy x1023moles a

1 . 09x102 molecules
For Practice 4.10
Find the number of ibuprofen molecules in a tablet containing 200.0 mg of ibuprofen (C13H18O2).
By (12 01) + 18(1 008) + ↑(16 00)
.
206 31g
.
. = .

xode
Omg x0mgmot
a
200 .

1mo)

= 3 .
838x1020 molecules

For More Practice 4.10

What is the mass of a sample of water containing 3.55 × 1022 H2O molecules?
1 . 008 x2 + 16 00 = .
18
.

02g .

5 515x102 molecules +
Imof
.

6
. 022x1023molecules

= 1 06
.
g
 Name: _______________________

Composition of Compounds

• chemical
A __________________ formula
_____________________, in combination with the molar masses of its
constituent elements, indicates the relative quantities of each element in a compound.

• The percentage of each element in a compound can be determined from

formula
1. the _______________ of the compound; and

2. the experimental _________________

mass analysis of the compound.

• The percentages may not always total to 100% due to rounding.

Example 4.11 Mass Percent Composition

Calculate the mass percent of Cl in Freon-112 (C2Cl4F2), a CFC refrigerant.
CGx 12 01 24 02

=
. = .

% C x0
214 x 39 45 .
= 141 8 .

,,
0 0580
2 19
69 60 % I
- x .

mol

For Practice 4.11

Acetic acid (C2H4O2) is the active ingredient in vinegar. Calculate the mass percent composition of
oxygen in acetic acid.
c

44
2 x 12 01

x
24 02
1 01
.

.
%
=

= 4 04.
.
x0
000
53 28 % 8
0e
00132
0 2x16 .
%

= .

For More Practice 4.11

Calculate the mass percent composition of sodium in sodium oxide. Nay f
Na 2 x 22 99 45 98
Na
,x
1600
. = .

O 1x16 00 .

= 74 19 % Na
.
 Name: _______________________

Conversion Factors from Chemical Formula

• Chemical formulas contain within them inherent relationships between numbers of atoms and
molecules. (Or moles of atoms and molecules)

• These relationships can be used to determine the amounts of constituent elements and
molecules. (such as % composition)

Example 4.12 Using Mass Percent Composition as a Conversion Factor

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that a person consume less than 2.4 g of
sodium per day. What mass of sodium chloride (in grams) can you consume and still be within the FDA
guidelines? Sodium chloride is 39% sodium by mass.
Given
: Nall is

>
-
39 % Na by mass
NaCl = 39gHa
100g

2 .

4gNaxgNa =
16 .

2gNA

For Practice 4.12

What mass (in grams) of iron(III) oxide contains 58.7 g of iron? Iron(III) oxide is 69.94% iron by mass.

Mos
Fe
7g
. 94
Given 58 .

xgFeo 99 Fs 83
58 . Tgfe =
.

For More Practice 4.12

If someone consumes 22 g of sodium chloride per day, what mass (in grams) of sodium does that person
consume? Sodium chloride is 39% sodium by mass.

22g Nalex
Egg Hac
= 8 .
6g Ha
 Name: _______________________

Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data

• Empirical Formula:

• Simplest
__________________ whole-number ratio of the atoms of elements in a compound

• element
Can be determined from _________________ analysis
– Masses of elements formed when a compound is decomposed, or that react together to
form a compound

• Combustion
________________________ analysis

– Percent composition
• Note: An empirical formula represents a ratio of atoms or a ratio of moles of atoms, not
a ratio of masses.

Finding an Empirical Formula

1. Convert the percentages to grams.

a) If not given, assume you start with 100 g of the compound.
b) Example: 24.5% C means 24.5 g C.

2. Convert mass (grams) to moles.

a) Use molar mass of each element.
b) Example: 24.5 g C × (1 mol C/12.01 grams) = 2.04 mol C

3. Divide all by the smallest number of moles to obtain the atom-to-atom ratio for each of the
elements in the compound.
a) If the result is within 0.1 of a whole number, round to the whole number.

4. Multiply all mole ratios by a number to make all whole numbers.

a) If ratio is .5, multiply all by 2; if the ratio is .33 or .67, multiply all by 3; and so on.
b) Skip if already whole numbers.
 Name: _______________________

Example 4.14 Obtaining an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data

A compound containing nitrogen and oxygen is decomposed in the laboratory and produces 24.5 g
nitrogen and 70.0 g oxygen. Find the empirical formula of the compound.

Given : 24 .
5gN 70 0gO .
C4 .

Mo == 1x
5gNx >
-
NOs

0g0xmol = 2 Ex2
70
.

For Practice 4.14

A sample of a compound is decomposed in the laboratory and produces 165 g carbon, 27.8 g hydrogen,
and 220.2 g oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.

102
Example 4.15 Obtaining an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data
A laboratory analysis of aspirin determined the following mass percent composition:
C 60.00% H 4.48% O 35.52%
Find the empirical formula of aspirin. Assum 100g

600gmA 2 .
220
Conso

x/molmo0
33 5290 x
.

For Practice 4.15

Ibuprofen has the following mass percent composition: C 75.69%, H 8.80%, O 15.51%.
What is the empirical formula of ibuprofen? Assume 100 g

x=
75 .

699C 6 5 x
=
.

800gx
=
1 in a
 Quynh Phan
Name: _______________________

From Empirical to Molecular Formulas for Compounds

• molecular
The _______________________ formula is a multiple of the empirical formula.

– actual
It is the ______________________ formula of the compound.
– Knowing the molecular formula, you can determine the molecular mass of the
compound.

• To determine the molecular formula, you need to know the empirical formula and the molar
mass of the compound.

• Molecular formula = (empirical formula)n, where n is a positive integer.

Molecular Formulas for Compounds

• molar
The ________________ mass is a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula molar mass,
the sum of the masses of all the atoms in the empirical formula:

Example 4.16 Calculating a Molecular Formula from an Empirical Formula and Molar Mass
Butanedione—a main component responsible for the smell and taste of butter and cheese—contains
the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The empirical formula of butanedione is C2H3O, and its
molar mass is 86.09 g/mol. Find its molecular formula.
C
M
=

:
2 x 12

3 x 1 01.
. 01 =

=
24 02
3 03.
.

=09
160/mul
00
0 : 1x16 .

CaH6P2
.

For Practice 4.16

A compound has the empirical formula CH and a molar mass of 78.11 g/mol. What is its molecular
formula?
C 1:

H : 1 x 1 01 =
x 12 .

.
01 = 12 0
1 .
.

01
n
=go,
6
-

13 029
glmo
=
.

C6H6

For More Practice 4.16

A compound with the percent composition shown here has a molar mass of 60.10 g/mol. Determine its
molecular formula. C, 39.97% H, 13.41% N, 46.62%

·
CN .