ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

The GE Environmental Science is designed to show connections among variety of scientific discipline
including:

• Biology • Chemistry • Earth and Science

INTERRELATIONSHIP AMONG COMPONENTS

Mutualism-association between organisms of two different species in which each benefits.

Commensalism- a relationship between individuals of two species in which one species obtains food or
other benefits from the other without either harming or benefiting the latter.

Parasitism- a relationship between the two living species in which one organism is benefitted at the
expense of the other.

Predation-an interspecific interaction in which an individual of one animal species kills an individual of
another species for dietary use.

Prototypes-the ancestral or primitive form of a species or other group; an archetype.

Herbivores-an animal that mainly eats plants.

Carnivores- an organism that mostly eats meat, or the flesh of animals.

Omnivore- an animal that eats both plants and animals for their main food. Organism- a living thing that
can function on its own.

Organ system- a group of organs that work together in the body to perform a complex function, such as
pumping blood or processing and utilizing nutrients.

ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE

Ecology- (from Greek: oikos “household”; and logos, “knowledge”) is the study of the relationships
between organisms and their environment.

5 Levels of Ecological Organization (smallest to largest)

Organism- It is the lowest level of organization, which includes both unicellular and multicellular
organisms. All the living species in this level exhibit all the characteristics required for the existence of
life.

Population- A population is a group of individuals of a single species living together within a particular
geographic area. They interbreed and compete with each other for resources. (group of organism)

Community- It refers to the several populations that interact and inhabit a common environment and
are interdependent. (group of population)
Ecosystem-It is a set of all living species and abiotic components existing and interacting in a given area.
There is an interaction with both living and non-living components of the environment.(combination of
all biotic and abiotic factors)

Biosphere-It is the highest level of organization. It is the global ecological system which consists of all
the living organisms and other factors which support life. The biosphere mainly refers to the part of the
earth’s crust.

Example of Ecology Levels of Organization

Atom- Molecules- cells- Tissue- Organ- Organ System- Organism- Population- Community- Ecosystem-
Biomes- Biosphere

Biotic and Abiotic Factors

Biotic factors are living things within an ecosystem; such as plants, animals, and bacteria, while Abiotic
are non-living components; such as water, soil and atmosphere. The way these components interact is
critical in an ecosystem

Energy Flow

The chemical energy of food is the main source of energy required by all living organisms. This energy is
transmitted to different trophic levels along the food chain. This energy flow is based on two different
laws of thermodynamics:

 First law of thermodynamics, that states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only
change from one form to another.

 Second law of thermodynamics, that states that as energy is transferred more and more of it is
wasted.

Most of the sun’s radiation that falls on the earth is usually reflected back into space by the earth’s
atmosphere. This effective radiation is termed as the Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR).

Trophic level

The producers and consumers in the ecosystem can be arranged into different feeding groups and are
known as trophic level or the feeding level.

1. The producers (plants) represent the first trophic level.

2. Herbivores (primary consumers) present the second trophic level.

3. Primary carnivores (secondary consumers) represent the third trophic level.

4. Top carnivores (tertiary consumers) represent the last level.

FOOD WEB- a complex network of interconnecting and overlapping food chains showing feeding
relationships within a community.

FOOD CHAIN- a series of organisms that eat one another so that energy and nutrients flow from one to
the next.

Grazing food chain (GFC) – This is the normal food chain that we observe in which plants are the
producers and the energy flows from the producers to the herbivores (primary consumers), then to
carnivores (secondary consumers) and so on.

Saprophytic or Detritus food chain (DFC) – In this type of food chain, the dead organic matter occupies
the lowermost level of the food chain, followed by the decomposers and so on.

Parasitic food chain (PFC) – In this type of food chain, large organisms either the producer or the
consumer is exploited and therefore the food passes to the smaller organism.

Ecological Pyramid

An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between the different living
organisms at different trophic levels. Charles Elton developed the concept of the Pyramid of Numbers.
Later, G.Evylen Hutchinson and Raymond Lindeman developed the idea of the Pyramid of Energy or
Productivity. Phyramid of Biomass

NUTRIENT CYCLES ( Bacomo)

• The nutrient cycle is a system where energy and matter are transferred between living organisms and
non-living parts of the environment. This occurs as animals and plants consume nutrients found in the
soil, and these nutrients are then released back into the environment via death and decomposition.

What are the Essential Nutrients?

• Non-mineral elements make up 95% of the mass of all living organisms

• The non-mineral elements are Carbon ©, Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O)

• These nutrients are often obtained from carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air and water (H2O)

HABITAT AND NICHE

• Habitat – can be referred to as a home. This is a home that is a natural environment in which an
animal, plant, or other organism lives; it has features that support survival and reproduction of the
species that live there..

• Niche – In ecology, the term “niche” describes the role an organism plays in a community. A species’
niche encompasses both the physical and environmental conditions it requires (like temperature or
terrain) and the interactions it has with other species (like predation or competition).
SUCCESSION

• Primary succession -is the process of ecological succession that occurs in areas where there was no
previous soil or vegetation.

• Secondary succession – occurs in areas where there was previous soil and vegetation, but the area has
been disturbed or disrupted.

BIODIVERSITY

• Biodiversity can be defined as the “variety of life in our natural world” and is measured as the number
of different species—including plants, animals, fungi, algae, and even microorganisms, like bacteria—
that share a certain home region. Biodiversity is a key indicator of the health of an ecosystem.

Why is biodiversity important?

• Thriving biodiversity is necessary for healthy ecosystems, without which we wouldn’t have a secure
food supply, clean water, essential medicines, or, ultimately, a habitable climate.

Types of Biodiversity

• Genetic Diversity • Functional Diversity • Species Diversity • Ecosystem Diversity

Threats to Biodiversity

• Habitat Loss • Pollution and Toxic Chemicals • Wildlife Trafficking and Trade • Climate Change

HUMAN IMPACT

• Humans impact the physical environment in many ways: overpopulation, pollution, burning fossil
fuels, and deforestation. Changes like these have triggered climate change, soil erosion, poor air quality,
and undrinkable water.

THE SEVEN INVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLES ( Alarcon & Babaison)

1.Nature knows best This is the most basic principle of all the principles featured in this blog. We
humans have to understand nature and follow its rules, because if we want to ensure a continuous and
steady supply of resources, one must not go against natural processes.

2.All forms of life are important

Each organism plays a fundamental role in nature. It is easy to appreciate the beautiful organisms like
butterflies, especially if one knows their important role in pollination. The giant ones like elephants, the
whales, the alligators – are the ones we respect mixed with fear or wonder and the products they
produce.

3.Everything is connected to everything else

In an ecosystem, all biotic and abiotic components interact with each other to ensure that the system is
sustained. Any intrusion from outside may cause an imbalance and collapsing of the system.

4.) Everything changes

The environment is constantly changing. Organisms also develop through time. However, with our
current technology, we have affected these natural changes that these changes now causes problematic
events to us. Humans should rethink their relationship with the environment. Because what we believe
that is beneficial to the environment often turn out to be catastrophic.

5.) Everything must go somewhere

Everything ends up elsewhere. It doesn’t just disappear. For example, if you throw a piece of candy
wrapper away, it disappears from sight but does not cease to exist. It ends up elsewhere..

6.) Ours is a finite earth

Earth’s resources can be classified as either renewable or non-renewable. Renewable resources are
those that can be easily replenished by natural cycles (e.g. water, air, plants, animals) while non-
renewable resources are those that cannot be replenished through natural cycles.

7.) Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God’s creation

Among all creatures, humans are the only ones made in God’s image and have been given the right to
have dominion over all His creations. Humans cannot exist without nature. They are co-natural with the
environment they live in. If the environment they live in is destroyed, with it will go Homo Sapiens.

NATURE AND ORGANIZATION OF MATTER (kuya Jay)

the nature of matter falls into three categories or the two common states/ states of matter:

Solids: The substances in which the particles are held close to each other with strong intermolecular
forces are known as solids. The particles are strongly held at their positions and have only vibratory
motion. Solids have a definite shape and definite volume. E.g., Wood, iron, etc.

Liquids: Those substances in which the inter molecular forces are weak enough to allow the movement
of particles are known as liquids. The particles are held closely and have a higher degree of freedom
than solids. Liquids have a definite volume but no definite shape; they generally take the shape of the
container in which they are placed. E.g.: water, milk, etc.

Gases: These types of matter have very weak forces between their molecules and hence the molecules
are free to move. The distance between molecules is large as compared to solids and liquids. Gases have
neither a fixed shape nor a definite volume. They tend to completely occupy the container in which they
are placed. E.g. air, oxygen, hydrogen, methane, etc.

Fundamentally, matter is composed of elementary particles called quarks and leptons, both of which are
considered elementary particles in that they aren't made up of smaller units of matter. Quarks -- groups
of subatomic particles that interact by means of a strong force -- combine into protons and neutrons.
Leptons -- groups of subatomic particles that respond to weaker forces -- belong to a class of elementary
particles that includes electrons.

-Atoms are the building blocks of matter. A combination of atoms forms a molecule

PROTONS, ELECTRONS, AND NEUTRONS IN MATTER

-All matter consists of atoms, which, in turn, consist of protons, neutrons and electrons. Both protons
and neutrons are located in the nucleus, which is at the center of an atom. Protons are positively
charged particles, while neutrons are neutrally charged. Electrons are negatively charged, and they exist
in orbitals surrounding the nucleus.

OTHER STATES OF MATTER

Plasma

A plasma, first identified in 1879, consists of highly charged particles with high kinetic energy. Typically,
plasma's are gases that are ionized at high temperatures. Examples of these gases include helium, neon,
argon, krypton, xenon and radon -- all of which are noble gases and can be ionized into the plasma state.

CHANGING STATES OF MATTER

Matter can be changed from one state to another by changing it physically or chemically. The following
are the important processes that facilitate changes in states of matter.

Melting - occurs when heat is applied to a solid

Freezing -occurs when heat is removed from the liquid, causing its particles to slow down and settle in
one location. When the liquid reaches a specific temperature known as its freezing point, it transforms
into a solid.

Sublimation

Sublimation is a process in which a solid is converted directly into a gas, without going through the liquid
phase. It is achieved by either increasing the temperature of the substance beyond the boiling point or
by freeze-drying it by cooling it under vacuum conditions.

Vaporization

Vaporization is the process of converting a liquid to a gas, either by evaporation or boiling. Since the
liquid particles constantly collide with each other, energy is transferred to particles near the surface. The
temperature and pressure conditions under which a liquid becomes a gas is known as its boiling point.

Condensation
Condensation happens when a gas is transformed into a liquid. For instance, when water vapor -- a gas
-- reaches its dew point, it condenses into liquid water called dew.

Deposition

Deposition is a process where a gas gets transformed directly into a solid, without going through the
liquid phase

THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE (Besande)

Cell are the fundamental units of all living things

What is a cell?

-The basic unit of life.

-comes from the latin word “cellula” means small room.

Who discovered the cell? -Robert Hooke (1635–1703) when he looked at cork with a simple microscope
and found what appeared to be blocks of material making up the cork.

Components of a Cell

1. Nucleus 2. Ribosomes 3. Plasma membrane 4. Endoplasmic reticulum 5. Golgi apparatus

6. Lysosome 7. Mitochondria 8. Chloroplast 9. Vacuole 10. Vesicles 11. Cell wall
12. Cytoplasm 13. Cytosol

Types of Cell

1.Prokaryotic cells (e.g., Bacteria)

2.Eukaryotic Cells (e.g., animal and plant cells)

Specialized Cells

-Examples of specialized animal cells

Red blood cells , Sperm cells , Egg cell , Nerve cells , Muscle cells

-Examples of specialized plant cells

1.Palisade Cell ,2.Spongy Mesophyll Cell, 3. Guard Cell , 4.Xylem Cell ,5. Phloem Cell, 6.Root Hair Cell.

LITHOSPHERE (Elen & Erika)

-Is the outmost rocky surface of earth

- Comprises the upper part of earth’s mantle and its brittle crust , coolest portion on the earth surface
-“litho” means “stone” while “sphere” means “globe or ball”

Types of lithosphere

*Continental Lithosphere – The lithosphere layer present on land is known as continental

lithosphere. This type encompasses all of the continents and areas designated above sea level.
Continental lithosphere comes into direct contact with the atmosphere.
*Oceanic Lithosphere – The portion of the upper mantle and crust present underneath the ocean
and seas is termed as oceanic lithosphere. Oceanic lithosphere also tends to be denser than its
counterpart.
Lithosphere composition
The earth’s crust is not a homogeneous substance; it has different layers of rocks including
sedimentary rocks on top, granitic and metamorphic rocks in the middle and basaltic rocks on the
bottom.

Types of rocks

*Igneous rocks -
*Sedimentary rocks -
*Metamorphic rocks –

3 LAYERS OF EARTH

*Crust-

*Mantle-

*Core-

Minerals and Rocks:

Minerals - are naturally occurring inorganic crystalline substances with physical and chemical properties
within prescribed limits.

Rocks - are aggregates of a mineral or minerals.

Soil - it is a shallow body of material formed on the surface of the land. It is the habitat of
microorganisms and burrowing animals. Moreover it supplies materials to indwelling members of biota.

Weathering of Rocks - There are three kinds of soil forming rocks viz. igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks. Soil formation results from its disintegration or weathering of parent rock by
physical, chemical or biological agents. As a result, small particles called regoliths are formed. Regoliths
under the influence of other pedogenic processes finally develop into mature soil.

(a) Physical Weathering - when climatic agents such as temperature, water, ice and gravity change the
rocks in regoliths but do not cause any chemical transformation of rocks, the process is called as
 physical weathering. It occurs in deserts, at high altitudes and latitudes specially at places where
sparse vegetation grow over the rocks.
(b) Chemical Weathering – chemical transformation of parent mineral occurs to form new mineral
complexes. Water is the most potent weathering agent. Soluble rocks like gypsum, lime stone and
those with a calcareous content gets weathered by the solvent action of water.
(c) Biological Weathering - certain organisms like bacteria, protozoans, fungi and nemetodes as well as
lichens and mosses colonize the rocks and transfer it into a dynamic system storing energy and
synthesizing organic material. Their activities change the physical structure of the rock.

Soil consists of these major components

Components of soil:

The four major components of soil are shown: inorganic minerals, organic matter, water, and air.

 inorganic mineral matter, about 40 to 45 percent of the soil volume

 organic matter, about 5 percent of the soil volume
 water, about 25 percent of the soil volume
 air, about 25 percent of the soil volume

Biota of the Soil: The organic matter of the soil supports a complex micro flora and fauna and often a
complex biota of higher communities.

These can be classified as follows:

1. Microflora: It includes bacteria, soil fungi and algae. Soil bacteria grows fairly well in neutral soil
whereas soil fungi and fauna in acidic soils. Symbiotic fungi live on the roots of plants whereas
fungi depend on the dead organic matter of the soil.
2. Microfauna: Protozoa, rotifers, mites, nematodes, copepods collectively constitute the micro-
fauna. The size of these animals varies from 20µ to 200µ. Protozoans like amoeba, ciliates and
flagellates occur near the surface soil.
3. Mesofauna: The animals ranging in size from 200 µ to 1 cm. constitute mesofauna. Among
insects, collembola is the main soil insect. Among the Hymenoptera, ants are the most
important soil dwelling animals. Mites flourish in moist organic soil.
4. Macroflora: Soil supports a wide variety of plants like herbs, shrubs and trees. Plants growing
on acidic soils are called as oxylophytes. Those growing on saline soils are called Halophytes.
The plants growing on sand are called as Psammophytes. Plants that grow on rock surfaces are
called lithophytes whereas those which grow on rock cervices are called as charmophytes.

Interaction of Hydrosphere to other spheres (Lithosphere, Atmosphere, Biosphere)( Kristel )

DNA AND HEREDITY

DNA is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms.

Heredity- the sum of all biological processes by which particular characteristics are transmitted from
parents to their offspring.

DNA-Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is the molecule that carries genetic information for the
development and functioning of an organism.

HYDROSPHERE-discontinuous layer of water at or near Earth’s surface.

Evaporation-the process that changes liquid water to gaseous water (water vapor).

Transpiration -the process by which plants give off water vapor through the stomata in their leaves.

Condensation- a process by which a substance changes from a gaseous state to a liquid state.

Precipitation-is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail

Run-off- occurs when there is more water than land can absorb.

DIVERSITY –A measure of the range and distribution of specific features within a population is crucial for
understanding its diversity.

DOMINANCE- A trait that occurs more frequently than another is influenced by interactions between
gene alleles.

THE ATMOSPHERE

Composition of the Atmosphere

Gases of Atmosphere

Carbon Dioxide- a colorless and non-flammable gas at normal temperature and pressure.

Troposphere-is the lowest layer of the Earth’s atmosphere in direct contact with the Earth’s surface.

Stratosphere- is the second-lowest layer of the atmosphere of Earth, located above the troposphere
and below the mesosphere.

Ozone Gas- The ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs a portion of the radiation from the sun,
preventing it from reaching the planet’s surface.

Water Vapor- water in a gaseous form especially when below boiling temperature and spread through
the atmosphere.

Mesosphere- plays a vital role in protecting us from incoming space debris by causing most meteors to
disintegrated upon entry.
Thermosphere- important for various reasons, including it’s role in helping satellite to keep in orbit.

Dust Particle- are generally found in the lower layer of the atmosphere.

Structure of the Atmosphere

The structure is compromised of layers based on temperature. These layers are the troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.

Exosphere – marks the boundary between our planet and the vastness of space.

THE DYNAMIC BIOLOGICAL POPULATION

Population- refers to the total number of Inhabitant.

Dynamic- is the study of interaction between natural system and human activity.

Internal factors

• High death rate • High birth rates • Immigration rate • Emigration rate

External Conditions

• Environmental change • Human activities

10 FACTORS OF IMMIGRATION

• Economic Opportunities • Education • Safety and Security • Family Reunification • Healthcare Access •
Political Stability • Environmental Factors • Social Factors • Overpopulation • Lifestyle Preferences

5 FACTORS OF HIGH BIRTH RATE

• Child Marriage • Lack of Education • Cultural Norms • Infant Mortality Rates • Limited Access to
Family Planning

5 FACTORS OF DEATH RATE

• Chronic Diseases • Infectious Diseases • Accidents • Economic Factors • Aging Population

BACTERIA CAUSING RED TIDE

Is caused by microscopic organisms in the plankton, the drifting or weakly swimming sea life, that are
the foundation of the ocean food chain. Specifically, DINOFLAGELLATES, a microscopic marine life form
with two long slender appendages, are the organisms responsible for red tide.

VOLCANO ERUPTION

Is the expulsion of gases, rock fragments, and/or molten lava from within the Earth through a vent onto
the Earth’s surface or into the atmosphere
VOLCANO ERROSION

The movement of gas, magma, and pyroclasts in a volcanic conduit causes erosion of its walls through
mechanisms such as the impact of pyroclasts, fluid shear stress, wall collapse, and volcanic tremors.

PANGEA

Pangaea was a supercontinent that existed approximately 335 to 175 million years ago, incorporating
nearly all of Earth’s landmasses into a single landmass surrounded by the ocean Panthalassa

BIOMES- refers to distinctive natural region on Earth’s with it’s own specific climate, geography, and
inhabitants.

FACTORS SHAPING BIOMES

Climate: Temperature and precipitation are crucial, determining vegetation types and animal
adaptations

Soil: Soil composition and health affect plant growth and biodiversity within biomes

Geographic Features: Latitude, elevation, and landforms influence local climate conditions, impacting
biome distribution

Human Activity: Urbanization, agriculture, and climate change can alter natural biomes significantly

INVASIVE SPECIES

Invasive species are non-native organisms that significantly disrupt ecosystems, leading to various
ecological and economic impacts

7 CONTINENTS

• Africa • Antarctica • Asia • Australia • Europe • North America • South America