Journal of Advanced Mechanical Design, Vol. 4, No.

5, 2010

Systems, and
Manufacturing
Pre-Deformation-Assisted Cryogenic
Micromachining for Fabrication of
Three-dimensional Unique Micro Channels*
Koji MISHIMA**, Yasuhiro KAKINUMA*** and Tojiro AOYAMA***
**School of Integrated Design Engineering, Keio University,
3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Kohoku-ku, Yokohama, 223-8522, Japan
E-mail:[email protected]
*** Department of System Design Engineering, Keio University,

Abstract
Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is difficult to machine by conventional cutting
process because of its low elasticity and high adhesion. We proposed the cryogenic
micromachining method assisted by liquid nitrogen cooling for direct fabrication of
3D micro channels on PDMS substrate in short time. In this paper, the cryogenic
cutting mechanism is clarified through some verification experiments. Moreover,
Pre-Deformation-assisted Cryogenic Micromachining (PDCM) method is also
proposed for fabricating the unique shapes of channels and its validity is evaluated
experimentally. The results of cutting tests show that 3D unique micro channels can
be processed precisely and rapidly on PDMS.

Key words: PDMS, Microfluidic Chip, μ-TAS, Cryogenic Micromachining, 3D

Shaped Channel

1. Introduction
The research and development of μ-TAS (micro total analysis system), which is applied
to the biochemical analysis on a microfluidic chip has progressed rapidly in the biochemical
engineering and micro fluidics[1-3]. This system offers to reduce reagent consumption,
increase sensitivity and speedup of the analysis. A microfluidic chip, which is fabricated
mainly of biocompatible soft polymer resin such as PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane)[4],
consists of micro channels and reaction spaces. The pattern of micro channels on PDMS is
usually processed through the photolithography and micro molding process since it is
suitable for mass production. However, the photolithographic method requires both multi
chemical and mechanical processes, and resultant long process time even if one chip is
fabricated. In addition, there are restrictions to fabricate shapes in their techniques.
Nowadays customization of multifunctional chips integrated with various shapes of 3D
channels has been required and development of its direct process without a mold is
expected. In general, elastic polymer material such as PDMS is difficult to machine
precisely by conventional cutting process because of its low elasticity and high adhesion.
Therefore, our research group has proposed the cryogenic micromachining method assisted
by liquid nitrogen cooling as the direct process method for fabrication of customized chip
[5] as shown in Figure 1. We confirmed that the various 3D micro channels can be directly
and precisely formed on PDMS in a short production time. However, the cutting mechanism
*Received 15 Feb., 2010 (No. 10-0077)
[DOI: 10.1299/jamdsm.4.936] of cryogenic micromachining has not yet been investigated sufficiently and minutely.
Copyright © 2010 by JSME In this study, the cryogenic cutting mechanism for PDMS is analyzed from the

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viewpoint of material property change and the cutting performance around glass transition
temperature Tg of 150 K. Moreover, Pre-Deformation-assisted Cryogenic Micromachining
(PDCM) method for fabricating the unique micro channels easily is proposed in milling and
drilling process and its validity is verified experimentally.

Micro end mill

PDMS
Cutting space
filled with LN2

Figure 1: Direct process method for fabricating of customized chip

2. Experimental Setup
The special jig for cryogenic-cooling, which is possible to mount on the machine tool
table of NVD 1500 produced by Mori Seiki, is designed and developed. The jig consists of
the liquid nitrogen reservoir and the workpiece holder stage placed at the center of the
reservoir. PDMS is set on the worikpiece holder. When liquid nitrogen is supplied into the
chamber repeatedly, PDMS is cooled down from room temperature to less than Tg and
finally dipped into liquid nitrogen. After the temperature of PDMS is settled down around
boiling point of liquid nitrogen i.e. 77K, the liquid nitrogen is supplied to the chamber at
regular intervals. To prevent the machining center from freezing, the water circulation
system is incorporated between the jig and machine tool table.

3. Analysis of Cryogenic Cutting Mechanism for Soft Polymer Materials

3.1 Cryogenic Micromachining Theory
PDMS is difficult to machine precisely because of elastic and adhesive material at room
temperature. To enable us to machine soft polymer, one of the following two processes is
generally adopted. One is the high speed cutting process [6]. The other is the
cooling-assisted process. The concept of both methods is based on making an apparent
stiffness higher. However, in micro milling and drilling, it is difficult to apply the high
speed cutting process because tool radius is too small to obtain high cutting speed.
Meanwhile, cooling process is suitable for micro milling and drilling of soft polymer. Soft
polymer materials have glass transition temperature Tg, which depends on the main chain
structure of polymer. Just below Tg, the polymer changes from a rubbery state to glassy state
and the stiffness remarkably increases. Also, it is expected that the adhesion of polymer
disappears because motion of molecules is suppressed. The glass transition temperature of
PDMS is 150K, which is lower than any other polymer materials. Based on these
phenomena, we proposed the cryogenic micro machining process to machine the elastic
polymer below Tg. Figure 2 shows the concept of cryogenic micromachining. Since
microfluidic chips require high quality of machined surface, especially high transparency,
ductile mode cutting is applied adjusting the depth of cut[7].

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Rubbery state Glassy state feed

feed

Tool Tool
Elastic Depth of cut for
deformation ductile cutting mode

Scratched surface Good machined surface

(a) Room temperature (b) Ultralow temperature

Figure 2: Concept of cryogenic micromachining

3.2 Variation of Elastic Modulus and Coefficient of Dynamic Friction with

Temperature for PDMS
In order to evaluate the relation between cryogenic machining performance and the
change of material property, several properties of PDMS are investigated at ultralow
temperature.
First, the simple indentation test is carried out using the machining center to investigate
the change of its elastic modulus from room to ultralow temperature. The three-axis vertical
machining center (NVD 1500, Mori Seiki) has the enough stiffness and resolution in z
direction for indentation test of soft polymer material. The schematic diagram of indentation
test is illustrated in Figure 3. The dynamometer is attached between the developed jig and
the machine tool table to measure the applying force. The carbide indenter designed in
conformity to type-A durometer is shown in Figure 4 (a). Elastic modulus is obtained from
the equation (1).

FZ ∆
1

where
: Elastic modulus [Pa]
: Applied force in Z direction [N]
: Tip area of carbide indenter [m2]
∆ : Displacement in Z direction [m]
: Thickness of workpiece [m].

The tip area of carbide indenter is 0.50mm2. This test is also performed for
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and Natural rubber (NR). Table1 shows the value of
workpiece thickness, displacement and applied force in Z direction. Figure 5 shows the
elastic modulus of each material at room and ultralow temperature. The elastic modulus of
PDMS at room temperature is smaller than that of NR. On the contrary, it remarkably
increases up to that of PMMA at ultralow temperature. When the depth of cut is set into the
range of ductile mode at ultralow temperature, it is expected that PDMS can be precisely
machined and the transparent machined surface is obtained.

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x Indenter
z

Fz
Workpiece
Δl l

dynamometer
Table

Figure 3: Schematic diagram of indentation test

Φ0.8 R1.0

Φ2.0
Φ1.3

500μm 500μm

(a) Indentation test (b) Friction test

Figure 4: Carbide indenter (NS tool)

Table1: Thickness and displacement of polymer materials

Thickness Displacement Z force
Material
l mm Δl mm N
Room 2.66 1.00 1.29
PDMS
Ultralow 2.61 0.01 7.36
NR 1.94 1.00 6.19
PMMA 3.00 0.01 7.13

Room temp. Ultralow temp.

4.28×103
Elastic modulus MPa

5000 3.84×103
4000
3000
2000
1000 6.88 2.40×10
0
PDMS NR PMMA

Figure 5: Elastic modulus of polymer materials

Second, the friction test is carried out on the machining center to evaluate the change of
adhesive property from room to ultralow temperature. The schematic diagram of friction
test is illustrated in Figure 6. The coefficient of dynamic friction is derived from the
measured forces in Z direction and feed direction. The carbide indenter for friction test is
shown in Figure 4 (b). The tip of the indenter is hemispherical with R1.0. Figure 7 shows
the coefficient of dynamic friction obtained from dividing the measured force in feed

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Systems, and
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direction by that in Z direction i.e. equation(2).

where

Coefficient of dynamic friction

Measurement force in feed direction [N]
Measurement force in Z direction [N].

This test is performed under the feed rate of 100mm/min. Coefficient of dynamic
friction of PDMS at room temperature is fluctuated because stick-slip phenomenon is
generated. On the other hand, its coefficient at ultralow temperature decreases to that of
PMMA and its value becomes stable. This result indicates that high adhesion of PDMS
disappears when the PDMS is cooled down below Tg.

x Indenter
z

Fz

Δl v
Workpiece
Fx
dynamometer
Table

Figure 6: Schematic diagram of friction test

4.0
PDMS at room temp.
Coefficient of dynamic friction

3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
PDMS at ultralow temp.
1.0
PMMA at room temp.
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time s

Figure 7: Coefficients of dynamic friction

3.3 Cutting Mode Evaluation for PDMS

Scratch test is carried out using tilt arrangement stage in order to investigate the transition
of cutting mode from ductile to brittle mode according to depth of cut. The schematic
diagram of scratch test is illustrated in Figure 8. The designed carbide tool is shown in
Figure 9. The rake angle is 0° and the relief angle is 5°. This test is performed under the
feed rate of 1000mm/min and the angle of tilt arrangement is adjusted to 1/100. Figure 10
shows the machined surface at several cutting depth. At the cutting depth of 20μm, it is
confirmed that ductile mode cutting is applied because of no crack on both side edges. At
the depth of 40μm, small cracks are observed on the left side edge. Then the cracks are

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generated widely with an increase of the depth of cut. This result indicates the critical depth
of cut for ductile mode cutting is approximately 40μm. The microphotographs of cutting
chips in scratch test are shown in Figure 11. The chip with a smooth surface is formed in
ductile mode cutting while the chip with an irregular surface is generated in brittle cutting
mode.

x Carbide tool
v
z Depth of cut

PDMS
Tilt arrangement
Table

Figure 8: Schematic diagram of scratch test

R0.1

2.5
500μm 20μm

(a) Overview (b) Tip

Figure 9: Carbide tool (NS tool)

Cutting Depth100μm
direction

Crack Crack
50μm 35μm

Depth40μm
Cutting Crack
direction Crack

50μm 25μm

Depth20μm
Cutting
direction

50μm 25μm

(a) Top view (b) Cross-section view

Figure 10: Machined micro grooves

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20μm 20μm

(a) Ductile mode (b) Brittle mode

Figure 11: Cutting chips

3.4 Relation between Cutting Performance and Processing Temperature

In order to clarify the proposed cryogenic micromachining mechanism, the relation
between cutting performance and processing temperature is evaluated through the milling
tests around Tg. This milling test is carried out under the cutting condition shown in Table
2 (a). Figure 12 shows the machined surfaces at each temperature. Above 200K, the notched
line is only left in PDMS surface because the PDMS is not cut but torn off in upcut side.
Around 150K, cutting process can be applied to upcut side, though not to downcut side. In
upcut side, the workpiece is compressed and its apparent stiffness becomes higher.
Therefore it can be cut due to the combined effect of cooling and compression in upcut side.
However, tensile force works in down cut side and the apparent stiffness becomes lower.
Below about 120K, PDMS can be precisely machined regardless of upcut or downcut,
because rubbery state completely changes to glassy state.

Table2: Cutting condition

(a) (b)
Tool Micro end mill (NS tool)
Tool diameter mm φ0.5 φ0.05
Rotational speed min-1 15000 17500
Feed rate mm/min 3.0 3.0
Cutting space temperature K 110~220 77

220K 200K

100μm 100μm

160K 110K

100μm 100μm

Figure 12: Machined surfaces at various temperatures

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4. Performance Evaluation of Cryogenic Micro Milling
4.1 Influence of Thermal Contraction on Form Accuracy
It is important to fabricate desired micro channel patterns with high form accuracy for
applying the proposed process to microfluidic chips. Then, the influence of thermal
contraction on form accuracy is quantitatively evaluated. The size of machined groove is
changed by returning PDMS from ultralow to room temperature because the PDMS has
high thermal contractility. The thermal deformation is represented as the equation (3).

1 (3)

where

Real length [m]

Original length [m]
Real temperature [K]
Original temperature [K]
α Linear expansion coefficient [K-1].

is the width of groove at room temperature, is the width of groove at ultralow

temperature, is the room temperature of 293K, is the Tg of 123K. Table 3 shows the
linear expansion coefficient of PDMS and carbide tool. The coefficient of carbide tool can
be neglected because it is much smaller than that of PDMS. Therefore α is the linear
expansion coefficient of PDMS. Substituting these values into the equation (3), it is obtained
the width of groove expands by 2.9 percent from ultralow to room temperature. Figure 13
shows the cross-section of machined grooves. (a) is the groove of PDMS machined at
ultralow temperature. (b) is the groove of PMMA machined at room temperature with the
same tool. It is suggested that the width of (b) is same as that of PDMS at ultralow
temperature before it returned to room temperature. The difference between two groove
widths is 2.4 percent. From this result, the theoretical deformation almost corresponds to
experimental one. Therefore, if we manufacture the tool specially designed for cryogenic
micromachining on the basis of thermal deformation theory, the groove with high form
accuracy can be fabricated.

Table 3: Linear expansion coefficient of PDMS and tool

PDMS Tool
Linear expansion coefficient α K-1 2.0×10-4 6.0×10-6

482.2μm 471.0μm

50μm 50μm

(a) PDMS (b) PMMA

Figure 13: Cross-section of machined grooves

4.2 Quality of Machined Surface

Utilizing the micro end mill with φ0.05mm, the micro groove is machined under the
cutting condition shown in Table 2 (b) and its bottom surface is evaluated by optical profiler

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which has 0.1nm resolution in z direction (New View 6200, Zygo Co., Ltd.). The
microphoto of machined groove and measured data are shown in Figure 14. It is confirmed
that the micro groove can be precisely formed on PDMS. The bottom surface roughness is
achieved to Ra 15nm and the sidewall surface roughness is Ra 123nm. This machined
surface is much transparent and almost equals to the surface fabricated by photolithography
technique.

Side wall:
Ra125nm

Bottom:
10μm
10m Ra15nm
(a) SEM picturem (b) Measured date
Figure 14: Machined groove

4.3 Application of PDCM Method to Micro Milling

Pre-Deformation-assisted Cryogenic Micromachining (PDCM) method for fabricating
the unique and special shape of channel groove in one operation is proposed and its validity
is evaluated experimentally. Figure 15 shows the process of PDCM method to fabricate the
special groove with narrower width than tool diameter. After deformed, i.e. stretched at
room temperature, PDMS is frozen at ultralow temperature and its deformed shape is kept.
Under this condition, cryogenic micromachining process is carried out. A series of these
processes is called PDCM method. As PDMS is returned to the original state bringing back
to room temperature after the PDCM process, the narrower groove can be formed. The
length of non-stretched PDMS substrate is 25.0mm. Then the PDMS is stretched up to
33.7mm. Calculated on the amount of stretch, the width of narrower groove becomes
narrower by 26 percent compared with that of normal one theoretically. Figure 16 shows the
shape of normal groove and narrower groove fabricated by PDCM process. The width of
narrower groove decreases by 31 percent compared with that of normal one. From this
result, the theoretical deformation corresponds to experimental one. Then the bottom
surface roughness of the narrower groove, which is Ra 24nm, becomes little worse.

Table4 Cutting condition

(a) (b)
Tool Drill / End mill End mill
Diameter mm φ0.5
Rotational speed min-1 15000 5000～20000
Feed rate mm/min 3.0 1.0～4.0
Step size mm 0.01
Thickness of PDMS mm 1.0 3.0

Cryogenic
Micro end mill micro milling

PDMS Stretch and freeze Return

（With of groove ≒ Tool diameter） （With of groove ＜ Tool diameter）

Figure 15: Process of PDCM method (Narrower groove)

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51.3μm 35.6μm

10μm 10μm

(a)Normal groove (b)Narrower groove

Figure 16: Machined grooves

5. Performance Evaluation of Cryogenic Micro Drilling

5.1 Effect of Cryogenic Micro Drilling
The micro hole is machined with micro drill and micro end mill under the cutting
condition shown in Table 4 (a). Figure 17 shows the micro holes machined by a micro drill
and end mill. In case of using micro drill, burr is observed at micro hole. On the other hand,
when the end mill is used for drilling of PDMS, no burr is generated. This is because the
peripheral cutting edge is working on the suppression of burr generation for soft polymer
material such as PDMS. From the result, it is clear that cryogenic micromachining with
using micro end mill is effective process for fabrication of not only micro groove but also
micro hole.
In order to evaluate the influence of cutting speed on the machined surface, the drilling
test is carried out under cutting condition shown in Table 4 (b). The surface roughness is
measured using the optical profiler. The relation between the surface roughness and the
cutting speed is shown in Figure 18. In the range of cutting speed from 15.7 to 31.4 m/min,
the finest surface with Ra 0.4μm is obtained under 23.6m/min.

Burr

100μm 100μm

(a) Micro drill (b) Micro end mill

Figure 17: Shape of the machined micro holes
1.400

1.200
Surface roughness μm

1.000

0.800

0.600

0.400

0.200

0.000
0.0 7.9 15.7 23.6 31.4 39.3
Cutting speed m/min
Figure 18: Relation between the machined surface and cutting speed

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5.2 Application of PDCM Method to Micro Drilling
The PDCM method is useful for not only milling but also drilling. The process of PDCM
method to fabricate the bent hole is shown in Figure 19. The micro hole is machined with
long neck micro end mill under cutting speed of 23.6m/min. Figure 20 shows the shape of
bent micro hole using the proposed PDCM method. The machined surface roughness is Ra
0.55μm. Applying the PDCM method, a sample of microfluidic chip is fabricated as shown
in Figure 21. This sample has a bent hole and micro grooves which are difficult to be
shaped by conventional method [8]. The total machining time is reduced to only 90 minutes.
The results indicate that the cryogenic micromachining including PDCM method is
effective process for fabrication of customized microfluidic chips with the unique channel
like bent hole.

Cryogenic Long neck

micro drilling micro end mill

PDMS Bend and

freeze Straight hole Return
Bent hole

Figure 19: Process of PDCM method (bent hole)

5 mm 1mm
Figure 20: Shapes of machined bent holes

1 mm 200 μm

Figure 21: Microfluidic chip with bent hole

6. Conclusion
For fabrication of microfluidic chips efficiently, we have proposed the cryogenic
micromachining method. In this study, its mechanism is analyzed from the view point of
material property change. Then, cutting performance in cryogenic micro milling and drilling
are theoretically and experimentally evaluated. Moreover, PDCM method is proposed and
its validity is verified experimentally. The results are summarized as follows.
1) The stiffness of PDMS increases significantly, the high adhesion disappears, and cutting
performance is improved below the glass transition temperature of 150K.
2) It is possible to form the micro channel pattern with desired shape by considering the

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influence of the thermal contraction.
3) Cryogenic micromachining using micro end mill is effective process for fabrication of
not only micro groove but also micro hole.
4) Applying the PDCM method, unique channel like bent hole, which is difficult to
fabricate by conventional process, can be formed easily.
In future plan, 3D microfluidic chips fabricated by cryogenic micromachining process are
evaluated in practical use by several researchers in the field of micro fluidic and
biochemical engineering.

Acknowledgement
This work was partially supported by KAKENHI (21760101) and (21226006). The
machining center used in the research has been provided by Machine Tool Technologies
Research Foundation (MTTRF). Authors would like to express our sincere appreciation for
the support.

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