Biology unit notes 1

A4.1.1—Evolution as change in the heritable characteristics of a population

● Evolution can be defined as:
○ The process of cumulative changes of heritable characteristics of organisms
over generations. Or a change in a gene pool over time.
● Heritable characteristics are those that can be inherited by, or passed on to, the next
generation via alleles. They are transferred from organism to organism through
sexual reproduction.
○ Changes in characteristics that are not inherited, e.g. a plant having its leaves
eaten, do not lead to evolution
○ Heritable characteristics are determined by the alleles of genes that are
present in an individual
○ Alleles may change as a result of random mutation, causing them to become
more or less advantageous
● Heritable characteristics that are advantageous are more likely to be passed on to
offspring, leading to a gradual change in a species over time
○ This is the process of natural selection
● Changes in the heritable characteristics of organisms can also lead to the
development of completely new species. If enough changes occur over time a new
species may arise, this is known as speciation.
● Natural selection is the mechanism of evolution.

A4.1.6—Speciation by splitting of pre-existing species

● The theory of evolution states that species do not stay the same, but change over
time; this can lead to the process of speciation
● Speciation can be defined as:
○ The development of new species from pre-existing species over time
● Speciation can result from geographical isolation
○ This means that a species is separated into two populations by e.g. being on
different islands or different sides of a mountain range
■ The ocean and the mountains in these examples are geographical
barriers
 ● This creates two populations of the same species who cannot interbreed due to
being in different places; as a result, no exchange of genes, or gene flow, will occur
between them
● The different environmental conditions for the two populations might mean that
different alleles are advantageous, so different alleles are more likely to be passed
on and become more frequent in each population; this is the process of natural
selection
○ The allele frequencies in the two populations change over time
○ Genetic drift can also affect allele frequencies
● Over time, the two populations may begin to differ physiologically, behaviourally and
morphologically to such an extent that they can no longer interbreed to produce
fertile offspring; speciation has occurred

Evolution was evident clearly by examining fossils and how they changed over time. And
also looking at DNA, RNA and amino acid sequences in protiens in different individuals in a
population and recording and comparing. Also evidence of evolution can be seen through
artificial selection as you can see how the population develops over generations and how
they have the selected traits/features. Differences in homologous structures evolve by
adaptive radiation.

- Adaptive radiation describes the rapid evolutionary diversification of a single

ancestral line
■ It occurs when members of a single species occupy a variety of distinct
niches with different environmental conditions
■ Consequently, members evolve different morphological features (adaptations)
in response to the different selection pressures

An example of adaptive radiation can be seen in the variety of beak types seen in the
finches of the Galapagos Islands
 ■ These finches have specialised beak shapes depending on their primary source of
nutrition (e.g. seeds, insects, nuts, nectar)

Darwin and Lamark had 2 different definitions for evolution.

Darwin proposed the following points:

● In nature, there is a tendency to produce more offspring than can be supported by
the environment. This ‘overproduction’ eventually leads to competition for natural
resources such as food and water, space, etc. As a result, the population size
remains fairly constant.
● Individuals within a population are not identical but exhibit variations in their
characteristics.
● Individuals with variations that help them adapt better to the environment are more
likely to survive, reproduce and pass on the positive variations to their offspring.
Similarly, individuals with less favourable variations are less likely to survive. This
‘selection’ by nature is called natural selection.
● Eventually, in a particular environment, individuals with the more favourable
variations will form a larger proportion of the population.
● Over many generations, natural selection leads to populations adapted for specific
environments. Barriers to reproduction or reproductive isolation may lead to the
formation of a new species.
Lamarck proposed that the physical changes acquired by organisms during their lifetime
were passed on to their offspring. In Lamarckism:
● Change in the environment led to the use of certain organs and disuse of others
among organisms.
● Organs that were used more would increase in size/develop over the lifetime of the
organisms. Similarly, organs that were not used over the lifetime of the organism
would shrink/atrophy.
 ● These changes acquired over the lifetime of an individual would be passed on to the
offspring.

Selective breeding and natural selection is evidence of darwins theory of evolution.

In natural selection there is a higher chance of organisms with more adaptive traits to help
them survive reach adulthood and reproduce.
Some factors of natural selection:

Mutation - Increases genetic variation within the populations through random changes in
genes in DNA which may lead to individual being helped by this. Mutation allows adaptive
traits to be developed. However sometimes harmful mutations may lead to individuals to
struggle to survive. Most mutations have no effect. Mutation is a change in nucleotide
sequence in DNA

Sexual reproduction - Useful/Favourable genetic traits/mutations can be passed on to the

next generations. The individuals which are best suited to their environment will survive and
reproduce and pass on their genes. More of the population will have these adaptive traits as
more of these individuals of the population will survive and reproduce.

Overproduction - Leads to more genetic variation within the population. Increases chances
of mutations which will benefit the population to be passed on or developed to future
generations. Also more importantly if there is overpopulation there will be more competition
leading to the strongest/fittest of the population to survive and thrive. Because many species
are terictorial and possessive of their food supply, competition is high so they send out many
offspring leading to a higher chance of one or more of their offspring surviving.

Abiotic factor → The environment

3 main features giving organisms variations in their species

● Mutations in DNA → Some DNA may randomly change in the fusion of the
gametes and may give organisms adaptive traits, these traits help the
organism reach adulthood so they can reproduce
● Meiosis → Is the production of halpiod cells leading to make gametes, at
the end of meiosis 4 gametes are produced and one each one will being
genetically different. There are thousands of different combinations
leading to the parent never having the exact same genetically identical
child twice(in case of twins). The process of meiosis will to shuffling the
genetic material thus increasing genetic variety as the same offspring
won’t be produced twice
● Sexual reproduction → The unique sperm and unique egg cell fuse in
sexual reproduction leading to genetically unique offspring. Leading to
more variety in the population.
Natural selection leads to evolution. This is because over many generations the changes in
heritable characteristics of the population accumulates and lead to the gene pool being
changed.
Homologous characters - Features found in different organisms derived from a shared
common ancestor. Evidence of this can be found from pentadactyl limbs of different species.
This divergent evolution.
Analogous features - Characteristics that evolved separately and become similar due to
convergent evolution, and not due to a common ancestor.

Divergent evolution - The process by which different organisms having common ancestors
develop different traits or characteristics to adapt to the changing environmental conditions.
When 2 different populations are exposed to different selection pressures it will lead to the
population to gradually adapt to these selection pressures and evolve into a new species.
Different selection pressures. Exemplified by adaptive radiation

Convergent evolution - In evolutionary biology, convergent evolution is defined as the

process whereby distantly related organisms independently evolve similar traits to adapt to
similar selection pressures. Variations in the population allow certain members to exploit a
slightly different niche in a more successful way. A niche is a position or role within a
community of an ecosystem. By natural selection or a presences of a barrier a new species
will dev elop. The 2 species don’t share a common ancestor.

Species
→ Species are individual that can interbreed to create fertile offspring
→ Species share the same genes, but have different alleles of these genes;
this means they share many physical features, known as morphology(similar morphological
features.)
Chromosome number in species
- Chromosome numbers between species vary greatly
- usually being even in number to allow reproduction to occur, odd number
means infertility or the organism being sterile
- The chromosome number of a species is a defining characteristic
- The number of chromosomes in species can change over long periods of
time, through the process and subprocesses of evolution

Speciation → The formation of new species by the splitting of one pre-existing species
into two or more new species. This can happen through processes such as genetic drift,
natural selection. Divergent evolution
- Allopatric speciation. Allopatric speciation occurs as a result of geographical
isolation
- It is the most common type of speciation
- Allopatric speciation occurs when populations of a species become separated from
each other by geographical barriers
- The barrier could be natural, e.g. a body of water or a mountain range
- It can also be man-made, e.g. a motorway
 - This creates two populations of the same species between which no gene flow is
taking place
- Allele frequencies in the gene pools of the two populations may change in different
ways due to
- Different selection pressures acting on them
- The accumulation of random changes in allele frequencies, known as genetic
drift
- There also may be cumulative random mutations in the 2 species that they
spread to different generations.
- Changing allele frequencies will lead to changes in the phenotypes of the two
populations
- If enough allele frequency differences arise between the two populations then they
will eventually be reproductively isolated, and can be said to be separate species
Allopatric speciation → The two populations begin to evolve separately as a result
of cumulative mutation, genetic drift and natural selection. Eventually the two
populations reach a degree of genetic divergence whereby they can no longer
interbreed (speciation)

Gene flow - is the transfer of alleles or genes from one population to another. This causes
change in the composition of the gene pool of the receiving population. This is necessary for
the process of evolution.

Reproductive isolation - Reproductive isolation occurs when barriers prevent two

populations from interbreeding – keeping their gene pools separate.
■ Prezygotic isolation – occurs before fertilisation can occur (no offspring are
produced).
○ Prezygotic isolation barriers can be temporal, behavioural, geographic /
ecological or mechanical; whereas postzygotic isolation barriers include the
inviability, infertility or breakdown of hybrid organisms
■ Postzygotic isolation – occurs after fertilisation (offspring are either not viable or
infertile). This is frequent in hybrid offspring caused by things like hybrid offspring
may not be able to reproduce, may be very weak or may not be able to fully develop
■ Habitable isolation is a form of reproductive isolation in which reproduction between
two populations (generally two species that are capable of interbreeding) is restricted
because each population occupies a different habitat. They may be in the same
geographical area just in different habitats so this is a type of sympatric variation.

Temporal Isolation
■ Temporal isolation occurs when two populations differ in their periods of activity or
reproductive cycles
 ■ Example: Leopard frogs and wood frogs reach sexual maturity at different times in
the spring and hence cannot interbreed
Behavioural Isolation
■ Behavioural isolation occurs when two populations exhibit different specific courtship
patterns
■ Example: Certain populations of crickets may be morphologically identical but only
respond to specific mating songs
Geographic Isolation
■ Geographic isolation occurs when two populations occupy different habitats or
separate niches within a common region. May be because of geographic barrier
■ Example: Lions and tigers occupy different habitats and do not interbreed (usually)
■

Sympatric Speciation
Sympatric speciation is divergence of species within the same geographical location (i.e.
without a physical barrier)
■ Sympatric speciation may result from the reproductive isolation of two populations as
a result of genetic abnormalities
■ Typically, a chromosomal error may arise which prevents successful reproduction
with any organism lacking the same error
Sympatric speciation takes place with no geographical barrier
 ■ Isolation instead occurs when random changes in the alleles, and therefore
phenotypes, of some individuals in a population prevent them from successfully
breeding with other individuals in the population
■ Examples of phenotype changes that can lead to reproductive isolation include
○ Seasonal changes
■ Some individuals in a population may develop different mating or
flowering seasons to the rest of the population, i.e. their reproductive
timings no longer match up
■ This is known as temporal isolation
○ Behavioural changes
■ Some individuals in a population may develop changes in their
courtship behaviours meaning they can no longer attract individuals of
the opposite sex for mating, i.e. their methods of attracting a mate are
no longer effective
■ This is known as behavioural isolation
■ The populations may still live in the same habitat but they do not interbreed
■ The lack of gene flow between the two populations means that allele frequencies in
the gene pools of the two populations may change in different ways
■ Changing allele frequencies will lead to changes in the phenotypes of the two
populations
■ If enough allele frequency differences arise between the two populations then they
will become reproductively isolated and will be two separate species

Sympatric speciation is most commonly caused as the result of a meiotic failure during
gamete formation
■ If meiotic cells fail to undergo cytokinesis, chromosomal number will double in the
gamete (e.g. diploid instead of haploid)
■ This will result in offspring that have additional sets of chromosomes (polyploidy)
■ Speciation will result if the polyploid offspring are viable and fertile but cannot
interbreed with the original parent population
● Polypliody occurs instaneuosly whereas allopatric and sympatric speciation happens
over many generations. Polypliody tends to happen to plants almost all the time. It
involves a change in the number of chromosomes, can cause abrupt speciation and
hybridization. It occurs primarily in plants and sometimes in animals e.g.
salamanders. Can lead to a variety of traits that are useful in some contexts but
harmful in others.
● Polypliody rapid and relatively simple form of speciation, polyploidy is caused due to
non-disjunction(The failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to
separate during cell division.) of chromosomes during mitosis or meiosis. This results
in the formation of gametes with additional sets of chromosomes.
● Polypliody cells are usually bigger as they have more chromosomes in the nucleus
resulting in the organism to be bigger
● In summary its a condition in which an organism posses cells with more than 2 sets
of homologous chromosomes.
● In humans can lead to down syndrome.
● Polypliody = instant form of speciation
● Odd number sets of polypliody e.g. 3n, 5n, 7n are sterile/infertile as they cant split
evenly during mitosis.
● How polyploidy contributes to speciation

●
 ● Genetic hybridization is the process of interbreeding individuals from genetically
distinct populations to produce a hybrid.
● Interbreeding is to breed or cause to breed with members of another breed or group,
thus creating hybrids.
● Intrabreeding??
● Sexual Dimorphism - Sexual dimorphism is the systematic difference in form
between individuals of different sex in the same species. Difference in morphological
traits between different sexes of the same species.
○ Exaggerated traits (ornaments) are more likely to attract female attention,
despite increasing exposure to predators
○ Over many generations, these traits have become more pronounced, leading
to marked differences between sexes
○ Sexual Diphormism exhsists to allow one sex to attract the other sex and
mate based on special and unique traits that each sex have.
○ This leads to sexual selection which is a type selection pressure.
Stabalising, Directional and disruptive selection
Stabilising Selection
■ Where an intermediate phenotype is favoured at the expense of both phenotypic
extremes
■ This results in the removal of extreme phenotypes (phenotypic distribution becomes
centrally clustered to reflect homogeneity)
■ Operates when environmental conditions are stable and competition is low
■ An example of stabilising selection is human birth weights (too large = birthing
complications ; too small = risk of infant mortality)
Directional Selection
■ Where one phenotypic extreme is selected at the cost of the other phenotypic
extreme
■ This causes the phenotypic distribution to clearly shift in one direction (towards the
beneficial extreme)
■ Operates in response to gradual or sustained changes in environmental conditions
■ Directional selection will typically be followed by stabilising selection once an optimal
phenotype has been normalised
■ An example of directional selection is the development of antibiotic resistance in
bacterial populations
Disruptive Selection
■ Where both phenotypic extremes are favoured at the expense of the intermediate
phenotypic ranges
■ This causes the phenotypic distribution to deviate from the centre and results in a
bimodal spread
■ This occurs when fluctuating environmental conditions (e.g. seasons) favour the
presence of two different phenotypes
■ Continued separation of phenotypic variants may eventually split the population into
two distinct sub-populations (speciation)
■ An example of disruptive selection is the proliferation of black or white moths in
regions of sharply contrasting colour extremes
These selctions occur when the selection pressure occurs, which type of selection depends
on which phenotype undergoes the most stress.
Gene pool - A gene pool represents the sum total of alleles for all genes present in a
sexually reproducing population
■ A large gene pool indicates high amounts of genetic diversity, increasing the chances
of biological fitness and survival
■ A small gene pool indicates low amounts of genetic diversity, reducing biological
fitness and increasing chances of extinction
Gene pools can be used to determine allele frequency – the proportion of a particular allele
within a population. Gene pools change over time which leads to the evolution. The gene
pools change when the allele frequencies within the gene pool change.

● Species are individual that can interbreed to create fertile offspring; Species share
the same genes, but have different alleles of these genes; this means they share
many physical features, known as morphology;

Genotype - the genetic makeup of an organism or group of organisms with reference to a

single trait, set of traits, or an entire complex of traits.
Allele - An allele is one of two or more versions of DNA sequence. It is a form of a gene
Gene - A gene is a small section of DNA on a chromosome, that code for a particular
sequence of amino acids, to make a specific protein.
Chromosome - Chromosomes are threadlike structures made of protein and a single
molecule of DNA that serve to carry the genomic information from cell to cell.
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid (abbreviated DNA) is the molecule that carries genetic
information for the development and functioning of an organism.

Hardy Weinberg equilibrium → A populations allele and genotype frequencies are

constant unles there are evolutionary forces being acted upon them.
● Allele and genotype frequencies are written as a decimal and they always add up to
one. Allele frequencies would be the abudance of dominant and recessive alleles in
the populations. Genotype frequencies would be the abundance of genotypes in a
populations(e.g. homozygous dominant, homozygous recessive and heterozygous.)
● 5 Assumptions in Hardy Weinberg equilibrium are that there is no natural selection
happening on the population, No mutations are occurring within individuals in the
population, The population doesn’t migrate, The population is large and mating is
random.
● 2 equations
○ P+q=1
■ P is the dominant allele frequency and q is the recessive allele
frequency in the population. This equation is for allele frequencies

●
○ This is for genotype frequencies, p squared would be frequency of
homozygous recessive, 2pq would be frequency of hetrozygous and
q2 would be frequency of homozygous recessive.

● When using these 2 equations to solve for p and q and you are only given the trait
and the number of individuals that exhibit that trait. E.g. there are 500 frogs 375 are
dark green and 125 are light green. You need to use the second equation as these
are genotypes. You should plug in the recessive value of 125 into q squared in the
equation, as for you don’t know how many dark green frogs are homozygous
dominant or hetrozygous. Once you know q squared. You can find q and put into the
first equation to find p. Always check your answers = 1.
● When calculating number of alleles from symbols (RR, Rr, rr.) count the individual
letters and divide by sum off all letters. When counting genotypes and calculating
frequency count the letter combos and divide by the total number of genotypes.
Genetic drift → Genetic drift is the change in allele frequencies in the gene pool of a
population due to chance events. The impact of genetic drift is greater if the populations are
small and/or geographically isolated from each other, because the impact of a change of
allele frequency effects the whole population more if smaller or more isolated.(gene drift can
also be defined as the loss of alleles from the gene pool.)
● There are 2 types of genetic drifts: Bottleneck effect and Foundler effect
○ Bottleneck effect - The dramatic reduction in the population size due to
natural disasters such as famines, hurricanes or floods resulting in loss of
genetic variation.
■ A natural disaster would lead to an immideate decrease in the
population, the remaining suriviors may not reflect the genetic diversity
of the entire population. The reduction in genetic diversity makes that
population adaptable

● The founder effect - The resultant loss in genetic variation when a few
members of the original population establish a new population. By conolising
a new area
○ As the population increases of the new population that colonisined the
new area their genetic diversity and makeup will be different to the
original population.
Factors that can affect allele frequencies
● Small populations → more impact by genetic drift
○ Founder
○ Bottleneck
 ● Immigration - the process of gene flow → immigration affects allele
frequency of a population if immigrants come from areas with different
alleles.
● Selection - not all genotypes are equally successful, genotypes may be selected
based upon their impact to the organisms survival.
● Mutation - Small effect on allele frequency.

The binomial system → System made for naming organisms

- Uses Latin or Greek words

- The first name is the generic name and this is the Genus to which the organism
belongs
- The second name is the specific name and this is the species
- Genus name begins with upper case (capital) letter
- Species name begins with lower case (small) letter
- When typed it is in italics when printing and underline by hand
- After its first use in a text, it can be abbreviated: the initial letter of the genus with the
full species name (e.g., C. lupus)
- Earliest published name is the correct one

● Family → Genus → Species → Subspecies

Morphilogical traits → physical traits.

● Long chromosome = more genes.

Down syndrome is a condition whereby the individual has three copies(one extra) of
chromosome 21 (i.e. trisomy 21)
■ It is caused by a non-disjunction event in one of the parental gametes
■ The extra genetic material causes mental and physical delays in the way the child
develops
Why is sometimes difficult to distinguish whether two populations have become
different species?

■ Sometimes populations of one species are separated and interbreeding is restricted;

■ then as differences occur between them grow due to different environments and
selection pressures, they become clearly distinct;
● however, if artificially brought together, they may still be able to interbreed;
● therefore speciation has not necessarily occurred; the exact point of them becoming
separate species could be debated;

Karyotypes are the number and types of chromosomes in a eukaryotic cell – they are
determined via a process that involves:
■ Harvesting cells (usually from a foetus or white blood cells of adults)
 ■ Chemically inducing cell division, then arresting mitosis while the chromosomes are
condensed
■ The stage during which mitosis is halted will determine whether chromosomes
appear with sister chromatids or not
The chromosomes are stained and photographed to generate a visual profile that is known
as a karyogram
■ The chromosomes of an organism are arranged into homologous pairs according to
size (with sex chromosomes shown last)

Genome - all the genetic information for an organism.

the genetic information is in the form of DNA which is divided into different
strands of DNA called chromosomes the genome of a species always has the same number
of genes; and is almost identical however alleles vary between individuals there are also
variations in genes between individuals where a single base of DNA is changed e.g. from
adenine to thymine these are SNPs, single-nucleotide polymorphisms.

Humans have 46 chromosomes split into 2 pairs (2n = 46)

● A karyotype is an individual's complete set of chromosomes.

● Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and other membrane-
bound organelles. So eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus and other
membrane bound organelles.

Karyotyping is when chromosomes are stained then photographed/imaged during

metaphase showing a banding pattern where it is stained so the length of chromosomes can
be seen and the centromere which holds them together. This is called a karyogram it can be
used to count chromosomes;

The purpose of karyotyping is to determine or analyse the karyotype (number, size

and shape of the chromosomes) of an individual.
Autosomes → are chromosomes that do not determine the sex of the organism

Differences in size of eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotic genomes vary greatly;
both in size and number of genes;
however, size does not mean complexity as humans are the most complex species, but
have a smaller genome than some plants;
Genome sizes comparison between different organisms
prokaryotes have a much smaller size genome than eukaryotes;
more complex eukaryotes always have a larger genome,
but sometimes less complex organisms can have very large genomes due to genes
duplication;

Evidence of fusion of second chromosome

- Inherited from chimpanzees and other great apes
 - It is hypothesised chromosome 12 and 13 fused to make chromosome 2
- Banding pattern of 12 and 13 is similar to chromosome 2
- The telomeres found at the end of each of the chromosome(12 & 13) is found at the
point of fusion at chromosome 2
- Humans have 46 chromosomes and apes have 48

How are chromosome numbers a shared trait within species?

each species has a distinct chromosome number e.g. humans have 46 chromosomes this
number is halved to create sex cells/gametes in meiosis if chromosome numbers do not
match and organisms of different species do successfully mate, the offspring are usually
infertile as they cannot complete meiosis;

Hybridization
Hybridization is when members of two different species cross-breed; e.g. a horse and
donkey; creating a hybrid; However the hybrid mule is sterile; This means is cannot
reproduce and therefore the alleles are no longer passed on and mixed; This, in evolutionary
terms, is a waste of energy and resources; therefore animals have evolved barriers to
mating with other species, such as specific courtship behaviours; Creating a barrier to
hybridisation that would mix alleles

- Closely related species share lots DNA and therefore RNA. comparing DNA, RNA
and amino acid sequences can show you how closely related a species is.

Dichtomous key
Scientisits use a tool called a dichotomous key which helps to identify individual species in a
field. Presents a series of questions or statements with only 2 possible answers for each,
each question either identifies a species, or eliminates it, until the correct species is selected
based on features.
.

A dichotomous key is a method of identification whereby groups of organisms are divided

into two categories repeatedly
■ With each sequential division, more information is revealed about the specific
features of a particular organism
■ When the organism no longer shares its totality of selected characteristics with any
organism, it has been identified

When using a dichotomous key to identify specimens it is preferable to use immutable

features (i.e. features that do not change)
■ Size, colouration and behavioural patterns may all vary amongst individuals and
across lifetimes
■ Physical structures (e.g number of limbs) and biological processes (e.g. reproduction
methods) make for better characteristics
Dichotomous keys are usually represented in one of two ways:
■ As a branching flowchart (diagrammatic representation)
■ As a series of paired statements laid out in a numbered sequence (descriptive
representation)

■
DNA barcoding
A way you can identify genes via barcodes → helps to identify species.
A way you can identify genes from barcodes.

● Taxonomy (DKPCOFGS) - we group them together based on similar traits

● Cladistics - we group them together based on evolutionary relationships

How do we classify organisms

● Genetic information
● Morphology
● Evolutionary relationships
Species concepts
1. Morphological
2. Genetical
3. Biological

TAXONOMY
- Hierarchy classification.
 Domain Does Eukaryota Eukaryota

Kingdom King Animalia Plantae

Phylum Paul Chordata Spermatophyta

Class Come Mammalia Eudicotyledons

Order Over Primates Magnoliidae

Family For Hominidae Ranunculales

Genus Good Homo Ranunculus

Species Soup? Sapiens Acris

Genome Sequences
- Whole genome sequencing is determining the entire base sequence of an organisms
DNA.
- Technological advancement leads to reduced costs and increasing speed of
sequencing
- The purpose of sequencing the genomes of a wide range of species is investigation
of evolutionary orgins. Comparison of genomes allow scientists to find relationships
between species and find common ancestors.
- Genome sequencing of humans lead to the development of personalised medicine.

Cladlisitics
■ A clade is a group of organisms that have evolved from a common ancestor
■ Cladograms are tree diagrams that show the most probable sequence of divergence
in clades
■ Evidence for which species are part of a clade can be obtained from the base
sequence of a gene or the corresponding amino acid sequence of a protein
■ Sequence differences accumulate gradually so there is a positive correlation
between the number of differences between two species and the time since they
diverged from a common ancestor
■ Traits can be analogous or homologous
■ Evidence from cladistics has shown that classification of some groups based on
structure did not correspond with the evolutionary origins of a group or species
Applications:
■ Cladograms including humans and other primates
■ Reclassification of the figwort family using evidence from cladistics

Cladistics is a method of classifying organisms into groups of species called clades (from
Greek ‘klados' = branch)
 ■ Each clade consists of an ancestral organism and all of its evolutionary descendants
■ Members of a clade will possess common characteristics as a result of their shared
evolutionary lineage
Clades can be organised according to branching diagrams (cladograms) in order to show
evolutionary relationships

Cladograms are tree diagrams where each branch point represents the splitting of two new
groups from a common ancestor. These shows cladisitics
■ Each branch point (node) represents a speciation event by which distinct species are
formed via divergent evolution

Cladograms show the probable sequence of divergence and hence demonstrate the likely
evolutionary history (phylogeny) of a clade
■ The fewer the number of nodes between two groups the more closely related they
are expected to be

● Most closely related species should be the closest clade so it has the closest
common ancestor
Clades are hierarchical. TThey can be small or large containing smaller clades.
● Nodes - each node represents a speciation event by which a distinct species
are formed by divergent evolution. Nodes represent a hypothetical common
acnestor
● Terminal node/branch → End point cladogram
● Root → The central trunk of cladogram indicating the ancestor common to
all groups branching from it.
- Molecular clock → Uses mutation rates of biomolecules to deduce the time
since 2 species shared a common ancestor.
A clade allows us to predict characteristics of the organisms inside it.
The further back you go
E.g. Mutation rate calculations

● high chromosome number does not necessarily mean that the organism is more
complex because genetic information could be repeated and has no effect on
complexity it is known as junk DNA

● Long chromosomes = More genes

Horizontal Gene transfer - The exchange of genetic material between individuals that does
not involve reproduction.

Prokaryotes have no nucleus

Mark scheme answers

● Outline of speciation
● Difficulties of defining a species

● Evidence for evolution

● Prevention of alleles mixing between different species/populations

● Current/Future uses of genome sequencing

● How divergent evolution leads to speciation

● How polypliody causes speciation

● Compare and contrast allopatric and sympatric

●
● Barriers

●
● Polyploidy
●
 ●

A4.1.10—Barriers to hybridisation and sterility of interspecific hybrids as mechanisms

for preventing the mixing of alleles between species

Courtship behaviour often prevents hybridisation in animal species. A mule is an example of

a sterile hybrid.

Hybrid: The result of breeding between members of two different species, usually an
infertile offspring. E.g. A mule (male donkey and a female horse)

Hybridisation refers to the interbreeding between two different species that leads to a new
species. The new species is often reproductively isolated from the parent species.

In evolutionary terms, since the resources a parent spends on producing a sterile hybrid are
wasted, barriers have been developed to prevent the development of a hybrid offspring. A
hybrid zygote may be produced, but it is likely to die during development.

Prezygotic mechanisms to prevent hybridisation

- Variation in courtship behaviour
- Behavioural isolation
Postzygotic mechanisms to prevent hybridisation
- Reduce the viability of the zygote
- Reduce the viability of the young one and the adult
 - Decrease the fertility of the hybrid and its offspring

A mule has 63 chromosomes (a donkey has 62, and a horse has 64). It does not have the
required pairs of homologous chromosomes, so it is infertile. Hybrid watermelons are
seedless, thus unable to produce offspring.

A4.1.11—Abrupt speciation in plants by hybridisation and polyploidy

Use knotweed or smartweed (genus Persicaria) as an example because it contains many

species that have been formed by these processes. Note: When students are referring to
organisms in an examination, either the common name or the scientific name is acceptable.

Polyploidy is suggested to be the cause of explosions in species diversity. Polyploidy is a

condition where an organism possesses more than two sets of homologous chromosomes.
Polyploidy is caused by non-disjunction (the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister
chromatids to separate during cell division) of chromosomes during mitosis or meiosis. This
results in additional sets of chromosomes in the formation of gametes. Polyploidy is much
more common in plants than animals.

Allopolyploidy is a special case of polyploidy. An allopolyploid is a hybrid and has multiple

chromosome sets that are derived from different parental species. They can be more
vigorous and resistant to disease than the parent species.
The image above shows the normal gamete (species 1) combined with the polyploid gamete
(species 2). The resulting cell is sterile due to the abnormal amount of chromosomes.
However, if mated with a normal gamete, viable offspring can be produced. If the offspring
are unable to interbreed with the parental species but can mate with each other, this means
speciation has occurred.

Autopolyploidy vs Allopolyploidy

Criteria Autopolyploidy Allopolyploidy

An increase in the number of

An increase in the number of
chromosome sets in an organism, with
Definition chromosome sets in an organism, all
the sets originating from two or more
originating from the same species.
different species.

Origin of
Same species. Different species.
Chromosomes

Results from the hybridization of two

Often results from nondisjunction
species, followed by chromosome
during meiosis, leading to gametes with
doubling in the hybrid, which allows for
Mechanism extra chromosomes. Fertilization of
fertile offspring with sets of
these gametes results in an organism
chromosomes from each parent
with multiple sets of chromosomes.
species.
 Can result in new species with unique
Can lead to increased size,
characteristics, combining traits from
Consequences for morphological changes, and sometimes
parent species, often with increased
the Organism greater vigor, but often reduced fertility
vigor and possibly expanded habitat
due to meiotic irregularities.
range.

Limited role in creating new species due Significant role in speciation and
Evolutionary
to the chromosomes originating from a evolution, introducing genetic diversity
Implications
single species. and potentially creating new species.

Common in crops like cotton, wheat,

Common in plants like wheat and
Examples in Nature and canola, where hybridization has led
potatoes.
to beneficial traits.

Female Japanese knotweed (octoploid with 88 chromosomes) can be fertilised by pollen

from other species of knotweed, like the giant knotweed (tetraploid with 44 chromosomes).
Hybrids of these two species with varying numbers of chromosomes have been observed.
This indicates how pervasive weed is and its capacity to rapidly speciate. They are an
invasive species in places like the UK, where they overgrow everywhere and “choke” on
other organisms, decreasing local biodiversity.

Polyploidy vs. Speciation

Polyploidy happens in one generation (it is instantaneous, so abrupt speciation) compared to
speciation, which happens over many generations. Polyploidy tends to happen to plants
(almost always), but speciation can occur for both plants and animals.