Motivation Theories

Classic Theories

1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (1943)

• Physiological, Safety, Love/Belonging, Esteem, Self-actualization

INTRODUCTION

In a 1943 paper titled "A Theory of Human Motivation," American psychologist Abraham
Maslow theorized that human decision-making is undergirded by a hierarchy of
psychological needs. In his initial paper and a subsequent 1954 book titled Motivation and
Personality, Maslow proposed that five core needs form the basis for human behavioral
motivation.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory of motivation which states that five categories of
human needs dictate an individual’s behavior. Those needs are physiological needs, safety
needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs.

According to Maslow (1943, 1954), human needs were arranged in a hierarchy, with
physiological (survival) needs at the bottom, and the more creative and intellectually oriented
‘self-actualization’ needs at the top.

Maslow argued that survival needs must be satisfied before the individual can satisfy the
higher needs. The higher up the hierarchy, the more difficult it is to satisfy the needs
associated with that stage, because of the interpersonal and environmental barriers that
inevitably frustrate us.

Higher needs become increasingly psychological and long-term rather than physiological and
short-term, as in the lower survival-related needs.

5 Levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's theory presents his hierarchy of needs in a pyramid shape, with basic needs at the
bottom of the pyramid and more high-level, intangible needs at the top. A person can only
move on to addressing the higher-level needs when their basic needs are adequately fulfilled.

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1. Physiological Needs

Physiological needs are the most basic, essential human requirements for survival. These are
the foundational needs in Maslow’s hierarchy, which consist of food, water, sleep, clothing,
shelter, overall health, and reproduction. Without fulfilling these, human beings cannot move
to higher levels of motivation or development (Maslow, 1943).

Physiological needs are driven by what Cannon (1932) termed as “homeostatic mechanisms,”
referring to the body’s regulation processes that maintain a stable internal environment. For
example, hunger and thirst are signals from the body indicating a need for sustenance. The
body's internal systems automatically signal discomfort or dissatisfaction until the need is
met—illustrating the primary importance of this level.

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For example, a homeless individual who lacks access to regular meals or adequate shelter
will focus all their energy on securing these resources rather than on personal goals,
education, or social connections. Additionally, these needs are connected to the preservation
of human life through reproduction and health. Maslow noted that if physiological needs are
unmet, all other needs lose their significance, as survival takes precedence over any other
aspirations or achievements.

Physiological needs also extend to sleep and rest. Research indicates that chronic sleep
deprivation affects physical and mental health, underscoring the importance of sleep as a
basic human requirement. Overall, physiological needs are foundational; they provide the
energy and stability for an individual to focus on other life aspects once these essentials are
secured.

2. Safety Needs

Safety needs represent the second level in Maslow’s hierarchy, becoming prominent after
physiological needs are met. Safety needs are diverse and include physical safety, emotional
security, financial stability, and health protection (Kardiner, 1941). Safety needs reflect a
human desire for structure, order, and predictability, all of which protect against potential
threats.

Physically, safety needs encompass protection from violence, physical harm, and even
environmental dangers. For example, individuals who live in high-crime neighborhoods or
war zones are often preoccupied with daily survival, which impacts their mental well-being
and reduces their ability to focus on social or esteem-related aspirations. For instance,
families living in conflict-ridden areas may prioritize finding safe accommodation before
they can consider employment, schooling, or recreational activities.

Emotionally, safety needs involve maintaining a stable environment and avoiding emotional
harm. This need for security becomes evident when individuals seek stable relationships or
consistent work environments to avoid fear, anxiety, or instability. Financial security is also
part of safety needs; without a reliable income, individuals may struggle to meet basic needs,
which affects their sense of stability and future planning.

Maslow highlighted that, in the absence of safety, other needs become secondary, and people
will focus on avoiding risks. For example, individuals who fear job loss may experience high
levels of stress and anxiety, affecting their health and impacting their relationships. Ensuring

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safety needs are met is thus crucial, as they allow people to focus on more complex life
needs.

3. Love and Belonging Needs

Once physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, people begin seeking love and belonging.
This level is characterized by emotional connections, friendships, family bonds, and a sense
of community. Social needs play a vital role in emotional stability, providing individuals with
a sense of identity and support (Adler, 1938).

Humans have an innate need for interaction, companionship, and affection. This stage
includes relationships with family, friends, romantic partners, and membership in social
groups. For example, a person who lacks strong family ties may seek friendships or a
romantic relationship to satisfy this need. Furthermore, love and belonging are seen in
workplaces, where individuals often seek camaraderie with coworkers, join teams, or
participate in social groups to feel included and valued.

An individual’s sense of self often depends on their connections with others, which Adler
(1938) referred to as “social interest,” or the drive to belong within a group. For example,
people often join sports clubs, professional associations, or volunteer groups to feel a part of
something larger. This belonging not only fulfills emotional needs but also fosters motivation
and engagement in other aspects of life.

Lack of love and belonging can lead to feelings of isolation, loneliness, or depression,
illustrating how critical these needs are to overall well-being. For example, a student who
moves to a new city may experience homesickness until they form friendships and integrate
into their new environment. Once this need is met, people often feel more secure and are
ready to pursue higher personal goals.

4. Esteem Needs

Esteem needs involve the desire for respect, self-worth, and recognition from oneself and
others. This level consists of two main elements: self-esteem and the esteem of others
(Fromm, 1941). Self-esteem entails a sense of confidence, competence, and accomplishment.
Maslow identified that both internal and external forms of esteem are essential to mental
well-being.

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Self-respect and self-confidence stem from an individual’s perception of their own abilities
and achievements. For example, a person who consistently meets their personal goals may
feel pride and confidence in their capabilities. On the other hand, esteem from others, such as
respect and acknowledgment, provides validation and support for one’s self-worth.

For example, an employee may feel a sense of pride and motivation after receiving
recognition from their manager, colleagues, or an award at work. This external
acknowledgment reinforces the individual’s self-esteem and encourages continued effort.
Furthermore, esteem is often linked to a person’s social status, as individuals seek roles and
responsibilities that enhance their self-perception and social reputation.

Esteem needs are also essential for cultivating independence and self-confidence, traits that
contribute to one’s ability to take on challenges and strive for self-actualization. For instance,
a young artist may gain self-confidence by showcasing their work at an art gallery, which
reinforces their sense of accomplishment. This validation of their talent motivates them to
keep developing their skills, showing how esteem needs propel people toward personal
growth.

5. Self-Actualization Needs

Self-actualization represents the highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy, where an individual

seeks to realize their full potential and pursue personal growth. According to Maslow, self-
actualization is an ongoing process of fulfilling one’s aspirations, talents, and goals
(Goldstein, 1939). Unlike lower needs, which are more immediate, self-actualization is more
abstract and involves a deeper exploration of one’s abilities, interests, and life purpose.

Self-actualization encompasses activities that encourage personal development, including

creative pursuits, learning, and skill enhancement. This stage includes achieving personal
goals, such as writing a book, developing a unique talent, or contributing to society in
meaningful ways. For example, a musician may seek self-actualization by refining their
skills, experimenting with new styles, and performing for diverse audiences. This pursuit
fulfills their need to express their creativity and realize their potential.

Education and personal enrichment are also aspects of self-actualization. For example, a
person may study foreign languages, engage in volunteer work, or travel to broaden their
perspectives. Unlike esteem needs, which depend on external validation, self-actualization is
an intrinsic journey of self-discovery.

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Maslow noted that self-actualization is rare and that only a few people achieve it fully. Those
who do are often characterized by creativity, problem-solving skills, and a strong sense of
purpose. For example, individuals such as scientists, artists, or community leaders who
pursue knowledge or social change often embody self-actualization, as they dedicate
themselves to causes greater than themselves.

Self-actualization is considered the culmination of the hierarchy of needs because it embodies

the fullest expression of personal potential and fulfillment. This level emphasizes the
importance of lifelong growth and the pursuit of one’s true calling, reinforcing that human
motivation extends beyond basic survival to encompass self-discovery and societal
contribution.

By understanding and satisfying each level of need in Maslow’s hierarchy, individuals are
better equipped to achieve personal and professional growth, ultimately leading to a fulfilling
and meaningful life.

Limitations of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Lack of empirical support: Maslow’s theory is based on observation rather than rigorous
scientific data, and many critics argue that it lacks empirical evidence to support the
sequential hierarchy. Scholars like Wahba and Bridwell (1976) have questioned the validity
of the theory’s hierarchical structure.

Cultural bias: The theory was developed with Western values in mind, emphasizing
individualism and personal growth, which may not align with the values of collectivist
cultures that prioritize community and social harmony over personal achievement.

Overly rigid structure: Maslow proposed a strict progression from one level to the next, but
many people do not follow this orderly sequence. Some individuals may prioritize higher
needs, such as esteem or self-actualization, even if their basic needs aren’t entirely met.

Neglect of simultaneous needs: People often seek to fulfill multiple needs at once. For
example, someone may pursue career goals (esteem) while maintaining strong family
relationships (belonging), suggesting that needs aren’t always hierarchical or mutually
exclusive.

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Subjective nature of self-actualization: Self-actualization is abstract and subjective, making
it difficult to define or measure. Critics argue that what constitutes self-actualization varies
widely between individuals, limiting the theory’s universality.

Applicability to non-human motivations: The theory primarily addresses human

psychological needs but may not explain motivations across species or situations that deviate
from basic survival and psychological needs.

Overemphasis on individual growth: Maslow’s theory focuses on individual fulfillment,

which can seem narrow in today’s interconnected world where many people derive purpose
from collective goals, social justice, or environmental activism.

Ignores external factors: The theory doesn’t account for external influences like
socioeconomic status, cultural norms, and structural barriers, which can impact access to
resources and personal growth opportunities.

Limited perspective on mental health: The hierarchy doesn’t fully address mental health
issues that can hinder one’s ability to meet even basic needs, making it challenging for people
with psychological conditions to move up the hierarchy.

Outdated approach to motivation: Developed in the 1940s, Maslow’s model doesn’t fully
align with newer theories that view motivation as more dynamic and multi-dimensional, like
self-determination theory and positive psychology.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, despite its limitations, remains a relevant tool for
understanding human motivation and addressing various social, organizational, and personal
development needs in the modern world.

Relevance of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in the Modern World

Helps understand employee motivation: In workplaces, Maslow’s theory is used to identify

that employees need more than financial compensation to feel satisfied and motivated.
Beyond salary, employees require job security, a sense of belonging, and opportunities for
advancement. By addressing these needs, organizations can improve employee satisfaction,
productivity, and retention.

For example, in Uganda, organizations like MTN Uganda use Maslow’s approach by
providing job security, health benefits, and professional development programs. This has

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contributed to high employee retention and morale, as workers feel their basic and esteem
needs are met.

Informs marketing and consumer behavior: Marketers use Maslow’s hierarchy to tailor
their advertisements according to the different needs of their target audiences. For example,
they may highlight basic needs, such as food and shelter, in advertising essential products,
while focusing on status or esteem needs for luxury goods.

For example, in Uganda, companies like Rwenzori Mineral Water market their product as
essential for health and hydration, appealing to the physiological needs of consumers, while
luxury brands like Serena Hotels emphasize comfort and status, targeting those seeking
esteem and self-fulfillment.

Guides mental health interventions: Mental health professionals often use Maslow’s
hierarchy to prioritize their clients' needs. They start by addressing foundational issues like
safety and stability before tackling higher-order needs such as self-esteem. This structured
approach is crucial in addressing mental health systematically.

For example, in Uganda, organizations like StrongMinds Uganda focus on providing mental
health support to women in rural areas. They first address the need for basic emotional
stability and then move towards empowering clients to rebuild their self-esteem and self-
efficacy.

Supports educational development: Educators apply Maslow’s theory to create supportive

learning environments, ensuring that students’ basic needs (such as safety and belonging) are
met before focusing on cognitive needs like learning and achievement. This approach is
essential for nurturing well-rounded students who can succeed academically.

For example, in Uganda, some schools in rural areas provide lunch and health services to
students. This helps address physiological and safety needs, allowing students to concentrate
on their studies and achieve their full academic potential.

Aids personal growth and development: Maslow’s hierarchy serves as a framework for
individuals to assess their own needs and motivations. By understanding what level of the
hierarchy they are in, people can set personal goals that align with their current needs,
thereby facilitating personal growth.

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For example, a Ugandan university student might use Maslow’s theory to prioritize their
needs. They may focus on securing financial stability through part-time work (safety needs)
before pursuing further educational or career opportunities aimed at self-actualization.

Provides insight into societal well-being: Governments and organizations can use Maslow’s
model to assess the overall well-being of a society. By ensuring that citizens have access to
basic needs such as food, shelter, and safety, policymakers can help create a foundation upon
which citizens can strive for higher-level achievements.

For example, the Ugandan government’s National Development Plan addresses needs such as
improved healthcare and housing, aiming to meet the population’s basic needs. By doing so,
the government creates an environment that allows people to focus on higher pursuits, such
as education and business.

Supports crisis and disaster management: In times of crisis, Maslow’s hierarchy can help
guide response efforts by focusing first on physiological and safety needs. Ensuring access to
food, water, and shelter is essential in helping communities stabilize after a disaster.

For example, during floods in Uganda, humanitarian organizations like the Uganda Red
Cross focus on providing emergency shelter, clean water, and medical aid. Meeting these
immediate needs helps stabilize affected populations, enabling them to recover and
eventually rebuild their lives.

Promotes healthy workplace culture: Organizations can foster a healthy workplace culture
by recognizing that employees have social and esteem needs. Employers who prioritize
teamwork, recognition, and career development create environments where employees feel
valued, respected, and motivated to contribute.

For example, in Uganda, organizations like Centenary Bank encourage teamwork and provide
employee recognition programs. By promoting a sense of belonging and esteem, they create a
positive work environment that enhances productivity and employee satisfaction.

Encourages inclusive community development: In community development, Maslow’s

hierarchy guides initiatives that begin by meeting the basic needs of disadvantaged
populations, then gradually move toward social empowerment and capacity building. This
ensures sustainable development that improves overall community welfare.

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For example, in Uganda, NGOs like BRAC start by offering healthcare services and
microloans to meet immediate needs in communities. Over time, they also provide
educational workshops and leadership training, helping individuals reach social and esteem
needs, fostering self-reliant communities.

Helps frame public health initiatives: Maslow’s hierarchy can guide public health efforts by
focusing on the sequential fulfillment of needs. Health campaigns often start with basic
education on hygiene and disease prevention before advancing to awareness about mental
health and self-care practices.

For example, in Uganda, the Ministry of Health’s campaigns against malaria and HIV/AIDS
focus first on educating people about preventive measures (safety needs). Once these are
addressed, campaigns encourage people to engage in healthy lifestyle choices that contribute
to higher self-esteem and well-being.

These examples show that, despite its limitations, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs continues to
offer valuable insights for addressing motivation, personal development, and social well-
being across various sectors in Uganda and beyond.

Conclusion

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs remains a foundational theory in psychology and human

motivation, providing a structured view of how individuals progress from addressing basic
physiological needs to achieving self-actualization. Despite its limitations—such as its rigid
structure, cultural bias, and lack of empirical evidence—the theory has been widely
applicable and influential in various fields. In the modern context, it continues to hold
relevance in understanding employee motivation, guiding mental health interventions, and
informing social policies that support individuals' well-being and development. While not
without criticism, Maslow’s hierarchy offers valuable insights into the layered nature of
human needs and has proven adaptable in practical applications across diverse contexts,
including workplaces, educational settings, and community initiatives in countries like
Uganda.

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REFERENCES

Adler, A. (1938). Social interest. London, UK: Faber & Faber.

Cannon, W. B. (1932). Wisdom of the body. New York, NY: Norton.

Kardiner, A. (1941). The traumatic neuroses of war. New York, NY: Hoeber.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). Conflict, frustration, and the theory of threat. Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology, 38(1), 81-86.

Wahba, M. A., & Bridwell, L. G. (1976). Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the
need hierarchy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15(2), 212-240.

Fromm, E. (1941). Escape from freedom. New York, NY: Farrar and Rinehart.

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