IT NOTES

Analytical Engine - this calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Computer in 1830 It was a mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable
of solving any mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent memory.

FUNCTIONS OF A COMPUTER
Tabulating Machine - it was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American
statistician. It was a mechanical tabulator based on punch cards It could tabulate
A computer has four main functions, they are statistics and record or sort data or information This machine was used in the 1890 US
Census.
Input - is the data entered into a computer from the input devices like
keyboard, mouse, scanner etc. Input data can be a character, word, number, Differential Analyzer - was the first electronic computer introduced in the United
or image. When you enter information (input) into your computer a signal is States in 1930 It was an analog device invented by Vannevar Bush This machine has
sent to the CPU (Central Processing Unit). vacuum tubes to switch electrical signals to perform calculations. It could do 25
Processing - is the task of performing the logical and arithmetic operations is calculations in a few minutes.
called processing. The CPU (Central Processing Unit) will perform all types of
calculations based on the instructions given. It is then sent to the storage unit. Mark I - The next major changes in the history of computers began in 1937 when
Output is the process of producing the useful information for the user after Howard Aiken planned to develop a machine that could perform calculations involving
processing input data is called output. After performing the calculations based large numbers. In 1944, Mark I computer was built as a partnership between IBM and
on given instructions, the processed data is sent to the output device. Output Harvard It was the first programmable digital computer.
device then translates the processed data into a form like text, image,
document that the user can understand. Eniac - The giant ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator) machine was
Storage - is the process of storing instructions and data permanently is called developed by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, Jr. at the University of
storage This stored data can be retrieved whenever needed. Pennsylvania. It used 18, 000 vacuums, punch-card input, weighed thirty tons and
occupied a thirty-by-fifty-foot space.
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Abacus
LESSON 2: Generations of Computer
 The history of computers begins with the birth of the abacus which is believed
to be the first computer. It is said that the Chinese invented the Abacus around
4,000 years ago. First Generation Computers
 It was a wooden rack which had metal rods with beads mounted on them. The The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and expensive.
beads were moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to perform In these computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of
arithmetic calculations. Abacus is still used in some countries like China, CPU and memory. These computers mainly depended on a batch operating
Russia and Japan. system and punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output
and input devices in this generation.
Napier's Bones - a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Second Generation Computers
Napier (1550-1617). In this calculating tool, he So, the tool became known as used 9 The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers.
different ivory strips or bones marked with numbers to multiply and divide "Napier's These computers used transistors which were cheap, compact and
Bones". It was also the first machine to use the decimal point. consuming less power; it made transistor computers faster than the first
generation computers.
Pascaline - also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine It was invented
between 1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal It is Third Generation Computers
believed that it was the first mechanical and automatic calculator. The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of
transistors. A single IC can pack a huge number of transistors which increases
Difference Engine - in the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is the power of a computer and reduces the cost. The computers also became
known as "Father of Modern Computer" It was a mechanical computer which could more reliable, efficient and smaller in size.
perform simple calculations It was a steam driven calculating machine designed to
solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.
Fourth Generation Computers TYPES OF COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS
The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale
integrated (VLSI) circuits; a chip containing millions of transistors and other A computer system uses many devices, arranged in different ways to solve
circuit elements. These chips made this generation of computers more many problems. This constitutes a computing environment where many computers are
compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These generation computers used used to process and exchange information to handle multiple issues.
real time, time sharing and distributed operating systems.

Fifth Generation Computers  Personal Computing Environment - there is a single computer system. All
the system processes are available on the computer and executed there. The
In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was
different devices that constitute a personal computing environment are
replaced with ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration). It made possible the
laptops, mobiles, printers, computer systems, scanners etc.
production of microprocessor chips with ten million electronic components.
This generation of computers used parallel processing hardware and AI  Time Sharing Computing Environment - allows multiple users to share the
(Artificial Intelligence) software. system simultaneously. Each user is provided a time slice and the processor
switches rapidly among the users according to it. Because of this, each user
believes that they are the only ones using the system.
Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;
 Desktop  Client Server Computing Environment - the client requests a resource and
 Laptop the server provides that resource. A server may serve multiple clients at the
 NoteBook same time while a client is in contact with only one server. Both the client and
 UltraBook server usually communicate via a computer network but sometimes they may
 ChromeBook reside in the same system.
 Distributed Computing Environment - contains multiple nodes that are
THE FOUR BASIC TYPES OF COMPUTERS physically separate but linked together using the network. All the nodes in this
system communicate with each other and handle processes in tandem. Each
of these nodes contains a small part of the distributed operating system
1. Supercomputer - The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data software.
processing are the Supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific  Cloud Computing Environment - computing is moved away from individual
computers used by large organizations. These computers are used for research and computer systems to a cloud of computers in a cloud computing environment.
exploration purposes, like NASA uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, The cloud users only see the service being provided and not the internal
controlling them and for space exploration purposes. The supercomputers are very details of how the service is provided. This is done by pooling all the computer
expensive and very large in size. resources and then managing them using software.
 Cluster Computing Environment - is similar to a parallel computing
2. Mainframe computer - Although Mainframes are not as powerful as environment as they both have multiple CPUs. However, a major difference is
supercomputers, they are certainly quite expensive nonetheless, and many large firms that clustered systems are created by two or more individual computer
& government organizations use Mainframes to run their business operations. The systems merged together which then work parallel to each other.
Mainframe computers can be accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms because
of their size. Supercomputers are the fastest computers with large data storage
capacity, Mainframes can also process & store large amounts of data. Banks,
educational institutions & insurance companies use mainframe computers to store data LESSON 3: Computer Hardware
about their customers, students & insurance policy holders.
WHAT IS COMPUTER HARDWARE?
3. Minicomputer - are used by small businesses & firms. Minicomputers are also called
Computer hardware is a collective term used to describe any of the physical
as “Midrange Computers”. These are small machines and can be accommodated on a
disk with not as processing and data storage capabilities as super-computers & components of an analog or digital computer. The term hardware distinguishes the
Mainframes. These computers are not designed for a single user. tangible aspects of a computing device from software, which consists of written,
machine-readable instructions or programs that tell physical components what to do
and when to execute the instructions.
4. Microcomputer - Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA),
tablets & smartphones are all types of microcomputers. The micro-computers are
widely used & the fastest growing computers. These computers are the cheapest
among the other three types of computers. The Micro-computers are specially designed
for general usage like entertainment, education and work purposes.
INPUT DEVICES 2. Secondary Storage - is a memory that is stored external to the computer. It
is mainly used for the permanent and long-term storage of programs and data.
are hardware components used to enter data, instructions, or commands into a Hard Disks, CDs, DVDs, Pen/Flash drives, SSD, etc, are examples of
computer system. They allow users to interact with the computer, enabling it to receive secondary storage.
and process data from the outside world. 3. Tertiary Memory - is a type of Memory that is rarely used in personal
computers and due to this, tertiary memory is not considered to be an
 KEYBOARD
important one. Tertiary memory works automatically without human
 BARCODE READER
intervention.
 JOY STICK
 MICROPHONE CATEGORIES OF STORAGE DEVICES
 MOUSE
1. Primary Storage Devices
OUPUT DEVICES
used to temporarily hold data that the computer is actively using. These devices
take care of displaying the result after data processing by the input device. It may are directly accessible by the CPU, making them extremely fast. However, the data is
be in image, graphic, textual or audio form. These devices show the visual elements typically volatile, meaning it’s lost when the device is powered off.
on the display.
 RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM is used to store data that is actively
1. Monitor - Cathode-Ray Tube and Liquid Crystal Display being processed by the CPU. The more RAM a system has, the more data it
2. Printer can handle at once.
 Dot Matrix Printer  SRAM (Static RAM): This is faster than DRAM because it doesn't need to be
 Chain Printer refreshed regularly, but it is more expensive. SRAM is typically used in cache
 Non-Impact Printers memory.
 Laser Printers  DRAM (Dynamic RAM): This is slower and needs to be refreshed thousands
 Inkjet Printers of times per second, but it is less expensive and is the most common type of
3. Projector RAM used in computers.
4. Headphones  SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic RAM): This type of RAM is synchronized with
5. Speakers the system clock, which improves performance by reducing waiting times for
synchronization with the CPU.
STORAGE DEVICES
 ROM (Read-Only Memory): ROM is a non-volatile memory, meaning it retains
components used to store, retrieve, and manage digital data. they allow its contents even when the power is off. ROM stores the firmware (basic
computers and other digital devices to save information for both short-term (temporary) instructions) that allows the computer to boot up and perform basic functions.
and long-term (permanent) use. storage devices hold everything from operating  PROM (Programmable ROM): Can be programmed once by the user, but after
systems and applications to user files like documents, photos, and videos. programming, the data cannot be changed.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): Can be erased using UV light and
Key Functions of Storage Devices: reprogrammed.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): Can be erased and
1. Data Storage - They hold data permanently or temporarily, depending on the
rewritten using electrical signals, allowing for easier updates to firmware.
device type.
2. Data Retrieval - Users can access and retrieve data when needed. 2. Magnetic Storage Devices
3. Data Backup - Important data can be stored in secondary or external devices
for protection against loss. Magnetic storage devices use magnetism to store data. These devices store data
as tiny magnetized regions on a disk or tape. They are generally slower than other
Types of Storage Devices:
forms of storage but offer a large amount of storage capacity.
1. Primary Storage - it is also known as internal memory and main memory.
 Floppy Disk - An older storage device with a small capacity (usually 1.44
This is a section of the CPU that holds program instructions, input data, and
MB). It’s rarely used today due to its low capacity and slow access times.
intermediate results. It is generally smaller in size. RAM (Random Access
 Hard Disk Drive (HDD) - A popular magnetic storage device that stores large
Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are examples of primary storage.
amounts of data on spinning platters. It’s widely used for storing files and
 applications on computers. The access time is slower compared to SSDs, but 5. Cloud and Virtual Storage
HDDs provide larger capacities at lower costs.
 Magnetic Card - Often used for financial transactions, these cards store small Cloud and virtual storage store data remotely and can be accessed from anywhere with
amounts of data that can be read by card readers. Examples include credit an internet connection. Cloud storage is provided by companies that host servers,
cards and hotel keycards. allowing users to upload and download files as needed.
 Tape Cassette - Used for data backup and archiving. While tapes are slow to
Cloud Storage: This involves storing data on servers hosted by third- party
access and read, they offer enormous capacity and are commonly used in
service providers like Google Drive, Dropbox, and Microsoft OneDrive. Cloud
enterprise settings for long-term data storage.
storage is flexible, allowing users to access their data from anywhere with an
 SuperDisk - A high-capacity alternative to floppy disks, offering larger storage
internet connection.
(around 120 MB), though it’s largely obsolete now.
Virtual Storage: Virtual storage uses software to pool resources from multiple
physical storage devices, making it appear as a single storage device. This is
3. Flash Memory Devices
commonly used in enterprise environments for scalability and data
Flash memory is a non-volatile type of storage, meaning that it retains data even management. Virtual storage allows for efficient data management and
when the power is turned off. Flash memory is faster and more durable than magnetic backup solutions.
storage because it has no moving parts.

 Pen Drive (USB Flash Drive): A small, portable device used to store and
transfer data. It connects via a USB port and is highly portable, making it ideal
for transferring files between computers. LESSON 4: Computer Software
 SSD (Solid State Drive): A storage device that uses flash memory to provide
faster data access speeds compared to traditional hard drives. SSDs are What is Computer Software?
faster and more reliable than HDDs, as they have no moving parts. They are
widely used in laptops and servers. Software is the set of instructions that tell the hardware what to do. Software
 SD Card (Secure Digital Card): A small, portable memory card used in is created through the process of programming. Without the software, the hardware
cameras, smartphones, and other electronic devices for storage. would not be functional.
 Memory Card: Similar to SD cards, memory cards are used in various
portable devices like gaming consoles and phones. TYPES OF SOFTWARE
 Multimedia Card (MMC): An older type of memory card that was used in
devices like digital cameras and mobile phones, though it has largely been
Software can be broadly divided into two categories:
replaced by SD cards.
1. Systems Software - manages the hardware and creates the interface between the
4. Optical Storage Devices hardware and the user. This is needed in order to operate and use our computer.

Optical storage devices use lasers to read and write data. Data is stored as tiny pits
FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE
and lands on the surface of the disc, which are interpreted by a laser.

 CD (Compact Disc): A widely used optical storage format, primarily for music The operating system provides several essential functions, including:
and software. CDs store around 700 MB of data. 1. managing the hardware resources of the computer;
 CD-R (Recordable): Can be written to once. 2. providing the user-interface components;
 CD-RW (Rewritable): Can be erased and rewritten multiple times. 3. providing a platform for software developers to write applications.
 DVD (Digital Versatile Disc): Similar to CDs but with more capacity (up to 4.7
GB for a single-layer DVD). DVDs are commonly used for movies and larger All computing devices run an operating system. For personal computers, the most
software programs. popular operating systems are Microsoft’s Windows, Apple’s iOS X, and different
 DVD-R (Recordable): Can be written to once. versions of Linux. Smartphones and tablets run operating systems as well, such as
 DVD-RW (Rewritable): Can be erased and rewritten multiple times. Apple’s iOS, Google’s Android, Microsoft’s Windows Mobile, and Unix.
 Blu-ray Disc: Offers much larger storage capacity (25 GB for a single-layer
disc) and is primarily used for high-definition video and data storage. Blu-ray
discs are commonly used for HD movies and large data backups.
2. Application software - is the category of programs that do something useful for the TYPES OF MALWARE
user. It is not needed by the computer to operate but is needed by the end-users to
use. Application software developers used different kinds of computer languages such 1. Virus - the most common type of malware and it is defined as a malicious
as C#, Java, PHP, Ruby, Unity, etc. program that can execute itself and spreads by infecting other programs or
files. When executed, it replicates itself by modifying other computer programs
For computer based software, we call it Programs While for mobile based software, and inserting its own code.
we call it Applications 2. Worm - is a type of malware that can self-replicate without a host program.
Typically spread without any human interaction or directives from the malware
COMMON APPLICATION SOFTWARE authors
3. Trojan Horse - is a malicious program that is designed to appear as a
legitimate program; once activated following installation. The term comes from
1. Word processing - This class of software provides for the creation of written the Greek story of the Trojan War, in which the Greeks give a giant wooden
documents. Functions include the ability to type and edit text, format fonts and horse to their foes, the Trojans, ostensibly as a peace offering.
paragraphs, and add, move, and delete text throughout the document. 4. Spyware - is a kind of malware that is designed to collect information and data
on users and observe their activity without users' knowledge. Spyware is often
2. Spreadsheet - This class of software provides a way to do numeric calculations and hidden from the user in order to gather information about internet interaction,
analysis. The working area is divided into rows and columns, where users can enter keystrokes (also known as keylogging), passwords, and other valuable data.
numbers, text, or formulas. 5. Adware - is any software application in which advertising banners are
displayed while a program is running. The ads are delivered through pop-up
3. Presentation - This class of software provides for the creation of slideshow windows or bars that appear on the program's user interface. Adware is
presentations. Harkening back to the days of overhead projectors and transparencies, commonly created for computers, but may also be found on mobile devices.
presentation software allows its users to create a set of slides that can be printed or 6. Zombie Computers - (also known as a bot) is a computer that a remote
projected on a screen. attacker has accessed and set up to forward transmissions (including spam
and viruses) to other computers on the Internet.
7. Ransomware - a malware designed to infect a user's system and encrypt the
4. Image editing - encompasses the processes of altering images, whether they are data. Cybercriminals then demand a ransom payment from the victim in
digital photographs, traditional photo-chemical photographs, or illustrations. exchange for decrypting the system's data.

5. Video editing - Software used for performing the post-production video editing of LESSON 5: Operating System
digital video sequences on a non-linear editing system. It has replaced traditional
flatbed celluloid film editing tools and analogue video tape-to-tape online editing.
What is an Operating System?
KINDS OF SOFTWARE USES
An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer
1. Open Source
hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The
2. Freeware
operating system is a vital component of the system software in a computer system.
3. Shareware
4. Commercialized/Licensed
APPLICATIONS OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM
HARMFUL SOFTWARE
1. The Malware (Malicious Software)  Security - by means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents
2. Malware creation is on the rise due to the sheer volume of new types created unauthorized access to programs and data.
daily and the lure of money that can be made through organized Internet  Control over system performance - Recording delays between request for
crime. a service and response from the system.
3. Malware was originally created as experiments and pranks, but eventually led  Job accounting - Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs
to vandalism and destruction of targeted computer machines. and users.
4. Today, much of malware is created for profit through forced advertising,
stealing sensitive information, spreading email spam, pornography, or to  Error detecting aids - Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and
extort money. other debugging and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other software and users - Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the
various users of the computer systems.
Programming Languages 4. Online processing - facilitates the entry and execution of data directly; so, it
does not store or accumulate first and then process. The technique is
The computer system is simply a machine and hence it cannot perform any
developed in such a way that reduces the data entry errors, as it validates
work; therefore, in order to make it functional different languages are developed. Each
data at various points and also ensures that only corrected data is entered.
of these languages comes with its own set of vocabulary and rules, better known as
This technique is widely used for online applications.
syntax. Furthermore, while writing the computer language, syntax has to be followed
literally, as even a small mistake will result in an error and not generate the required 5. Time sharing processing - another form of online data processing that
output. facilitates several users to share the resources of an online computer system.
This technique is adopted when results are needed swiftly. Moreover, as the
Major Categories of Programming Languages name suggests, this system is time based.

1. Machine Language or Code - this is the language that is written for the 6. Distributed processing - a specialized data processing technique in which
various computers (which are located remotely) remain interconnected with a
computer hardware. Such language is affected directly by the central
single host computer making a network of computers.
processing unit (CPU) of a computer system.
2. Assembly Language - It is a language of an encoding of machine code that
makes it simpler and readable. Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
3. High Level Language - is simple and easy to understand and it is similar to
is a process used by the software industry to design, develop and test high
English language. For example, COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC, C, C+, Python,
quality software. The SDLC aims to produce high-quality software that meets or
etc.
exceeds customer expectations, reaches completion within times and cost estimates.
4. System Language
5. Scripting Language
Cycle of SDLC:
Data Processing  Planning
a collection, manipulation, and processing collected data for the required use.  Defining
It is a technique normally performed by a computer; the process includes retrieving,  Designing
transforming, or classification of information.  Building
 Testing
However, the processing of data largely depends on the following:  Deployment
 The volume of data that need to be processed
 The complexity of data processing operations
 Capacity and inbuilt technology of respective computer system
 Technical skills
 Time constraints

METHODS OF DATA PROCESSING

1. Single user programming - usually done by a single person for his personal
use. This technique is suitable even for small offices.

2. Multiple programming - provides the facility to store and execute more than
one program in the Central Processing Unit (CPU) simultaneously. Further,
the multiple programming technique increases the overall working efficiency
of the respective computer.
3. Real-time processing - facilitates the user to have direct contact with the
computer system. This technique eases data processing. This technique is
also known as the direct mode or the interactive mode technique and is
developed exclusively to perform one task. It is a sort of online processing,
which always remains under execution.