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Internet is called the network of networks.

It is a global communication system that links together thousands of
individual networks.
In other words, internet is a collection of interlinked computer
networks, connected by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless
connections, etc. As a result, a computer can virtually connect to
other computers in any network. These connections allow users to
interchange messages, to communicate in real time (getting instant
messages and responses), to share data and programs and to access
limitless information.

Internet
• Basics of Internet Architecture
Internet architecture is a meta-network, which refers to a
congregation of thousands of distinct networks interacting with a
common protocol. In simple terms, it is referred as an internetwork
that is connected using protocols. Protocol used is TCP/IP. This
protocol connects any two networks that differ in hardware, software
and design.

• Process
TCP/IP provides end to end transmission, i.e., each and every node
on one network has the ability to communicate with any other node
on the network.
 • Layers of Internet Architecture
Internet architecture consists of three layers –

Internet architecture
➢ IP
In order to communicate, we need our data to be encapsulated as
Internet Protocol (IP) packets. These IP packets travel across number
of hosts in a network through routing to reach the destination.
However IP does not support error detection and error recovery, and
is incapable of detecting loss of packets.

➢ TCP
TCP stands for "Transmission Control Protocol". It provides end to
end transmission of data, i.e., from source to destination. It is a very
complex protocol as it supports recovery of lost packets.

➢ Application Protocol
Third layer in internet architecture is the application layer which has
different protocols on which the internet services are built. Some of
the examples of internet services include email (SMTP facilitates
email feature), file transfer (FTP facilitates file transfer feature), etc.

ISP: Internet Service Provider

ISP stands for Internet Service Provider. It is a company that provides
access to the internet and similar services such as Website designing
and virtual hosting. For example, when you connect to the Internet,
the connection between your Internet-enabled device and the
internet is executed through a specific transmission technology that
involves the transfer of information packets through an Internet
Protocol route.
Data is transmitted through different technologies, including cable
modem, dial-up, DSL, high speed interconnects. Accordingly, based
on the method of data transmission, the Internet access provided by
ISPs can be divided into many types, some of which are as follows:

➢ Dial-up Internet access: It is the oldest technology to provide

Internet access by modem to modem connection using telephone
lines. In this method, the user's computer is connected to a
modem with a telephone line. This method has become outdated
today due to slow connection speed. However, in remote areas,
this method can be used where the broadband network is not
available.
➢ DSL: DSL, which stands for 'digital subscriber line' is an
advanced version of the dial-up Internet access method. It uses
high frequency to execute a connection over the telephone
network and allows the internet and the phone connection to run
on the same telephone line. This method offers an Asymmetric
Digital Subscriber (ADSL), where the upload speed is less than
the download speed, and a Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line
(SDSL), which offers equal upload and download speeds. Out of
these two, ADSL is more popular among users and is popularly
known as DSL.

➢ Wireless Broadband (WiBB): It is a modern broadband

technology for Internet access. It allows high-speed wireless
internet within a large area. To use this technology, you are
required to place a dish on the top of your house and point it to
the transmitter of your Wireless Internet Service Provider
(WISP).

➢ Wi-Fi Internet: It is the short form for "wireless fidelity,"

which is a wireless networking technology that provides
wireless high-speed Internet connections using radio waves. To
use the internet, you are required to be within the range of wi-fi
network. It is commonly used in public places such as hotels,
airports, restaurants to provide internet access to customers.

➢ ISDN: It is a short form of Integrated Services Digital Network.

It is a telephone system network which integrates a high-quality
digital transmission of voice and data over the same standard
phone line. It offers a fast upstream and downstream Internet
connection speed and allows both voice calls and data transfer.

➢ Ethernet: It is a wired LAN (Local Area Network) where

computers are connected within a primary physical space. It
enables devices to communicate with each other via a protocol
(a set of rules or common network language). It may provide
 different speeds such as 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps and 10 Gbps.

Introduction to Internet Addressing:

− The internet addressing system, also known as IP addressing,
is a fundamental component of computer networking.
− It enables devices to communicate and locate each other on
the global network known as the Internet.
− Every device connected to the internet, from your smartphone
to web servers hosting websites, is assigned a unique address
that allows data packets to be routed to the correct
destination.
− This addressing system is crucial for the functioning of the
internet.

Components of an Internet Address:

IP Address: The core of the internet addressing system is the IP

address (Internet Protocol address).
− It is a numerical label assigned to each device on a network.
There are two primary versions of IP addresses in use today:
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): These addresses consist of 32
bits divided into four groups of eight bits, separated by periods (e.g.,
192.168.1.1).
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): These addresses are more
modern and designed to address the exhaustion of IPv4 addresses.
IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length and are represented using
hexadecimal notation (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
Subnet Mask: In addition to the IP address, devices are often
configured with a subnet mask. The subnet mask is used to
determine the network portion and host portion of the IP address,
allowing for efficient routing within a local network.
Domain Name: While IP addresses are essential for routing data
on the internet, domain names provide a human-readable way to
identify resources. Domain names (e.g., www.example.com) are
mapped to IP addresses through a system called the Domain Name
System (DNS). DNS translates domain names into IP addresses so
that users can access websites and services using familiar names
instead of numerical IP addresses.

Types of IP Addresses:

Public IP Addresses: These are globally unique IP addresses

used to identify devices on the public internet. They are assigned by
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and are used for servers,
websites, and devices that need to be accessible from anywhere on
the internet.

Private IP Addresses: These are IP addresses used within private

networks, such as those in homes and businesses. Devices on
private networks are assigned private IP addresses, and a router or
gateway device typically performs Network Address Translation
(NAT) to allow these devices to share a single public IP address
when connecting to the internet.

Public IP addresses are either static or dynamic in nature. These

are described below.

Static IP Addresses:

− Static IP addresses remain constant and do not change.

− They are assigned to a device once and remain consistent.
 − Organizations that host network servers often use static IP
addresses for stability and constant accessibility.
− Static IPs are preferred for services like websites and email
servers to maintain a constant IP address association.

Dynamic IP Addresses:

− Dynamic IP addresses change automatically and regularly.

− ISPs allocate dynamic IP addresses from a pool of available
addresses.
− After use, dynamic IP addresses are returned to the pool for
reassignment.
− This method helps ISPs optimize their IP address resources
and reduce costs.

. Explain DNS in brief

− The Domain Name System (DNS) turns domain names into IP

addresses, which browsers use to load internet pages.
− Every device connected to the internet has its own IP address,
which is used by other devices to locate the device.
− DNS servers make it possible for people to input normal words
into their browsers, such as Fortinet.com, without having to
keep track of the IP address for every website.

Types of Domains:
▪ Generic domains (e.g., .com, .edu, .org) serve various
purposes.
▪ Country domains (e.g., .in, .us, .uk) are specific to countries.
▪ Inverse domain mapping helps find a domain name from an IP
address.
Organization of Domain:
▪ DNS databases are organized to efficiently map domain
names to IP addresses.
▪ The root DNS server, top-level domain (TLD) server, and
authoritative name servers work together to resolve domain
names to IP addresses.
How DNS Works:
➢ DNS starts by converting a hostname into an IP address.
➢ It uses a distributed database to store hostnames and their
corresponding IP addresses.
➢ DNS resolvers send requests to DNS servers to fetch IP
addresses.
➢ If a server doesn't have the IP address, it forwards the request
until it's resolved.
➢ Once the IP address is found, it's returned to the resolver,
which completes the request using Internet Protocol.
 ❖ URL
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. It is a reference or address
used to access resources on the internet. A URL is the web address
you type into a web browser's address bar to visit a specific webpage
or resource. URLs are an essential component of the World Wide
Web and are used to locate and retrieve information stored on web
servers. A typical URL consists of several components:

1. Scheme: This specifies the protocol used to access the resource.

Common schemes include "http://" for Hypertext Transfer Protocol,
"https://" for secure HTTP, "ftp://" for File Transfer Protocol, and
others.

2. Host: This identifies the domain name or IP address of the web

server hosting the resource. For example, in the URL
"https://www.example.com," "www.example.com" is the host.

3. Port: This optional component specifies the port number on the

server. If not specified, the default port for the scheme is used (e.g.,
80 for HTTP, 443 for HTTPS).

4. Path: This indicates the specific location or directory on the server

where the resource is located. For example, in the URL
"https://www.example.com/path/page.html," "/path/page.html" is
the path.
5. Query Parameters: These are optional parameters that follow a
"?" in the URL and are used to send additional information to the
server. Parameters are typically in the form of key-value pairs.

6. Fragment Identifier: This optional component follows a "#" in the

URL and is used to point to a specific section within the resource,
such as an anchor on a webpage.

Here's an example of a URL and its components:

```
https://www.example.com:8080/path/page.html?name=John&age=2
5#section2
```
- Scheme: "https://"
- Host: "www.example.com"
- Port: ":8080" (optional)
- Path: "/path/page.html"
- Query Parameters: "?name=John&age=25"
- Fragment Identifier: "#section2"

In summary, a URL is a standardized way to specify the location of a

resource on the internet, and it helps browsers and other client
applications retrieve and display that resource. Each component of a
URL serves a specific purpose in identifying the resource and its
location on the web.
Concept of Intranet & Extranet

Intranet and extranet are two types of private networks that facilitate
communication and collaboration within and between organizations.
They are based on the same underlying technologies as the internet
but are restricted in accessibility to a specific group of users.

❖ Intranet

An intranet is a private network that is used to share information and

resources within an organization. It is typically only accessible to
employees of the organization. Intranets can be used for a variety of
purposes, such as:
 − Sharing company news and information
− Providing access to employee resources, such as HR forms and
benefits information
− Collaborating on projects
− Communicating with colleagues

❖ Extranet

An extranet is a network that is used to share information and

resources with authorized external users, such as customers,
partners, and suppliers. Extranets are typically more secure than
intranets, and they may require users to authenticate themselves
before they can access certain resources. Extranets can be used for a
variety of purposes, such as:

− Providing customers with access to self-service support

resources
− Collaborating with partners on projects
− Sharing information with suppliers

Characteristics:

Internal Use: Intranets are used exclusively by members of the

organization.
Secure Access: Access to the intranet is restricted and often requires
authentication to ensure security.
Information Sharing: Intranets are used for sharing internal
documents, announcements, policies, and other resources.
• Collaboration Tools: Intranets often include tools such as
wikis, forums, and document sharing platforms to enhance
collaboration among employees.
• Customization: Organizations can customize the intranet to
meet their specific needs and branding.
❖ Use Cases:

− Employee communication and announcements

− Document sharing and collaboration
− Access to internal databases and resources
− Corporate training and knowledge sharing

❖ Characteristics:

• External Access: Extranets extend the functionality of intranets

by allowing controlled access to external users.
• Authentication and Authorization: Access to the extranet is
still controlled and typically requires authentication. Different
levels of access may be granted based on user roles.
• Secure Data Exchange: Extranets are designed to facilitate
secure communication and data exchange between the
organization and external entities.
• Collaboration Beyond Organizational Boundaries: Enables
collaborative efforts that involve external partners, such as joint
projects or supply chain coordination.
• Use Cases:

− Customer portals for order tracking and support

− Supplier collaboration on inventory management
− Joint project collaboration with external partners
− Secure communication with clients or business partners
Let’s see the difference between Extranet and Intranet which are
given below:-
Internet Protocol (IP)
− The Internet Protocol (IP) is the foundation of the Internet, responsible for
addressing and routing data packets across the vast network. It operates at
the network layer of the TCP/IP model, ensuring that data reaches its
intended destination seamlessly.
− IP Addressing
− Each device connected to the Internet is assigned a unique IP address, a
numerical identifier that serves as its online address. This address is akin to a
street address, allowing other devices to locate and communicate with it. IP
addresses are categorized into two versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
− IPv4, the earlier version, utilizes 32-bit addresses, limiting the total number of
assignable addresses to approximately 4.3 billion. This limitation spurred the
development of IPv6, which employs 128-bit addresses, providing a virtually
limitless pool of addresses to support the ever-growing Internet.
− IP Packet Structure
IP data is encapsulated into packets, structured units that facilitate data
transmission. Each packet comprises two main components: a header and a
payload.
• Header: The header contains essential information about the packet, including
the source and destination IP addresses, packet length, and other routing
information. This information guides the packet through the network, ensuring
it reaches the correct destination.
• Payload: The payload carries the actual data being transmitted, such as text,
images, or video. This data is encapsulated within the packet, protected by
the header's routing information.
➢ IP Routing
IP routing involves forwarding packets from their source to their destination across
the network's interconnected devices. Routers, specialized network devices, play a
crucial role in this process.
Routers examine the destination IP address in each packet's header and determine
the next hop, the nearest router towards the destination. This process continues until
the packet reaches its final destination.
➢ IP and TCP/IP
IP is a fundamental component of the TCP/IP suite, a collection of protocols that
underpin Internet communication. While IP handles addressing and routing, other
protocols within the suite, such as TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), ensure
reliable data delivery.
TCP operates at the transport layer, segmenting data into packets,
reassembling them at the destination, and ensuring data integrity. This
collaboration between IP and TCP/IP protocols enables seamless data
transmission across the Internet.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is one of the main protocols of

the Internet protocol suite. It lies between the Application and
Network Layers which are used in providing reliable delivery
services. It is a connection-oriented protocol for communications that
helps in the exchange of messages between different devices over a
network. The Internet Protocol (IP), which establishes the technique
for sending data packets between computers, works with TCP.

➢ TCP/IP Layer

Working of TCP
To make sure that each message reaches its target location intact, the
TCP/IP model breaks down the data into small bundles and afterward
reassembles the bundles into the original message on the opposite
end. Sending the information in little bundles of information makes it
simpler to maintain efficiency as opposed to sending everything in
one go.
After a particular message is broken down into bundles, these bundles
may travel along multiple routes if one route is jammed but the
destination remains the same.

We can see that the message is being broken down, then reassembled
from a different order at the destination

For example, When a user requests a web page on the internet,

somewhere in the world, the server processes that request and sends
back an HTML Page to that user. The server makes use of a protocol
called the HTTP Protocol. The HTTP then requests the TCP layer to
set the required connection and send the HTML file.

Now, the TCP breaks the data into small packets and forwards it
toward the Internet Protocol (IP) layer. The packets are then sent to
the destination through different routes.

The TCP layer in the user’s system waits for the transmission to get
finished and acknowledges once all packets have been received.
 ➢ Features of TCP/IP
Some of the most prominent features of Transmission control protocol
are

1. Segment Numbering System

TCP keeps track of the segments being transmitted or received by
assigning numbers to each and every single one of them.
A specific Byte Number is assigned to data bytes that are to be
transferred while segments are assigned sequence numbers.
Acknowledgment Numbers are assigned to received segments.
2. Connection Oriented
It means sender and receiver are connected to each other till the
completion of the process.
The order of the data is maintained i.e. order remains same before and
after transmission.
3. Full Duplex
In TCP data can be transmitted from receiver to the sender or vice –
versa at the same time.
It increases efficiency of data flow between sender and receiver.
4. Flow Control
Flow control limits the rate at which a sender transfers data. This is
done to ensure reliable delivery.
The receiver continually hints to the sender on how much data can be
received (using a sliding window)
5. Error Control
− TCP implements an error control mechanism for reliable data
transfer
− Error control is byte-oriented
 − Segments are checked for error detection
− Error Control includes – Corrupted Segment & Lost Segment
Management, Out-of-order segments, Duplicate segments, etc.
6. Congestion Control
TCP takes into account the level of congestion in the network
Congestion level is determined by the amount of data sent by a sender
• Advantages
− It is a reliable protocol.
− It provides an error-checking mechanism as well as one for
recovery.
− It gives flow control.
− It makes sure that the data reaches the proper destination in the
exact order that it was sent.
− Open Protocol, not owned by any organization or individual.
− It assigns an IP address to each computer on the network and a
domain name to each site thus making each device site to be
distinguishable over the network.
• Disadvantages
− TCP is made for Wide Area Networks, thus its size can become
an issue for small networks with low resources.
− TCP runs several layers so it can slow down the speed of the
network.
− It is not generic in nature. Meaning, it cannot represent any
protocol stack other than the TCP/IP suite. E.g., it cannot work
with a Bluetooth connection.
− No modifications since their development around 30 years ago.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a network protocol used for the transfer
of computer files between a client and server on a computer
network. FTP is built on a client-server model architecture and
utilizes separate control and data connections between the client and
the server.
❖ FTP Working Mechanism
➢ Connection Establishment: The client initiates a connection
with the server by sending a control message over TCP port 21.
The server responds with an acknowledgment, establishing the
control connection.
➢ Authentication: The client provides login credentials to the
server using FTP authentication mechanisms, such as username
and password or public key cryptography.
➢ Data Connection Setup: Once authenticated, the client and
server establish a data connection using TCP port 20. This
connection is used to transfer the actual file data.
➢ File Transfer: The client sends commands to the server to
initiate file transfers, such as GET (retrieve file), PUT (upload
file), or LIST (list files). The server responds to these commands
and transfers the requested files over the data connection.
➢ Connection Termination: Once the file transfer is complete,
the client sends a QUIT command to the server, terminating the
control and data connections.
❖ FTP Features
➢ File Transfer Modes: FTP supports binary and ASCII modes
for transferring different types of files.
➢ File Types: FTP can handle various file types, including text
documents, images, videos, and executable programs.
➢ Resume Function: FTP allows resuming interrupted file
transfers from the point of failure.
➢ Directory Navigation: FTP enables users to navigate the
server's directory structure to locate and manage files.
 ❖ FTP Applications
o Web File Management: FTP is commonly used to upload
and manage website files on web servers.
o Software Distribution: FTP is employed for distributing
software updates and patches to users.
o File Sharing and Backup: FTP facilitates file sharing
between individuals and organizations. It is also used for
creating backups of critical files.
❖ FTP Limitations
o Security Concerns: FTP is an inherently insecure
protocol, as it transmits data in plaintext, making it
vulnerable to eavesdropping and interception.
o Firewall Compatibility: FTP may not be compatible with
firewalls, which can restrict its use in certain network
environments.
o Alternative Protocols: More secure and efficient file
transfer protocols, such as SFTP (Secure FTP) and FTPS
(FTP over SSL/TLS), have emerged as alternatives to
FTP.
In conclusion, FTP is a widely used protocol for transferring files
between computers over a network. While it offers flexibility and ease
of use, its inherent security weaknesses have prompted the
development of more secure alternatives.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the foundation of data

communication for the World Wide Web (WWW). It defines how
messages are formatted and transmitted between client devices (e.g.,
web browsers) and web servers. HTTP is an application-layer
protocol, meaning it operates on top of other protocols like TCP/IP to
facilitate communication between different applications.
❖ Key Characteristics of HTTP:
− Request-Response Model: HTTP follows a client-server model
where the client initiates requests to the server, and the server
responds with the requested information.
− Stateless Protocol: Each HTTP request and response is
independent of previous interactions. The server does not
maintain any persistent state between requests, making it
scalable and efficient.
− Message-Based Communication: HTTP interactions consist of
messages, which are structured units of data exchanged between
the client and server. These messages follow a specific format,
including headers and a payload.
− Text-Based Protocol: HTTP messages are encoded in plain
text, making them human-readable and easily debuggable.
− Extensible Protocol: HTTP supports various methods, response
codes, and header fields, allowing for customization and
extensions to handle different types of data and interactions.

❖ HTTP Methods:
HTTP defines various methods, also known as verbs, that specify the
action to be performed on a resource:
GET: Retrieves data from the specified resource
POST: Submits data to be processed to the specified resource
PUT: Updates the specified resource with the provided data
DELETE: Removes the specified resource
HEAD: Obtains header information about the specified resource
without fetching the entire resource
OPTIONS: Determines the allowed HTTP methods for the specified
resource
❖ HTTP Status Codes:
HTTP status codes provide information about the outcome of an
HTTP request:
200 Series: Successful responses, indicating the request was
processed successfully
300 Series: Redirection responses, indicating the requested resource
is available at a different location
400 Series: Client error responses, indicating an error occurred on the
client side
500 Series: Server error responses, indicating an error occurred on the
server side
❖ HTTP Headers:
HTTP headers provide additional information about the request and
response, such as:
Content-Type: Specifies the type of data being transmitted (e.g.,
HTML, text, image)
Content-Length: Indicates the size of the data being transferred
Authorization: Provides credentials for accessing protected resources
Accept: Informs the server about the types of data the client can
handle
Referer: Indicates the URL of the resource that linked to the current
resource
❖ HTTP in Web Browsing:
When you enter a website URL into a web browser, the browser
initiates an HTTP GET request to the web server hosting the website.
The server responds with an HTTP response containing the HTML
code for the requested webpage. The browser then parses the HTML
code and renders the webpage for you to view.
HTTP plays a crucial role in enabling seamless data communication
and interaction between web browsers and web servers, forming the
backbone of the World Wide Web.

Features of HTTP:
o Connectionless protocol: HTTP is a connectionless protocol.
HTTP client initiates a request and waits for a response from the
server. When the server receives the request, the server processes
the request and sends back the response to the HTTP client after
which the client disconnects the connection. The connection
between client and server exist only during the current request
and response time only.
o Media independent: HTTP protocol is a media independent as
data can be sent as long as both the client and server know how
to handle the data content. It is required for both the client and
server to specify the content type in MIME-type header.
o Stateless: HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and
server know each other only during the current request. Due to
this nature of the protocol, both the client and server do not retain
the information between various requests of the web pages.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
− Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network
protocol that automatically assigns IP addresses and other
network configuration information to devices on a network.
− It operates at the application layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack
and is essential for assigning IP addresses to devices that do not
have static IP addresses configured manually.

❖ How DHCP Works

DHCP operates in a client-server model where DHCP clients, such as
computers, laptops, and smartphones, request IP addresses from a
DHCP server. The DHCP server manages a pool of IP addresses and
assigns them to DHCP clients on a temporary basis, typically called a
lease.
1. DHCP Discovery: The DHCP client initiates the process by
sending a broadcast message, known as a DHCPDISCOVER, to
all devices on the network. This message includes the client's
hardware address (MAC address) and asks for an IP address.
2. DHCP Offer: DHCP servers on the network receive the
DHCPDISCOVER message and respond with a DHCPOFFER
message. The DHCPOFFER message contains an IP address
and other network configuration information, such as the subnet
mask and default gateway.
3. DHCP Request: The DHCP client selects the first
DHCPOFFER it receives and sends a DHCPREQUEST
message to the corresponding DHCP server. The
DHCPREQUEST message includes the client's MAC address
and the offered IP address.
4. DHCP Acknowledgment: The DHCP server verifies the
client's information and responds with a DHCPACK message.
The DHCPACK message confirms the assigned IP address and
other network configuration information.
5. IP Address Lease: The DHCP client receives the DHCPACK
message and configures its network settings with the assigned IP
address and other configuration information. The DHCP client
uses the IP address for a specified period, known as the lease
time.
 6. DHCP Renewal or Lease Extension: Before the lease time
expires, the DHCP client sends a DHCPREQUEST message to
the DHCP server to renew its lease. The DHCP server may
renew the lease if the IP address is still available.
7. DHCP Release: When the DHCP client no longer needs the IP
address, it sends a DHCPRELEASE message to the DHCP
server. This message informs the DHCP server that the IP
address is available for other clients to use.

Benefits of DHCP
DHCP offers several advantages in managing network configurations:
1. Automatic IP Address Assignment: DHCP eliminates the need
to manually configure IP addresses for each device, saving time
and effort.
2. Centralized Management: A DHCP server can manage a pool of
IP addresses and assign them to devices as needed, simplifying
network administration.
3. Reduced Errors: DHCP reduces the likelihood of IP address
conflicts and ensures that devices have valid network
configurations.
4. Scalability: DHCP can handle a large number of devices on a
network, making it suitable for enterprise environments.

DHCP in Practice

− DHCP is widely used in various network environments,

including home networks, office networks, and enterprise
networks.
− It is a crucial component in enabling seamless network
connectivity and ensuring that devices can communicate
effectively.
− In summary, DHCP plays a vital role in simplifying network
management and ensuring that devices have the necessary
network configuration information to communicate effectively.
− Its automatic IP address assignment and centralized
management make it an essential protocol for maintaining
efficient and scalable networks.